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The Age of Reform

1820–1860Why It Matters

The idea of reform—the drive to improve society and the lives of Americans—grewduring the mid-1800s. Reformers set out to improve the lives of the disadvantaged,

especially enslaved people and the urban poor.

The Impact TodayThe spirit of reform is alive and well in the modern world. Individual freedom became

a key goal during the last half of the twentieth century. Civil rights movements haveadvanced racial equality. In many countries the women’s movement has altered tra-

ditional female roles and opportunities.

The American Republic to 1877 Video The chapter 14 video,“Women and Reform,” chronicles the role of women in the reform movements of the 1800s.

1825• New Harmony,

Indiana, established

1830• Book of Mormon

published

1836• Texas gains

independence

1827• New York bans slavery

Monroe1817–1825

CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

1820 1830 1840

J.Q. Adams1825–1829

Jackson1829–1837

Van Buren1837–1841

W.H. Harrison1841

1837• Victoria becomes

queen of England

1821• Mexico becomes

independent nation

411

1848• Seneca Falls

Convention 1851• Maine bans

sale of alcohol

1853• Crimean War

begins1859• Lenoir builds first

practical internal-combustion engine

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit and click on Chapter 14—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.

tx.tarvol1.glencoe.com

The Country School by Winslow Homer By the mid-1800s,the number of public elementary schools was growing.

CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

1850 1860

Tyler1841–1845

Polk1845–1849

Taylor1849–1850

Fillmore1850–1853

Pierce1853–1857

Buchanan1857–1861

1862• Mary Jane Patterson is

first African Americanwoman to earn a college degree

1850• Taiping Rebellion

begins in China

1847• Liberia claims

independence

Wom

en’s

Righ

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Wome

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htsAntislaveryMovement

SocialReform

SocialReform

Step 1 Fold the paper from the top right cornerdown so the edges line up. Cut off the leftover piece.

Identifying Main Ideas Study FoldableMake and use this foldable to identify anddescribe major topics about the Age of Reform.

Reading and Writing As you read, write whatyou learn about social reform, the antislaverymovement, and the women’s rights movementunder each appropriate pyramid wall.

Step 2 Fold the triangle in half. Unfold.

Step 3 Cut up one fold and stop at the middle.Draw an X on one tab and label the other threeas shown.

Step 4 Fold the X flap under the other flap andglue together.

Fold a triangle.Cut off the extra

edge.

This makes a three-sidedpyramid.

The foldswill form an Xdividing four

equal sections.

412

1825Robert Owen establishesNew Harmony, Indiana

1835Oberlin College admitsAfrican Americans

1837Horace Mann initiateseducation reform

1843Dorothea Dix revealsabuses of mentally ill

CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

According to folklore, Henry David Thoreau sat on the hard, wooden bench in thejail cell, but he did not complain about its stiffness. He felt proud that he had stood upfor his beliefs. Thoreau had refused to pay a one-dollar tax to vote, not wanting hismoney to support the Mexican War. As he looked through the cell bars, he heard avoice. “Why are you here?” asked his friend Ralph Waldo Emerson. Thoreau replied,“Why are you not here?” He would later write, “Under a government which imprisonsany unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison.”

The Reforming SpiritThoreau represented a new spirit of reform in America. The men and women

who led the reform movement wanted to extend the nation’s ideals of libertyand equality to all Americans. They believed the nation should live up to thenoble goals stated in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

The spirit of reform brought changes to American religion, politics, educa-tion, art, and literature. Some reformers sought to improve society by formingutopias, communities based on a vision of a perfect society. In 1825 RobertOwen established New Harmony, Indiana, a village dedicated to cooperationrather than competition among its members.

Main IdeaDuring the early 1800s, many reli-gious and social reformers attemptedto improve American life and educa-tion and help people with disabilities.

Key Termsutopia, revival, temperance, normalschool, transcendentalist

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read section 1,re-create the diagram below and iden-tify these reformers’ contributions.

Read to Learn• how religious and philosophical

ideas inspired various reformmovements.

• why educational reformers thoughtall citizens should go to school.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesMany reformers worked for changeduring this era.

Social Reform

Henry David Thoreau

Contributions

Lyman Beecher

Horace Mann

Thomas Gallaudet

Dorothea Dix

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1820 ✦ 1840✦ 1830 ✦ 1850

Founded on high hopes and sometimesimpractical ideas, few of the utopian communi-ties lasted more than a few years. The Shakers,the Mormons, and other religious groups alsobuilt their own communities. Only the Mor-mons established a stable, enduring community.

The Religious InfluenceIn the early 1800s, a wave of religious fervor—

known as the Second Great Awakening—stirredthe nation. The first Great Awakening had spreadthrough the colonies in the mid-1700s.

The new religious movement began withfrontier camp meetings called revivals. Peoplecame from miles around to hear eloquentpreachers, such as Charles Finney, and to pray,sing, weep, and shout. The experience oftenmade men and women eager to reform boththeir own lives and the world. The Second GreatAwakening increased church membership. It also inspired people to become involved inmissionary work and social reform movements. ; (See page 601 of the Appendix for a primary source account of a

revival meeting.)

War Against AlcoholReligious leaders stood at the forefront of the

war against alcohol. Public drunkenness wascommon in the early 1800s. Alcohol abuse waswidespread, especially in the West and amongurban workers. Lyman Beecher, a Connecticutminister and crusader against the use of alcohol,wanted to protect society against “rum-selling,tippling folk, infidels, and ruff-scruff.”

Reformers blamed alcohol for poverty, thebreakup of families, crime, and even insanity.They called for temperance, drinking little or noalcohol. The movement gathered momentum in1826 when the American Society for the Promo-tion of Temperance was formed.

Beecher and other temperance crusaders usedlectures, pamphlets, and revival-style rallies towarn people of the dangers of liquor. The tem-perance movement gained a major victory in1851, when Maine passed a law banning themanufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages.Other states passed similar laws. Many Ameri-cans resented these laws, however, and mostwere repealed, or canceled, within several years.

