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The Essay Unit in 1 Page

1. Summary: in your own words, describe what the essay is about

2. Thesis Statement: the purpose or the main point of the essay; a direct quote/statement (full sentence

or question) taken out of the essay; often found in introduction, and sometimes in the title

3. Title: generally provides the topic/subject; may also stress thesis, tone, setting, characterization

4. Diction: author’s deliberate word choice; emphasizes thesis, purpose, tone, and maybe setting and

character

5. Tone: author’s attitude towards his subject and audience (ex. sarcastic, bitter, reflective, etc.)

6. Coherence: the logical arrangement of ideas that improves readability & understandability

Unity: paragraphs within the essay that are about one organized topic; topic sentences for each

paragraph is key

Methods of Achieving Unity and Coherence

- Transitional words (and, but, in the meantime, however, conversely)

- Parallel Structure (running, jumping, skipping; over the fence, under the tree, through the

gate)

- Chronological Order (ex: 1st, 2nd, 3rd; ex. 1971, 1983, 2006)

- Spatial Order (he wore “x” on his head, “y” on his hip, and “z” on his feet)

- Stay on Topic with title (whole essay about topic in title)

- Pronoun Reference (Robyn likes ice cream so she ate the whole tub.)

- Closing by return (conclusion repeats ideas from introduction – comes full circle)

- Structural divides or headings

- Repetition of Key Word(s)/ Phrase(s)/ Idea(s)

7. Style: how the essay looks on the paper and how the author writes

- Length of paragraphs, use of questions, imagery, metaphor, simile, personification

- Informal or formal language

- Dialogue, conversational, journalese, slang

- Subjective (own opinion) or objective (clinical, scientific, methodical)

- Literary effect of style: emphasizes thesis, purpose, tone, maybe setting, character

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8. Types of Essays and Methods of Development

Types of Essay Proof /Methods of Development

Persuasive (tries to convince reader of a particular point of view)

strong opinion, bold words, call to action/attempt to change reader’s mind, purpose/thesis, tone, statistics, examples, recognized source (university professor, book, newspaper, an authority)

Expository (explains a process, answers a question, solves a problem, usually objective)

Can Evan, collect donations, covering costly, expeditions into, dirt, poor Africa?

1. Cause & Effect 2. Classification & Division 3. Comparison & Contrast 4. Example & Illustration 5. Definition 6. Process Analysis

Narrative (tells a story)

thesis statement, characters, dialogue, rising action, climax, plot development, story, “I”

Descriptive (describes a person, place, thing, event, process)

adjectives (descriptive words), appeal to senses, imagery, dominant overall impression)

Letter to the Editor letter in newspaper; subjective; emotional

Eulogy speech at a funeral in praise of the deceased

English 1201: Prose Unit: THE ESSAY UNIT NOTES

Definitions p.1

Style p.2

Explanations: Types of Essays pp.3-4

Summary: Types of Essay and Methods of Development p.4

Persuasive Essay Notes pp.5-6

Unity and Coherence pp.7-10

Prose Terms p. 11

THE ESSAY

Definition

- Derived from the French verb essayer meaning “to try”, an essay is a composition discussing a

topic in either an informal or formal style. This topic is otherwise known as the subject.

- It is an extended piece of writing in which an author explores a subject in some detail.

- The author should have a clear purpose, should reflect on his/her ideas, organize them clearly,

to capture the attention of the intended audience with stimulating and insightful comment.

Purpose

- A well written essay must have a purpose: to inform, convince, entertain, analyze, problem

solve.

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- Definition of Purpose: the reason for its existence, the reason why it has been written. It will

determine nearly everything about the piece: tone, diction, style, detail selection, audience,etc.

- The thesis statement will indicate the main idea behind the essay, revealing its purpose.

Audience

- Each essay has an intended audience: children, members of a religious or ethnic group,

colleagues in a professional field, etc.

Unity

- The essay should contain only content that is relevant to the topic.

- Unity is achieved by the use of topic sentences, repetition, closing by return, etc.