The temperance movement would reemerge inthe early 1900s and lead to a constitutionalamendment banning alcohol.

Analyzing What were the effects ofthe Second Great Awakening?

Reforming EducationIn the early 1800s, only New England pro-

vided free elementary education. In other areasparents had to pay fees or send their children toschools for the poor—a choice some parentsrefused out of pride. Some communities had no schools at all.

The leader of educational reform was HoraceMann, a lawyer who became the head of theMassachusetts Board of Education in 1837. Dur-ing his term Mann lengthened the school year tosix months, made improvements in the schoolcurriculum, doubled teachers’ salaries, anddeveloped better ways of training teachers.

Partly due to Mann’s efforts, Massachusetts in1839 founded the nation’s first state-supportednormal school, a school for training high-schoolgraduates as teachers. Other states soon adoptedthe reforms that Mann had pioneered.

Education for SomeBy the 1850s most states had accepted three

basic principles of public education: that schoolsshould be free and supported by taxes, thatteachers should be trained, and that childrenshould be required to attend school.

These principles did not immediately go intoeffect. Schools were poorly funded, and manyteachers lacked training. In addition, some peo-ple opposed compulsory, or required, education.

Most females received a limited education.Parents often kept their daughters from schoolbecause of the belief that a woman’s role was tobecome a wife and mother and that this role didnot require an education. When girls did go toschool, they often studied music or needleworkrather than science, mathematics, and history,which were considered “men’s” subjects.

In the West, where settlers lived far apart,many children had no school to attend. AfricanAmericans in all parts of the country had fewopportunities to go to school.

413CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

414 CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

Higher EducationDozens of new colleges and universities were

created during the age of reform. Most admittedonly men. Religious groups founded many col-leges between 1820 and 1850, including Amherstand Holy Cross in Massachusetts and Trinityand Wesleyan in Connecticut.

Slowly, higher education became available togroups who were previously denied the oppor-tunity. Oberlin College of Ohio, founded in 1833,admitted both women and African Americans tothe student body. In 1837 a teacher named MaryLyon in Massachusetts opened Mount Holyoke,the first permanent women’s college in America.The first college for African Americans—Ash-mun Institute, which later became Lincoln Uni-versity—opened in Pennsylvania in 1854.

Until education became widespread,many children learned to read and

write in one-room schoolhouses. Students of all ages learned mostly by rote—onegroup recited while the rest studied their lessons. The popular McGuffeyReaders provided moral lessonsas well as lessons in read-ing and grammar.

One-RoomSchoolhouse

Lunch pail, leftHornbook, centerPage from McGuffey’s, right

People With Special NeedsSome reformers focused on the problem of

teaching people with disabilities. Thomas Gallaudet (ga•luh•DEHT), who developed amethod to educate people who were hearingimpaired, opened the Hartford School for theDeaf in Connecticut in 1817.

At about the same time, Dr. Samuel GridleyHowe advanced the cause of those who werevisually impaired. He developed books withlarge raised letters that people with sightimpairments could “read” with their fingers.Howe headed the Perkins Institute, a school forthe blind, in Boston.

When schoolteacher Dorothea Dix began vis-iting prisons in 1841, she found the prisonerswere often living in inhumane conditions—

chained to the walls with little or no clothing,often in unheated cells. To her further horror,she learned that some of the inmates were guiltyof no crime—they were mentally ill persons. Dixmade it her life’s work to educate the public asto the poor conditions for both the mentally illand for prisoners.

Identifying How did Dr. SamuelHowe help the visually impaired?

Cultural TrendsThe changes in American society influenced

art and literature. Earlier generations of Ameri-can painters and writers looked to Europe fortheir inspiration and models. Beginning in the1820s American artists developed their ownstyle and explored American themes.

The American spirit of reform influencedtranscendentalists. Transcendentalists stressedthe relationship between humans and nature aswell as the importance of the individual con-science. Writers such as Margaret Fuller, RalphWaldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreauwere leading transcendentalists. Through herwritings, Fuller supported rights for women. Inhis poems and essays, Emerson urged people tolisten to the inner voice of conscience and tobreak the bonds of prejudice. Thoreau put his

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use each of these terms in

a sentence that helps explain its mean-ing: utopia, revival, temperance, normal school, transcendentalist.

2. Reviewing Facts What were thethree accepted principles of publiceducation in the 1850s?

Reviewing Themes3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

How did Thoreau act on his beliefs?What impact might such acts havehad on the government?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions What did

Thomas Jefferson mean when hesaid that the United States could notsurvive as a democracy without edu-cated and well-informed citizens?

5. Determining Cause and EffectRe-create the diagram below anddescribe two ways the religiousmovement influenced reform.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Study the paint-

ing of the school room on page 414.What is pictured that you still use inschool today?

CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform 415

Research Interview your grand-parents or other adults who areover 50 years old to find out whatthey remember about their publicschool days. Before you do theinterview, write six questions aboutthe information that interests you.

beliefs into practice through civil disobedience—refusing to obey laws he thought were unjust.In 1846 Thoreau went to jail rather than pay a taxto support the Mexican War.

The transcendentalists were not the onlyimportant writers of the period. Many poets cre-ated impresive works during this period. HenryWadsworth Longfellow wrote narrative, orstory, poems, such as the Song of Hiawatha. PoetWalt Whitman captured the new Americanspirit and confidence in his Leaves of Grass.Emily Dickinson wrote simple, deeply personalpoems. In a poem called “Hope,” written in1861, she compares hope with a bird:

“ ‘Hope’ is the thing with feathers—That perches in the soul—And sings the tune without the words—And never stops—at all—”

Women writers of the period were generallynot taken seriously, yet they were the authors ofthe most popular fiction. Harriet Beecher Stowewrote the most successful best-seller of the mid-1800s, Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Stowe’s novel exploresthe injustice of slavery—an issue that took onnew urgency during the age of reform.

Describing What was one of thesubjects that Margaret Fuller wrote about?

Religiousmovement

416

N O T E B O O K

SPORTS

Baseball for BeginnersWant to take up the new game of baseball? Keep your eye on the ball—because the rules keep changing!

1845� canvas bases are set 90 feet

apart in a diamond shape

� only nine men play on each side

� pitches are thrown underhanded

� a ball caught on the first bounce is an “out”

1846� at first base, a fielder can tag the

bag before the runner reaches it and so make an out

1847� players may no longer throw the

ball at a runner to put him out

AMERICAN SCENE

Americans Living on Farms1790: 95% of Americans live on farms

1820: 93% live on farms

1850: 85% live on farms

Nathaniel HawthorneThis writer’s novel The ScarletLetter moved some readers,and outraged others.

Henry WadsworthLongfellowWrites poems about PaulRevere, Hiawatha, and a vil-lage blacksmith.

Louisa May AlcottAuthor of Little Womenwho published her first book at age 16.

Louisa May Alcott

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What were people’s lives like in the past?What—and who—were people talking about? What did they eat?

What did they do for fun? These two pages will give you some clues

to everyday life in the U.S. as you step back in time

with TIME Notebook.

Personalities Meet Some Concord Residents

YEARS AGO, ONE OF THE FIRST BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR

was fought at Concord, Massachusetts. But now the sparks that flyare of a more intellectual variety. If you want to visit Concord, youshould read some of the works of its residents.

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Profile“My best friends solemnly regard me as a madman.” That’s what the artistJOHN JAMES AUDUBON (left) writesabout himself in his journal. And he doesseem to be a bit peculiar. After all, he puta band around a bird’s foot so he couldtell if it returned from the South in thespring. No one’s ever done that before.

Audubon is growing more famous thanksto his drawings. His love of the wild and his

skill as an artist have awakened a new senseof appreciation for American animal

life both here and in Europe. Here is what he wrote recently while

on a trip to New Orleans:

“I TOOK A WALK WITH MY GUN THIS

afternoon to see… millions of Golden Plovers [medium-sized shorebirds] coming from the northeast and going nearly south—the destruction… was really astonishing—the Sportsmen here are more numerous and at the same time more expert at shooting on the wing than anywhere in the United States.”

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CHILD LABOR

Letter From a Mill WorkerMary Paul is a worker in her teens at a textile mill in Lowell, Massachusetts. Mary works 12 hours a day, 6 days a week. She sent this letter to her father:

N U M B E R S N U M B E R SU.S. AT THE T IME

9,022 Miles of railwaysoperating in 1850

3 Number of U.S. Presidentsin 1841—Van Buren’s termended, Harrison died, and Tylertook his place

29 Number of medicalschools Elizabeth Blackwell, a woman, applied to beforebeing accepted at one in 1847

700 Number of New England whaling ships at sea in 1846

$8 Approximate yearly cost for a newspaper subscription in 1830

50%Approximate percentage of the American workforce in 1820 under the age of 10

EMIGRATED. In 1845, to England, FREDERICK DOUGLASS, former slave, author, and abolitionist leader, to escape danger in reaction to his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.

MOVED. HENRY DAVID THOREAU, writer, to Walden Pond, Concord,Massachusetts, in 1845. Thoreau intends to build his own house onthe shore of the pond and earn his living by the labor of his hands

only. “Many of the so-called comforts of life,” writesThoreau, “are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.”

AILING. EDGAR ALLAN POE, in Baltimore, 1847,following the death of his wife, Virginia. Other

than a poem on death, Poe has written little thisyear, devoting his dwindling energies to

lawsuits against other authors he claimscopied his work.

INVENTED. Samuel F.B. Morse hasrevolutionized communications witha series of dots and dashes in 1844.

A D E V E L O P I N G N A T I O N : 1 8 2 0 – 1 8 5 0

BE

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Frederick Douglass

M I L E S T O N E SM I L E S T O N E S

Dear Father,

I am well which is one comfort. My life and health are spared while others

are cut off. Last Thursday one girl fell down and broke her neck which

caused instant death. Last Tuesday we were paid. In all I had six dollars

and sixty cents, paid $4.68 for board [rent and food].…At 5 o’clock in

the morning the bell rings for the folks to get up and get breakfast. At half

past six it rings for the girls to get up and at seven they are called into the

mill. At half past 12 we have dinner, are called back again at one and stay

till half past seven. . . . If any girl wants employment, I advise them to

come to Lowell.

Edgar Allan Poe

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417

418

1816American ColonizationSociety is formed

1822First African Americanssettle in Liberia

1831William Lloyd Garrisonfounds The Liberator

1847Liberia becomes an independent country

CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

William Lloyd Garrison, a dramatic and spirited man, fought strongly for the right ofAfrican Americans to be free. On one occasion Garrison was present when FrederickDouglass, an African American who had escaped from slavery, spoke to a white audi-ence about life as a slave. Douglass electrified his listeners with a powerful speech. Suddenly Garrison leaped to his feet. “Is this a man,” he demanded of the audience,“or a thing?” Garrison shared Douglass’s outrage at the notion that people could bebought and sold like objects.

Early Efforts to End SlaveryThe spirit of reform that swept the United States in the early 1800s was not

limited to improving education and expanding the arts. It also included theefforts of abolitionists like Garrison and Douglass—members of the growingband of reformers who worked to abolish, or end, slavery.

Even before the American Revolution, some Americans had tried to limit orend slavery. At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, the delegates hadreached a compromise on the difficult issue, agreeing to let each state decidewhether to allow slavery. By the early 1800s, Northern states had ended slavery,but it continued in the South.

Main IdeaMany reformers turned their attentionto eliminating slavery.

Key Termsabolitionist, Underground Railroad

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readSection 2, identify five abolitionists.Below each name, write a sentencedescribing his or her role in themovement.

Read to Learn• how some Americans worked to

eliminate slavery.• why many Americans feared the

end of slavery.

Section ThemeIndividual Action Leaders such asHarriet Tubman and William LloydGarrison strengthened the abolitionistmovement.