Coherence

- Refers to the logical arrangement and progression of ideas allowing for flow and readability.

- Coherence is achieved by presenting content in a given order and by using transitional phrases

to connect ideas. (More on pages)

Emphasis

- Means that important elements in the essay are stressed through repetition and examples.

Style

- Refers to the author’s presentation of his/her topic reflecting both the author and his/her

intent. The style involves the way the author uses language, and depends on the subject,

purpose, tone and audience. Style includes:

(1) Arrangement of Ideas

- Sentence variety (short? long? simple? compound? complex?)

- Paragraph length

(2) Diction/Word Choice

a. Formal Language – standard dictionary words/denotation

b. Informal Language – conversational, colloquial

c. Journalese – newspaper writing

d. Slang – language of a particular place or age group

(3) Fiction/Non-fiction

(4) Satire: is employed in an essay so that a serious subject is treated in a way that is

humourous, exaggerated or ridiculous so that on the surface it becomes a laughing matter.

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(5) Analogy: occurs when a parallel relationship is drawn to explain something (ex. Life is like a

winding river; sometimes it’s fast, other times it trickles . . .)

(6) Figurative Language

(a) Personification: giving human characteristics to an inanimate object (Ex. The tires

screeched.)

(b) Simile: a comparison of two unlike things using “like” or “as” (ex. Beginning each day

with a smile is as easy as falling off a log)

(c) Metaphor: a comparison of two unlike things (ex. The cat’s eyes were two green

emeralds)

(7) Tone - refers to the author’s attitude towards his/her subject and audience

(8) Use of Dialogue and/or Dialect

(9) The following list may help describe a writer’s style:

Poetic Journalistic Humourous Objective

Explicit/blunt Dull Sophisticated Subjective

Scientific Vivid Exaggerated

Descriptive Dramatic Implicit/Subtle

Types of Essays

- Persuasive/Argumentative: tries to win over the audience to a particular point of view. The

writer may be serious to humourous, but always attempts to convince the reader of the validity

of his or her opinion. The essay may argue openly or subtly using irony or sarcasm.

- Expository: explains or informs about an event, process, issue or topic

- Narrative: tells a story of an event or experience

- Descriptive: describes a person, place, event or process

- Letter to the Editor: a way to voice an opinion in a public forum

- Eulogy: a speech or writing in praise of an individual, usually deceased

Persuasive Essay: Evidence

Persuasive essays require good five-paragraph expository essay structure, coherence, evidence, a well-

defined purpose and audience, and a suitably emotional tone.

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Evidence – “proof”; material that supports your stance on an issue. Evidence can come from yourself

(logical supporting arguments based on your own thinking, observation or discussion with others) or

from outside sources (researching in books, magazines, newspapers, the Internet, interviews, etc.).

Please remember that this essay requires you to make use of at least one outside source.

Evidence takes the form of either facts or opinions.

- Facts: statements that can be proven (i.e. World War One lasted for four years) - Opinions: statements that cannot be proven because they are examples of the writers

beliefs, feelings, attitudes or interpretations (i.e. World War One was the worst conflict in history)

Either one of these make for good evidence, but while facts prove themselves, opinions themselves may

need backing up (i.e. in what way was WWI the worst conflict?).

Specific Types of Evidence i. Statistics – numerical facts (i.e. three out of every five automobile accidents are alcohol-

related). Make sure you quote the source of your statistics, and that you do not overuse them – they can make your essay too dry and unemotional.

ii. Authorities – people who are considered experts in their field (i.e. Dr. Elliott Leyton, President of the Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association and author of Hunting Humans, says that mass murder is a product of society . . .) Make sure you get the authority’s words and ideas correct.

iii. Brief Narratives – relevant personal experiences or stories used to strengthen your arguments (i.e. a story about a savage dog attacking children will strengthen an argument for euthanasia)

iv. Description – can add information and depth to your argument (i.e. a character sketch of a politician may help you develop your positive or negative opinions about him or her.)

v. Examples – make your abstract arguments more concrete (i.e. a reference to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks can help you argue for tougher restrictions on travel)

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vi. Analogies – an extended comparison in which you compare the complex with the simple (i.e. when you argue for why a political system is effective, you compare the jobs that people do in this system to what sailors do on a ship.)

A final effective technique is to bring up arguments against your opinion, and show how they are

wrong. For instance, “Supporters of school uniforms say that they will bring greater discipline to

schools. However, there is no link between uniforms and better student attendance and behaviour

records.”

UNITY AND COHERENCE IN ESSAYS

Unity – paragraphs and essays that are about one organized topic are said to be unified.

Coherence

- paragraphs and essays put together logically with proper connections between ideas possess flow or coherence.

- Coherence, very basically, encompasses one simple phrase: the readability factor. When text is easier to read, it has a higher level of coherency.

METHODS OF ACHIEVING UNITY AND COHERENCE:

(Knowledge of these METHODS OF CREATING UNITY AND COHERENCE may be required for

objectives and short answer questions on your exam. The writing of your essays must also be unified and

coherent.)

1. BY USING TRANSITIONAL TERMS – words or phrases which help to achieve carry-over within sentences, between sentences, and between paragraphs. Many good examples of transitional terms are listed below.

i. Terms that create Contrast

but, however, yet, unfortunately, in contrast to, although, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the

other hand

The nun had very sharp teeth. _______________, he still managed to defeat her in

hand-to-hand combat.

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ii. Terms that draw a Comparison

similarly, likewise, in a similar fashion

The brothers were both successful athletes. Andrew played on a Major Junior Hockey

team. _______________, Robert was the provincial record holder in the 100 metres.

iii. Terms that provide Explanation

for example, in other words, for instance, that is, incidentally, of course, in fact, indeed.

You can improve your energy level with a few simple steps. ____________, get more

sleep.

iv. Terms that indicate a relationship in Time

now, again, first, meanwhile, as soon as, immediately, finally, when, afterwards, before long, in

the future, next, subsequently, eventually, then, while.

Ben awoke to discover he had become a rabbit. ______________, he was in the grip

of an insatiable hunger for carrots.

v. Terms that Add Information

in addition, moreover, furthermore, besides, also, too, next, and, at the same time.

Plagiarism carries serious consequences, such as fines. ____________,

it is possible that you can go to jail.

vi. Terms that Indicate a Spatial (Location) Relationship

behind, between, in front of, within, above, opposite, here, below, near at hand, nearby, beside

Alex stopped outside the tent. _____________, the clown sharpened his knife and waited.

vii. Terms that indicate Cause & Effect

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so, hence, unless, for this reason, accordingly, as a result, because, since, thus, therefore,

consequently

We value all of our employees, ____________ the weakest among you will be asked to fight

to the death to keep your jobs.

2. BY USING PRONOUN REFERENCE – the use of pronouns (he, she, it, them, etc.) in one sentence or clause to refer to a noun in a preceding sentence or clause. Be sure that whatever you are referring to is clear.

The man in the black hat winked at me. ___ is evil, I tell you – evil!

Because ______ couldn’t help ___________, the students returned to the Wicker Emporium

for still more chairs.

3. BY REPETITION OF A KEY WORD OR ITS SYNONYM – sometimes repeating a key word can emphasize/focus your ideas. Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide some variety in your word choices, helping the reader to stay focused on the idea being discussed.

Violence is becoming prevalent in our school yards. ___________ has become an issue for

teachers at every level. ___________ has, in cases, led to broken bones.

4. BY USING PARALLEL STRUCTURE – means giving all items presented in a sequence the same grammatical form. Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along and keep ideas tied together.

Ex: Surprised, Peter leaped from the bed, inserted his Dracula fangs, and ran out the door.

To make your writing parallel, conjunctions (and, but, or, both . . . and, either . . or,

neither . . . nor) should connect similar grammatical elements:

i.e. two nouns: “He likes dogs and cats”

two verbs: “She likes to swim and to run”

two adjectives: “The dogs are neither happy, fresh, nor clean.”