The Abolitionists

William Lloyd Garrison

Abolitionists

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1815 ✦ 1845✦ 1830 ✦ 1860

The religious revival and the reform move-ment of the early and mid-1800s gave new life tothe antislavery movement. Many Americanscame to believe that slavery was wrong. Yet notall Northerners shared this view. The conflictover slavery continued to build.

Many of the men and women who led theantislavery movement came from the Quakerfaith. One Quaker, Benjamin Lundy, wrote:

“I heard the wail of the captive. I felt his pangof distress, and the iron entered my soul.”

Lundy founded a newspaper in 1821 tospread the abolitionist message.

American Colonization SocietyThe first large-scale antislavery effort was not

aimed at abolishing slavery but at resettlingAfrican Americans in Africa or the Caribbean.The American Colonization Society, formed in1816 by a group of white Virginians, worked tofree enslaved workers gradually by buyingthem from slaveholders and sending themabroad to start new lives.

The society raised enough money from privatedonors, Congress, and a few state legislatures tosend several groups of African Americans out ofthe country. Some went to the westcoast of Africa, where the society hadacquired land for a colony. In 1822 thefirst African American settlers arrivedin this colony, called Liberia, Latin for“place of freedom.”

In 1847 Liberia became an inde-pendent country. American emigra-tion to Liberia continued until theCivil War. Some 12,000 to 20,000African Americans settled in the newcountry between 1822 and 1865.

The American Colonization Soci-ety did not halt the growth of slavery.The number of enslaved people con-tinued to increase at a steady pace,and the society could only resettle asmall number of African Americans.Furthermore, most African Ameri-cans did not want to go to Africa.Many were from families that had

lived in America for several generations. Theysimply wanted to be free in American society.African Americans feared that the society aimedto strengthen slavery.

Explaining How did the AmericanColonization Society fight slavery?

The Movement ChangesReformers realized that the gradual approach

to ending slavery had failed. Moreover, the num-bers of enslaved persons had sharply increasedbecause the cotton boom in the Deep South madeplanters increasingly dependent on slave labor.Beginning in about 1830, the American antislav-ery movement took on new life. Soon it becamethe most pressing social issue for reformers.

William Lloyd GarrisonAbolitionist William Lloyd Garrison stimu-

lated the growth of the antislavery movement.In 1829 Garrison left Massachusetts to work forthe country’s leading antislavery newspaper inBaltimore. Impatient with the paper’s moderateposition, Garrison returned to Boston in 1831 tofound his own newspaper, The Liberator.

“ I looked at my hands to see if I was the same

person now that I was

free . . . I felt like I was

in heaven.”—Harriet Tubman, on her escape from

slavery, 1849

419

420

Is American Slavery Compassionate or Cruel?

More than any other factor, slavery isolated the South from the restof the United States. While abolitionists cried out to bring the cruelpractice to an end, Southern slaveholders defended the only way oflife they knew.

Sojourner Truth, former slave, 1851

Look at me! Look at my arm! I have

ploughed, and planted, and gathered into

barns, and no man could head me! . . .

I could work as much and eat as much as

a man—when I could get it—and bear

the lash as well! And ain’t I a woman?

I have borne thirteen children,

and seen them most all sold off

to slavery, and when I cried

out with my mother’s grief,

none but Jesus heard me!

And ain’t I a woman?

Jeremiah Jeter, Southern slaveholder, c. 1820I could not free them, for the laws of the State forbadeit. Yet even if they had not forbidden it, the slaves in mypossession were in no condition to support themselves. Itwas simple cruelty to free a mother with dependent chil-dren. Observation, too, had satisfied me that the freenegroes were, in general, in a worse condition than theslaves. The manumission [setting free] of my slaves toremain in the State was not to be thought of. Should Isend them to Liberia? Some of them were in a conditionto go, but none of them desired to. If sent, they [would] beforced to leave wives and

children belonging toother masters [onnearby plantations], todwell in a strange land.

Learning From History1. Why do you think Sojourner Truth

was an effective speaker?2. Why didn’t Jeremiah Jeter just free

his slaves?3. Do the two excerpts contradict each

other? In what way?

Sojourner Truth

Garrison was one of the first white abolitionists to call for the “immediateand complete emancipation [freeing]”of enslaved people. Promising to be“as harsh as truth, and as uncompro-mising as justice,” he denounced theslow, gradual approach of otherreformers. In the first issue of hispaper he wrote: “I will not retreat asingle inch—AND I WILL BE HEARD.”

Garrison was heard. He attractedenough followers to start the NewEngland Antislavery Society in 1832and the American Antislavery Soci-ety the next year. The abolitionistmovement grew rapidly. By 1838 theantislavery societies Garrison startedhad more than 1,000 chapters, orlocal branches.

The Grimké SistersAmong the first women who

spoke out publicly against slaverywere Sarah and Angelina Grimké.Born in South Carolina to a wealthyslaveholding family, the sistersmoved to Philadelphia in 1832.

In the North the Grimké sisterslectured and wrote against slavery.At one antislavery meeting, AngelinaGrimké exclaimed,

“As a Southerner, I feel that it ismy duty to stand up . . . against slav-ery. I have seen it! I have seen it!”

The Grimkés persuaded theirmother to give them their share ofthe family inheritance. Instead ofmoney or land, the sisters asked forseveral of the enslaved workers,whom they immediately freed.

Angelina Grimké and her hus-band, abolitionist Theodore Weld,wrote American Slavery As It Is in1839. This collection of firsthandaccounts of life under slavery wasone of the most influential abolition-ist publications of its time.

421CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

African American AbolitionistsAlthough white abolitionists drew public

attention to the cause, African Americans them-selves played a major role in the abolitionistmovement from the start. The abolition of slav-ery was an especially important goal to the freeAfrican Americans of the North.

Most African Americans in the North lived inpoverty in cities. Although they were excludedfrom most jobs and were often attacked by whitemobs, a great many of these African Americanswere intensely proud of their freedom andwanted to help those who were still enslaved.

African Americans took an active part inorganizing and directing the American Antislav-ery Society, and they subscribed in large num-bers to William Lloyd Garrison’s The Liberator. In1827 Samuel Cornish and John Russwurmstarted the country’s first African Americannewspaper, Freedom’s Journal. Most of the othernewspapers that African Americans foundedbefore the Civil War also promoted abolition.

Born a free man in North Carolina, writerDavid Walker of Boston published an impas-sioned argument against slavery, challengingAfrican Americans to rebel and overthrow slav-ery by force. “America is more our country thanit is the whites’—we have enriched it with ourblood and tears,” he wrote.

In 1830 free African American leaders heldtheir first convention in Philadelphia. Delegatesmet “to devise ways and means for the betteringof our condition.” They discussed starting anAfrican American college and encouraging freeAfrican Americans to emigrate to Canada.

Frederick DouglassFrederick Douglass, the most widely known

African American abolitionist, was bornenslaved in Maryland. After teaching himself toread and write, he escaped from slavery inMaryland in 1838 and settled first in Massachu-setts and then in New York.

As a runaway, Douglass could have been cap-tured and returned to slavery. Still, he joined theMassachusetts Antislavery Society and traveledwidely to address abolitionist meetings. A pow-erful speaker, Douglass often moved listeners to

tears with his message.At an IndependenceDay gathering he toldthe audience:

“What, to the American slave, is your Fourth of July? I answer: a day thatreveals to him, more than all other days in theyear, the gross injustice and cruelty to whichhe is the constant victim. To him, your celebra-tion is a sham . . . your national greatness,swelling vanity; your sounds of rejoicing areempty and heartless . . . your shouts of libertyand equality, hollow mockery.”

For 16 years, Douglass edited an antislaverynewspaper called the North Star. Douglass wonadmiration as a powerful and influentialspeaker and writer. He traveled abroad, speak-ing to huge antislavery audiences in Londonand the West Indies.

Douglass returned to the United States becausehe believed abolitionists must fight slavery at itssource. He insisted that African Americansreceive not just their freedom but full equalitywith whites as well. In 1847 friends helpedDouglass purchase his freedom from the slave-holder from whom he had fled in Maryland.

Sojourner Truth“I was born a slave in Ulster County, New

York,” Isabella Baumfree began when she toldher story to audiences. Called “Belle,” she livedin the cellar of a slaveholder’s house. Sheescaped in 1826 and gained official freedom in1827 when New York banned slavery. She even-tually settled in New York City.

In 1843 Belle chose a new name. “SojournerTruth is my name,” she said, “because from thisday I will walk in the light of [God’s] truth.” Shebegan to work in the movements for abolition-ism and for women’s rights.

Explaining Why did Frederick Douglass return to the United States?

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit and click on Chapter 14—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the aboli-tionist movement.

tx.tarvol1.glencoe.com

The Underground RailroadSome abolitionists risked prison—even death

—by secretly helping African Americans escapefrom slavery. The network of escape routes fromthe South to the North came to be called theUnderground Railroad.

The Underground Railroad had no trains ortracks. Instead, passengers on this “railroad”traveled through the night, often on foot, andwent north—guided by the North Star. The run-away slaves followed rivers and mountainchains, or felt for moss growing on the northside of trees.

Songs such as “Follow the Drinkin’ Gourd”encouraged runaways on their way to freedom.A hollowed-out gourd was used to dip water fordrinking. Its shape resembled the Big Dipper,which pointed to the North Star.

“When the river ends in between two hills,Follow the drinkin’ gourd,For the Ole Man’s waitin’ for to carry you

to freedom.Follow the drinkin’ gourd.”

During the day passengers rested at “sta-tions”—barns, attics, church basements, or otherplaces where fugitives could rest, eat, and hideuntil the next night’s journey. The railroad’s“conductors” were whites and African Ameri-cans who helped guide the escaping slaves tofreedom in the North.

In the early days, many people made the jour-ney north on foot. Later they traveled in wagons,sometimes equipped with secret compartments.African Americans on the Underground Rail-road hoped to settle in a free state in the North

422 CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

The Underground

RailroadThe Underground Railroad was neither

“underground” nor a “railroad.” It was asecret organization to help African Ameri-cans escape from slavery. The escape ofHenry Brown is one of the most remark-able stories in the history of the Under-ground Railroad.

Henry Brown Henry “Box” Brownescaped slavery by having himself sealedinto a small box and shipped from Rich-mond to Philadelphia. Although “this sideup” was marked on the crate, he spent agood part of the trip upside down. Whennews of his escape spread, he wrote anautobiography and spoke to many anti-slavery groups.

After his wife and chil-dren were sold to a slaveholder

in another state, Brown wasdetermined to escape.

Twenty-six hours later,the top of the crate was pried

off and Brown emerged,a free man.

Another man transportedthe crate, with Brown in it,to a shipping company inRichmond, Virginia.

“It all seemed a comparativelylight price to pay for liberty.”—Henry “Box” Brown From there, the crate was

sent to the PhiladelphiaAnti-Slavery Office.

423CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

or to move on to Canada. Once in the North,however, fugitives still feared capture. HenryBibb, a runaway who reached Ohio, arrived at“the place where I was directed to call on anAbolitionist, but I made no stop: so great weremy fears of being pursued.”

After her escape from slavery, Harriet Tub-man became the most famous conductor on theUnderground Railroad. Slaveholders offered alarge reward for Tubman’s capture or death.

The Underground Railroad helped only atiny fraction of the enslaved population. Mostwho used it as a route to freedom came fromthe states located between the northern states

and the Deep South. Still, the UndergroundRailroad gave hope to those who suffered inslavery. It also provided abolitionists with away to help some enslaved people to freedom.

Clashes Over AbolitionismThe antislavery movement led to an intense

reaction against abolitionism. Southern slave-holders—and many Southerners who did nothave slaves—opposed abolitionism becausethey believed it threatened the South’s way oflife, which depended on enslaved labor. Manypeople in the North also opposed the abolition-ist movement.

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“I sometimes dream thatI am pursued, and when

I wake, I am scaredalmost to death.”