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two adverbs: “They ran quickly but carefully.”

Two prepositional phrases: “The field trip will proceed over the hill and into the forest as

planned.”

Note: prepositions show the relationship between words. Some common prepositions are: of,

about, by, between, among, along, from, upon, with, to, for, etc.

5. BY DESCRIBING THINGS USING CHRONOLOGICAL OR SPATIAL ORDER – all descriptions should be presented in a logical order. A process should be described step-by-step (chronological); a person should be described physically from top to bottom (spatial).

To shoot a free throw in basketball, first position your feet, place your hands correctly on the

ball, look at the rim, bend your knees, release the ball, and follow through. (chronological)

The man had graying hair, kind eyes, a solid chin, broad shoulders, a bulging waistline, and

slightly splayed feet. (spatial)

6. BY CLOSING BY RETURN – a brief read of the conclusion indicates that it repeats or answers the information or question(s) posed in the introduction

7. BY STAYING ON TOPIC WITH THE TITLE – the entire essay focuses on the topic raised in the title.

8. BY USING STRUCTURAL DIVIDES OR HEADINGS – these divides, either spatial or heading, help direct the flow of the essay so it reads better.

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COHERENCE

Coherence – is the quality of being logically integrated, consistent and intelligible. In order for a piece of

writing (usually essays or longer prose) to have coherence, it must include at least two (2) elements.

I. Use of transitional words or phrases

II. Repetition of key words

III. Use of parallelism/parallel structure

IV. Pronoun reference

Transitions – words or phrases that help move sentences or paragraphs smoothly from one idea to the

next; some common transitions are conjunctions (ignore the idea that you can’t begin a sentence or

paragraph with a conjunction, but do so sparingly); conjunctive adverbs: however, moreover,

nevertheless, therefore; phrases: in addition, on the other hand; single words: thus, also, first, second,

third, finally. Any words from the set of continuity marks (first, next, then), the set of conjunctive adverbs

(whereas, however, furthermore) or the adverb clauses (when, if, since). In the larger sense, headings and

sub-headings act as general transitions among thematic parts of a report.

Repetition – 1) the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical device, 2) technique for

creating unity and rhythm in which a single element or motif is used over and over again.

Parallel structure – 1) Two grammatical structures, similar in form and function, connected by a

conjunction: Paul hit the ball over the fence and the trees, 2) In speech or writing, the repetition of an

identical grammatical or stylistic structure for the sake of clarity.

Pronoun reference – a word used in place of a noun, a noun phrase or several nouns. They are often used

to save repetition of a noun. (i.e. he, she, it )

Connectives – a connective is a word that joins other words, phrases, and clauses. A connective is a word

or words that provide a link between ideas in two different grammatical constructions.

Organization – the clarity of the logical flow of ideas and the explicitness of the text structure or plan.

-spatial – a method of paragraph or essay organization in which events are presented according to

their location; used when the author's goal is to describe.

-logical – ideas are arranged according to a plan.

-temporal/chronological – items, events, or even ideas are arranged in the order in which they

occur

-oppositional - the relation between propositions having the same subject and predicate but differing in

quality, quantity, or both, as with all men are wicked; no men are wicked; some men are not wicked

Temporal reference points – conventional division of time into present, past, and future

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Unity – can be achieved in a written work through the following ways:

- Closing by return

- Repetition of key words and phrases

- Thesis statement/restatement

- Topic sentence

Voice – the personality of the speaker or creator (writer) that is revealed in a work through such elements

as style, tone, diction, etc.

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EMPHATIC DEVICES

Emphatic Devices – devices used to place emphasis on a part of a sentence or a sentence in order to

make it stand out to the viewer.

Emphasis – special attention, weight, or stress given to a word, phrase, etc. in pieces of literature or when

speaking as to make it stand out.