—Nancy Howard, 1855

The Underground Railroad

UndergroundRailroad routesSlaveholding regions

Non-slaveholding regions

Many enslaved African Americans escaped to freedom with thehelp of the Underground Railroad.1. Movement Which river did enslaved persons cross

before reaching Indiana and Ohio?2. Analyzing Information About how many miles did

an enslaved person travel from Montgomery, Alabama, toWindsor, Canada?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short paragraph

in which you use these key terms:abolitionist, Underground Rail-road.

2. Reviewing Facts Describe the Amer-ican Colonization Society’s solutionto slavery.

Reviewing Themes3. Individual Action What role did

Harriet Tubman play in the antislaverymovement?

Critical Thinking4. Comparing Compare the arguments

of Northerners with Southerners whoopposed abolitionism.

5. Organizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to identifyactions that abolitionists took to freeenslaved people.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Study the map of

the Underground Railroad on page423. Why do you think moreenslaved people escaped from theborder states than from the DeepSouth?

Opposition in the NorthEven in the North, abolitionists never num-

bered more than a small fraction of the popula-tion. Many Northerners saw the antislaverymovement as a threat to the nation’s socialorder. They feared the abolitionists could bringon a destructive war between the North and theSouth. They also claimed that, if the enslavedAfrican Americans were freed, they could neverblend into American society.

Economic fears further fed the backlashagainst abolitionism. Northern workers worriedthat freed slaves would flood the North and takejobs away from whites by agreeing to work forlower pay.

Opposition to abolitionism sometimes eruptedinto violence against the abolitionists themselves.In the 1830s a Philadelphia mob burned the city’santislavery headquarters to the ground and setoff a bloody race riot. In Boston a mob attackedabolitionist William Lloyd Garrison and threat-ened to hang him. Authorities saved his life bylocking him in jail.

Elijah Lovejoy was not so lucky. Lovejoyedited an abolitionist newspaper in Illinois.Three times angry whites invaded his officesand wrecked his presses. Each time Lovejoyinstalled new presses and resumed publication.The fourth time the mob set fire to the building.When Lovejoy came out of the blazing building,he was shot and killed.

The South ReactsSoutherners fought abolitionism by mounting

arguments in defense of slavery. They claimedthat slavery was essential to the South. Slavelabor, they said, had allowed Southern whites toreach a high level of culture.

Southerners also argued that they treatedenslaved people well. Some Southerners arguedthat Northern workers were worse off thanslaves. The industrial economy of the Northemployed factory workers for long hours at lowwages. These jobs were repetitious and oftendangerous, and Northern workers had to pay fortheir goods from their small earnings. Unlike the“wage slavery” of the North, Southerners saidthat the system of slavery provided food, cloth-ing, and medical care to the workers.

Other defenses of slavery were based onracism. Many whites believed that AfricanAmericans were better off under white care thanon their own. “Providence has placed [the slave]in our hands for his own good,” declared oneSouthern governor.

The conflict between proslavery and antislav-ery groups continued to mount. At the sametime, a new women’s rights movement wasgrowing, and many leading abolitionists wereinvolved in that movement as well.

Explaining Why did many North-erners oppose the abolition of slavery?

424 CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

Informative Writing Research thelife of an abolitionist. Write a one-page biography that describesimportant events in his or her life.

Freeing of enslaved people

425

1837Mary Lyon establishesMount HolyokeFemale Seminary

1848First women’s rights convention held inSeneca Falls, New York

1857Elizabeth Blackwell foundsthe New York Infirmary forWomen and Children

1869Wyoming Territorygrants women theright to vote

Main IdeaWomen reformers campaigned fortheir own rights.

Key Termssuffrage, coeducation

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read the sec-tion, use a chart like the one below toidentify the contributions these indi-viduals made to women’s rights.

Read to Learn• how the antislavery and the

women’s rights movements wererelated.

• what progress women madetoward equality during the 1800s.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions Women inthe 1800s made some progresstoward equality.

The Women’sMovement

CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

Mary Lyon, pioneerin higher education

for women

Contributions

Lucretia Mott

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

Susan B. Anthony

Elizabeth Blackwell

Women who fought to end slavery began to recognize their own bondage. On April19, 1850, about 400 women met at a Quaker meetinghouse in the small town ofSalem, Ohio. They came together “to assert their rights as independent human beings.”One speaker stated: “I use the term Woman’s Rights, because it is a technical phrase. I like not the expression. It is not Woman’s Rights of which I design to speak, but ofWoman’s Wrongs. I shall claim nothing for ourselves because of our sex. . . . [W]eshould demand our recognition as equal members of the human family. . . .”

Women and ReformMany women abolitionists also worked for women’s rights. They launched

a struggle to improve women’s lives and win equal rights. Like many of thewomen reformers, Lucretia Mott was a Quaker. Quaker women enjoyed a cer-tain amount of equality in their own communities. Mott gave lectures inPhiladelphia calling for temperance, peace, workers’ rights, and abolition. Mott

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1830 ✦ 1860 ✦ 1890

also helped fugitive slaves and organized thePhiladelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society. Atthe world antislavery convention in London,Mott met Elizabeth Cady Stanton. There thetwo female abolitionists joined forces to workfor women’s rights.

The Seneca Falls ConventionIn July 1848, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia

Mott, and a few other women organized the firstwomen’s rights convention in Seneca Falls, NewYork. About 200 women and 40 men attended.

The convention issued a Declaration of Senti-ments and Resolutions modeled on the Declara-tion of Independence. The women’s documentdeclared: “We hold these truths to be self-evident:that all men and women are created equal.”

The women’s declaration called for an end toall laws that discriminated against women. Itdemanded that women be allowed to enter theall-male world of trades, professions, and busi-nesses. The most controversial issue at theSeneca Falls Convention concerned suffrage, orthe right to vote.