Font – A complete collection of letters, punctuation marks, numbers, and special characters with a

consistent and identical typeface, weight (Roman or bold), posture (upright or italic) and font size.

Technically, font still refers to one complete set of characters in a given typeface, weight, and size, such

as Helvetica italic 12 - but the terms has come to be used interchangeably for referring to typefaces or

font families.

-bold – used to heavily emphasize major points.

-italics - used to indicate titles of major or complete works, foreign words that are not usually

used in English, words used as words themselves (as in when giving a definition of the word) and

words or phrases that one wishes to emphasize.

-unusual capitalization

-underlining

Listing – numerical order, bullets, sequencing – everything has a purpose

Parallel structure – 1) Two grammatical structures, similar in form and function, connected by a

conjunction: Paul hit the ball over the fence and the trees, 2) In speech or writing, the repetition of an

identical grammatical or stylistic structure for the sake of clarity.

Punctuation – the use of certain marks to clarify meaning of written material by grouping words

grammatically into sentences and clauses and phrases , the marks used to clarify meaning by indicating

separation of words into sentences and clauses and phrases and something that makes repeated and

regular interruptions or divisions

a. Period – (.) used to indicate the end of a sentence. Also used at the end of a command,

indirect question or for abbreviations.

b. Dash – (--) used for separating words in the middle of a sentence or adding words to the

end of a sentence both are used for added emphasis on a part of a sentence. Sometimes

used to indicate speed in a piece of writing/how fast the author wants it to read.

c. Semicolon – (;) used to join related independent clauses in compound sentences and to

separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas.

- To join related independent clauses

Ex: Bob’s car broke down; the engine stopped

- To join related main clauses when the coordinating conjunction has been left out

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Ex: Bob bought a used car; he painted it cherry red

- To join independent clauses when one or both clauses contains a comma

Ex: After he had it painted, he had it detailed; but he didn’t stop there

- Between main clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb

Ex: Buying a used car is good; however, you must be careful that you don’t buy a lemon

d. Colon – (:) used before an extended quotation, explanation, example, series, etc. and

after the salutation of a formal letter.

e. Hyphen – (-) is probably the most debated form of punctuation, but it is generally used to

form compound words and prefixes.

f. Quotation marks – (") used to show that the phrase was originally said by another or to

show that the sentence is being said by a character.

- Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation

- Use single QM when quoting materials within a quotation

- Indirect quotations do not require QM

- Place periods and commas inside of the end of a QM

- Place colons and semicolons outside the end of a QM

- Question marks and exclamation points go inside or outside the end QM

depending on meaning

g. Exclamation points – (!) used to show emphasis or surprise. If a character is using it,

they may be shouting.

h. Capitalization – (A) used for the first letter of a sentence or a quoted sentence, proper

nouns or words derived from proper nouns (ex English from England) and for titles of

publications except for little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor, when used

internally (if used externally capitalize them). *Note: There are many more rules and uses

concerning people’s titles such as doctor, president etc.

i. Italics – (a) are not really punctuation, but they can be used to indicate titles of major or

complete works, foreign words that are not usually used in English, words used as words

themselves (as in when giving a definition of the word) and words or phrases that one

wishes to emphasize.

j. Apostrophe - used for the following:

- To show possession

1. Add an apostrophe + s to singular and plural nouns

2. EXCEPTION: nouns ending in s or sounding like s or z; add an

apostrophe + s to singular nouns ending in s

- To show plural form

- To show a contraction

k. Parenthesis ( ) - used to show nonessential information and used to enclose additional

information in a sentence, to enclose numbers to letters. Also used to show special

relationships between the enclosed remark and its contents

l. Brackets [ ] - used to insert editorial comment within quoted material Ex: She said, “You can’t always expect [even if the market is hot] your house to appreciate.”

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Repetition – 1) the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical device, 2) technique for

creating unity and rhythm in which a single element or motif is used over and over again.

Rhetorical Question – a question asked solely to produce an effect or to make a statement, but not

expected to receive an answer. The purpose to such a question, whose answer is obvious, is usually to

make a deeper impression upon the hearer or reader than a direct statement would.