Elizabeth Stanton insisted that the declarationinclude a demand for woman suffrage, but dele-gates thought the idea of women voting was tooradical. Lucretia Mott told her friend, “Lizzie, theewill make us ridiculous.” Frederick Douglassstood with Stanton and argued powerfully forwomen’s right to vote. After a heated debate theconvention voted to include the demand forwoman suffrage in the United States. ; (See page 617

of the Appendix for excerpts of the Seneca Falls Declaration.)

426 CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

Seneca Falls Convention

Throughout the nation’s history, women had fought sideby side with the men to build a new nation and to ensurefreedom. Even though the Declaration of Independencepromised equality for all, the promise rang hollow forwomen.

Female reformers began a campaign for their ownrights. In 1848 Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stantonorganized the Seneca Falls Convention. One of the resolu-tions demanded suffrage, or the right to vote, for women.This marked the beginning of a long, hard road to gainequal rights.

The

Gaining the Right to Vote, 1848–1920The Seneca Falls Convention led to the growth of thewoman suffrage movement.

1848Seneca FallsConvention

1850First national women’srights convention held inWorcester, Massachusetts

1866Susan B. Anthonyforms Equal RightsAssociation

1869Women grantedvoting rights inWyoming Territory

1878Woman suffrageamendment firstintroduced in U.S. Congress

1884Belva Lockwoodruns for president

Lucretia Mott (below) andSusan B. Anthony wereleaders in the effort toallow women a greaterrole in American society.

“We hold these truths to beself-evident: that all men andwomen are created equal.”

—Declaration of the Seneca Falls Convention, 1848

Raising the Status of Women

427CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

Maria Mitchell gainedworld renown when shediscovered a comet in1847. She became aprofessor of astronomyand the first womanelected to the Ameri-can Academy of Artsand Sciences.

1896Utah joins theUnion, grantingwomen full suffrage

1919House and Senate pass the federalwoman suffrageamendment

1893Coloradoadopts womansuffrage

1910–1918States including Washington, Kansas, and Michigan adoptwoman suffrage

1920Tennessee ratifies the NineteenthAmendment, called the Susan B.Anthony Amendment. It becomeslaw on August 26, 1920.

Susette La Flesche was amember of the Omaha tribeand campaigned for NativeAmerican rights.

Mary Ann Shadd Cary wasthe first African Americanwoman in the nation toearn a law degree.

Elizabeth Blackwellwas the first womanto receive a medicaldegree in the United States.

Helen Keller overcame the challenges of anillness that left her deaf, blind, and mute tohelp others with similar disabilities.

The Movement GrowsThe Seneca Falls Convention paved the way

for the growth of the women’s rights move-ment. During the 1800s women held severalnational conventions. Many reformers—maleand female—joined the movement.

Susan B. Anthony, the daughter of a Quakerabolitionist in rural New York, worked forwomen’s rights and temperance. She called forequal pay for women, college training for girls,and coeducation—the teaching of boys and girlstogether. Anthony organized the country’s firstwomen’s temperance association, the Daughtersof Temperance.

Susan B. Anthony met Elizabeth Cady Stan-ton at a temperance meeting in 1851. Theybecame lifelong friends and partners in the

struggle for women’s rights. For the rest of thecentury, Anthony and Stanton led the women’smovement. They worked with other women towin the right to vote. Beginning with Wyomingin 1890, several states granted women the rightto vote. It was not until 1920, however, thatwoman suffrage became a reality everywhere inthe United States.

Explaining What is suffrage?

Progress by American WomenPioneers in women’s education began to call

for more opportunity. Early pioneers such asCatherine Beecher and Emma Hart Willardbelieved that women should be educated for

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Define the following

terms: suffrage, coeducation.2. Reviewing Facts How did the fight

to end slavery help spark thewomen’s movement?

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions Discuss

three specific goals of the women’srights movement.

Critical Thinking4. Making Generalizations What qual-

ities do you think women such asSojourner Truth, Susan B. Anthony,Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and ElizabethBlackwell shared?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and list the areaswhere women gained rights.

Analyzing Visuals6. Sequencing Information Study the

information on the feature on theSeneca Falls Convention on pages426–427. When did Wyoming womengain the right to vote? What “first” didElizabeth Blackwell accomplish?

their traditional roles in life. They also thoughtthat women could be capable teachers. The Mil-waukee College for Women set up courses basedon Beecher’s ideas “to train women to be health-ful, intelligent, and successful wives, mothers,and housekeepers.”

EducationAfter her marriage Emma Willard educated

herself in subjects considered suitable only forboys, such as science and mathematics. In 1821Willard established the Troy Female Seminary inupstate New York. Willard’s Troy Female Seminary taught mathematics, history, geog-raphy, and physics, as well as the usual home-making subjects.

Mary Lyon established Mount HolyokeFemale Seminary in Massachusetts in 1837. Shemodeled its curriculum on that of nearbyAmherst College. Some young women began tomake their own opportunities. They broke thebarriers to female education and helped otherwomen do the same.

Marriage and Family LawsDuring the 1800s women made some gains

in the area of marriage and property laws. NewYork, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Wisconsin, Mis-sissippi, and the new state of California recog-nized the right of women to own property aftertheir marriage.

Some states passed laws permitting womento share the guardianship of their childrenjointly with their husbands. Indiana was the firstof several states that allowed women to seekdivorce if their husbands were chronic abusersof alcohol.

Breaking BarriersIn the 1800s women had few career choices.

They could become elementary teachers—although school boards often paid lower salariesto women than to men. Breaking into fields suchas medicine and the ministry was more difficult.Some strong-minded women, however, suc-ceeded in entering these all-male professions.

Hoping to study medicine, Elizabeth Black-well was turned down by more than 20 schools.Finally accepted by Geneva College in NewYork, Blackwell graduated at the head of herclass. She went on to win acceptance and fameas a doctor.

Despite the accomplishments of notablewomen, gains in education, and changes in statelaws, women in the 1800s remained limited bysocial customs and expectations. The early femi-nists—like the abolitionists, temperance workers,and other activists of the age of reform—had justbegun the long struggle to achieve their goals.

Identifying Who established theTroy Female Seminary?