Sentence fragment – a phrase or clause written as a sentence but lacking an element (ex: a subject or

verb) that would enable it to function as a sentence

Short sentences – help emphasize and individualize sentences and points so that valid points do not get

lost in a long, run-on sentence. These sentences might even include sentence fragments.

Essay – is a prose composition with a focused subject of discussion.

Importance and effectiveness of the introduction – should start with a general discussion of your

subject and lead to a very specific statement of your main point, or thesis. Sometimes an essay begins

with a "grabber," such as a challenging claim, or surprising story to catch a reader's attention. The thesis

should tell in one (or at most two) sentence(s), what your overall point or argument is, and briefly, what

your main body paragraphs will be about. The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's

attention and give him/her an idea of the essay's focus.

Body and conclusion – The body paragraphs will explain your essay's topic. Each of the main ideas that

you listed in your outline will become a paragraph in your essay. If your outline contained three main

ideas, you will have three body paragraphs. The conclusion serves to give the reader closure, summing up

the essay's points or providing a final viewpoint about the topic. The conclusion should consist of three or

four convincing sentences. Clearly review the main points, being careful not to restate them exactly, or

briefly describe your opinion about the topic.

Expository – purpose is to present, completely and fairly, other people's views or to report about an event

or a situation. Expository writing, or exposition, presents a subject in detail, apart from criticism,

argument, or development. Such writing is discourse designed to convey information or explain what is

difficult to understand. Exposition usually proceeds by the orderly analysis of parts and the use of familiar

illustrations or analogies.

o Explains a subject using logical reasoning and examples to develop ideas

Descriptive – provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or

sounds. It can also describe what something is, or how something happened. These essays generally use a

lot of sensory details. The essay could be a list-like description that provides point-by-point details. Or, it

could function as a story, keeping the reader interested in the plot and theme of the event described.

o Writing that describes an object, person, or experience

o Its purpose is to create a sensory experience

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o It makes use of the five senses and figurative language

o Provides details organized in a systematic fashion

o Select details depending on physical or psychological point of view

Narrative – are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific

and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story.

The verbs are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the

opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.

o Writing that tells a story

o Organizes events into a beginning, middle, and end

o Recreates actual experiences by rendering real events (non-fiction) into words

o Carefully selects details relevant to the essay's purpose and audience

o Implies meaning rather than stating it directly

o Tells what and where something happened, who was involved, and how and why it took

place

Argumentative – the function is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory, hypothesis) about some

phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others. Argumentative writing is the act of

forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in discussion;

the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or principles known,

admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your reasoning from the known or

assumed to the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an argument, you have only an assertion, an

essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion. Notice that you do not have to completely prove your

point; you only have to convince reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit.

Persuasive Essay – utilizes logic and reason to show that one idea is more legitimate than another idea. It

attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a particular action. The argument

must always use sound reasoning and solid evidence by stating facts, giving logical reasons, using

examples, and quoting experts.

o Argues a point using strictly evidence

o Appeals to the emotions to convince the reader to adopt a particular point of view or take

specific action

Elements of the Essay- see Literary terms for definitions

1. Subject

2. Theme

3. Purpose

4. Audience

5. Coherence

6. Thesis statement

7. Topic sentence

8. Grammar

9. Punctuation

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10. Sentence structure

11. Paragraph structure

An essay has:

A purpose

A defined audience

Specific structure & organization

Unity & coherence

Definite style

Employs appropriate words for the audience & purpose

Strong introduction

Develops ideas orderly & uses supportive evidence

Has a logical conclusion

Tone

o Writer's attitude towards his subject and towards his audience

o Possible tones:

Formal

Informal

Intimate

Personal

Solemn

Somber

Playful

Serious

Purpose

o Differs from theme

o Why the author wrote the piece

o Sets the tone of a piece of writing

o Influences style of the essay

o Inform, describe, define, explain, or entertain

Audience

o Determines what you say and how you say it

o Factors which influence audience:

Age

Attitude towards speaker/writer

Familiarity with the subject/interest in the subject

Prejudices

Sex

Ethnic or religious background

Coherence/Unity

Style

o An individual manner of expression

o It is the result of choices a writer makes as to the following devices:

Diction (word choice)

Imagery (appeals to senses)

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Sentence structure

Figurative language (figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, personification,

apostrophe, symbolism, etc.)