428 CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform

Music Write and record a songdesigned to win supporters for thewomen’s rights movement. Includelyrics that will draw both men andwomen supporters.

Women’s rights

CHAPTER XX Chapter Title 429

Evaluating a Web SiteWhy Learn This Skill?

The Internet has become a valuable research tool.It is convenient to use, and the information con-tained on the Internet is plentiful. However, someWeb site information is not necessarilyaccurate or reliable. When using theInternet as a research tool, the usermust distinguish between quality infor-mation and inaccurate or incompleteinformation.

Learning the Skill There are a number of things to con-

sider when evaluating a Web site. Mostimportant is to check the accuracy of thesource and content. The author andpublisher or sponsor of the site shouldbe clearly indicated. The user must alsodetermine the usefulness of the site. Theinformation on the site should be cur-rent, and the design and organization of the siteshould be appealing and easy to navigate.

To evaluate a Web site, ask yourself the followingquestions:

• Are the facts on the site documented? • Is more than one source used for background

information within the site?• Does the site contain a bibliography?• Are the links within the site appropriate and up-

to-date?• Is the author clearly identified?• Does the site explore the topic in-depth?• Does the site contain links to other useful

resources?• Is the information easy to access? Is it properly

labeled?• Is the design appealing?

Practicing the SkillVisit the Web site featured on this page at www.nationalgeographic.com/features/99/railroad/and answer the following questions.

1 Who is the author or sponsor of the Web site?

2 What links does the site contain? Are they appro-priate to the topic?

3 Does the site explore the topic in-depth? Why orwhy not?

4 Is the design of the site appealing? Why or whynot?

5 What role did William Still play on the Under-ground Railroad? How easy or difficult was it tolocate this information?

TechnologyTechnology

Applying the SkillComparing Web Sites Locate two other Websites about the Underground Railroad. Evaluatethem for accuracy and usefulness. Then comparethem to the site featured above.

430

Reviewing Key TermsOn graph paper, create a word search puzzle using thefollowing terms. Crisscross the terms vertically and hori-zontally, then fill in the remaining squares with extra let-ters. Use the terms’ definitions as clues to find the words inthe puzzle. Share your puzzle with a classmate.1. utopia 7. abolitionist2. revival 8. Underground Railroad3. temperance 9. suffrage4. normal school 10. women’s rights movement5. transcendentalist 11. coeducation6. civil disobedience

Reviewing Key Facts12. What were the founders of utopias hoping to achieve?13. What problems in society did reformers in the temper-

ance movement blame on the manufacture and saleof alcoholic beverages?

14. What were the basic principles of public education?15. What was unique about the subject matter that Ameri-

can artists and writers of the mid-1800s used?16. How did William Lloyd Garrison’s demands make him

effective in the anti-slavery movement?17. What was the purpose of the Underground Railroad?18. What role did Catherine Beecher play in education for

women?

Critical Thinking19. Analyzing Information What role did Dorothea Dix

play regarding prison inmates and people with mentalillness?

20. Making Generalizations What was the significance of the Seneca Falls Convention?

21. Organizing Information Re-create the diagrambelow and describe the contributions Frederick Douglass made to the abolitionist movement.

The Age of ReformUtopian communities• Groups start small voluntary communities to put their

idealistic ideas into practice.

Religion• Great revival meetings, the building of new churches, and

the founding of scores of colleges and universities markthe Second Great Awakening.

Temperance• Reformers work to control consumption of alcohol.

Education• A movement grows to improve education, make

school attendance compulsory, and help stu-dents with special needs.

Abolition• Reformers work to help enslaved

people escape to freedom and toban slavery.

Women’s rights• Reformers call for equal

rights, including the right to vote.

The Arts• Writers and

painters turn theirattention to theAmerican scene.

Frederick Douglass

Directions: Choose the bestanswer to the following question.

According to the graph above, the greatest increasein the percentage of school enrollment occurredbetween

F 1850 and 1880. H 1900 and 1950.G 1850 and 1900. J 1950 and 2000.

Test-Taking Tip

Use the information on the graph to help you answerthis question. Look carefully at the information on

the bottom and the side of a bar graph to understandwhat the bars represent. Process of elimination is

helpful here. For example, answer F cannot be correctbecause this time period is not shown on the graph.

*In percent of persons of elementary and high school age

Perc

ent E

nrol

lmen

t*

1850 1900 1950 2000

100

75

50

25

0

Year

School Enrollment, 1850–2000

Source: Historical Statistics of the United States; Statistical Abstract.

Alternative Assessment33. Portfolio Writing Activity Write a poem designed

to win supporters for one of the reform movements discussed in Chapter 14.

Self-Check QuizVisit and click on Chapter 14—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

tx.tarvol1.glencoe.com

HISTORY

CHAPTER 14 The Age of Reform 431

Practicing SkillsEvaluating a Web Site Review the information about evaluating a Web site on page 429. Visit the Web sitewww.greatwomen.org/index.php and answer the followingquestions.22. What information is presented on this Web site? 23. What categories are used to organize the information?24. What links does the site contain? Are they appropriate to

the topic? 25. Do you think the site explores the topic in depth? Explain.

Geography and History ActivityUse the map on page 423 to answer the following questions.26. Region What other country did passengers on the

Underground Railroad travel to?27. Location From what Southern ports did African Ameri-

cans flee by ship?28. Location What kinds of places were used as “stations” of

the Underground Railroad?29. Human-Environment Interaction Why do you think the

routes of the Underground Railroad included manycoastal cities?

Technology Activity30. Using the Internet Search the Internet for a modern

organization founded to support women’s rights. Write abrief description of the organization, including its name,location, and a description of its purpose or activities.

Citizenship Cooperative Activity31. The Importance of Voting Work with a partner to com-

plete this activity. You know that the right to vote belongsto every United States citizen. In your opinion, what docitizens forfeit if they do not exercise their right to vote?Write a one-page paper that answers this question andshare your paper with the other students.

Economics Activity32. Goods are the items people buy. Services are activities

done for others for a fee. List five goods you have pur-chased in the past month. List five services you purchased.