Rhythm/rhyme

Subject

o What the essay is about – the topic

Plan

o Order or arrangement of what the writer is writing to give the reader an understanding of

the subject

o Enables the reader to understand the essay and its purpose

Thesis statement

o A sentence or two which gives the main idea of the essay

o It should clearly state the main idea of your argument

o Everything in your essay should relate to your thesis statement

o Often placed near the beginning of your essay

Topic sentence

o Is to a paragraph what a thesis statement is to an essay

o It tells what is to follow in the paragraph; its main idea

o It is often places at the beginning of the paragraph but can occur elsewhere

o It can sometimes be implied and omitted altogether

Standard Essay Format

- Title

o Conveys the main point of the essay in ten words or fewer

o Attracts the reader’s attention

- Introduction

o Begins with a sentence that attracts the reader’s attention

o Give background information on the topic

o Enhance the paragraph with an interesting example, surprising statistic, or other “hook”

o Includes a thesis statement (a statement which states the main idea of the essay)

o May mention the main point of each of the body paragraphs

o 7 techniques/methods of introduction

Definition

Relevant Fact

Unusual Detail

Question

Personal experience

Short narrative or example

Direct statement of purpose or thesis statement

- Body

o Usually three paragraphs in length

o Each of the three paragraphs should include the following:

Begin with a topic sentence that states the main point of the paragraph and relates

to the thesis statement. This creates coherence.

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Fill with well organized examples, quotations, comparison, analogies, and/or

narration and explanation.

o Important details:

Unity

Coherence

4 ways to establish coherence:

o Transitional terms (words or phrases which help to achieve a

smooth carry-over within sentences, between sentences, and

between paragraphs)

o Pronoun reference (the use of a pronoun in one sentence or

clause to refer to a noun in a preceding sentence or clause)

o Repetition of a key word

o Parallel structure (ideas presented in a series or list having the

same grammatical form [ie: I like swimming, running, and

singing])

Full development of thoughts and opinions

- Conclusion

o “echoes” the thesis statement without simply repeating it.

o May pose a questions for future thought or suggest a course of action

o Include a detail or example from the introduction to “tie-up” the essay

o 5 techniques/methods for concluding essays:

Climax

Call to action

Summary

Thesis restatement

Closing by return

Evidence – details, facts or statistics to support statements of opinion or belief

Evidence comes from a variety of sources:

a) Thinking and observing

b) Discussing

c) Reading and viewing

It has to relevant, up-to-date, accurate, and complete.

Two basic types of evidence:

A fact is a statement that can be proven to be true

An opinion is a statement which cannot be proven to be true

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Some statements can be a combination of fact and opinion.

Specific Types of Evidence

1. Statistics – numerical facts

2. Authorities – people who are considered experts in their field

3. Brief narratives

4. Description

5. Examples

6. Analogies – extended comparisons in which you compare the complex with the simple, the

abstract with the concrete, or the unfamiliar with the familiar

Counter arguments – be prepared to deal with them, attempt to discredit them to show your point of

view has been carefully thought out.

Induction – is the process of reasoning whereby you evaluate a number of specific examples of evidence

and from there draw a general conclusion.

Deduction – begins with an accepted general statement that is supported by specific illustrations and ends

with a specific conclusion.

Errors in reasoning – a logical fallacy occurs when there is a breakdown or error in the reasoning

process.

Sweeping generalization

False analogy

Mistaking the cause

Ignoring the question

Attacking the person not the argument

Begging the question/circular reasoning

Arguing from ignorance

Misusing statistics