THE OFFICIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION OF THE UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

Vol. 4, No. 2

2

Technique Preparation of Articles for Submission:

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5. Duplicates of pictures and diagrams or figures (black and white preferred) with sharp detail. Also include explanations (captions) of pictures and diagrams on a separate sheet. Photograph release- a letter of release from any identifiable subject in photos that are included in the article unless the face or eyes are obscurred. Letter should be signed by subject, parent or guardian .

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possib le publi cation in the fo llowing procedure. First the artic les are sent to :

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Indianapolis, IN 46204 Upon receipt of the artic le, to the USGF office , the

research coo rdin ator wi ll review and forward cop ies to the appropriate USGF Sports Advisory Committee members for review. On receiving their review, copies of the arti c le wi ll go to the Managing Editor and Executive Director for fina l approval for publication .

If it is necessary for the article to be edited or revised in order to im prove the effectiveness of communication to a wide variety-level of readers . the author will receive the edited article prior to pub li shing for their approval.

• 1f the artic le or parts of have been submitted and / or pub li shed by another pub li cation , a comp lete name and address of the Editor and Publi cation should accompany the artic le upon submiss ion to the USGF in order to follow proper procedures of publishing and to receive approval to reproduce the article in the USGF publi cation .

Editorial Staff Mike Jacki , pub lisher, Debbie Forsten/ Managing

Editor, Mike Botkin / Production Director, Dr . Gerald George/ Educational Research Editor .

Unless expressly identified to the contrary , all articles , statements and views printed herein are attributable solely to the author and the United States Gymnastics Federation expresses no opinion thereon and assumes no responsib lity therefor.

THE OFFICIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION OF THE UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

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Table of Contents

6 Athlete Eligibility Code

7 Injury Data By Bill Sands

8 Modalities By Jack Rockwell

10 Space Sickness By Patty Charmichael-Gerard

11 Schedule of Events

12 Relaxation Response By Robert McKelvain

16 ROV in Judging By Ted Muzyczko

19 Biased Judging By Charles Ansorge John Scheer

Technique

Technique

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3

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Bill Sands

Coaching Women's Gymnastics

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10. Research

III. Preparation 11. Physical Preparation 12 . Psychological Preparation 13. Technical Preparation 14. Tactical Preparation 15. Theoretical Preparation

IV. Applications 16. Looking at Two Skills 17 . The Full-In : A Methodology 18. The Gymnast and the Warm-up 19. Overtraining 20. Compositional Analysis: Uneven Bars 21. Observations of Training: Female Foreign

Gymnasts at the 1981 American Cup

Additional Information Epilogue • Daily Training Diary • Computer Programs • Associations • Magazines and Journals •Recommended Books• Bibliography 1984 •Hard• 288 pp• $17 .95-US & Canada

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Enclose check or money order payable to USGF Bookstore. Payment must accompany order. Return order to USGF Bookstore , 101 W. Washington St., Merchants Plaza , Suite l 144E, Indianapolis , IN 46204. Amount enclosed _________ _

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4

Quantity Title Price Total

Coaching Women's Gymnastics $17.95

Physiology of Fitness $12 .95

Coaching Young Athletes $12.00

In Pursuit of Excellence $10.95

Joy and Sadness in Children 's Sports $11.95

Living Anatomy $13.95

Coaches' Guide to Nutrition and Weight Control $ 9 .95

Children in Sport $10.95

Ergogenic Aids in Sport $23.95

Total

Technique

~------------------------------------------------

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AITENTION GYMNASTICS FANS. don's miss this special AUTOGRAPH offer!

Order an Official USGF Photo Album and we' ll send you an

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UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FED ERATION

Gymnastics Safety Guidelines

I A.SSUMPn oN O F RJSK. P•mcoinuon on g,·mnuucs .cu•·111 cs ln¥oh ·cs motion, rouuon. ind haSfl• in• unique nwi1oruncn1 an<J ..... m nrrics ,.,th it • r~c ......,lllpllonolruk-

lli'.ut.' 1 NG! C.1 .. 11cip1Uc inlU'}', p..,.lr •b ..,.. !;'>'en dnth can rcsuU trom lmpropc ronduc1olthc•Cthil}'

l COMPETE.'T SUPER\1SIO ;<r,', IJo """' puoi<ip>lc in :ut}' i}-mr'U>lic> KtM1y "lthou t rompncru wpcni .. on.

j _ POTENTIAL MEDICAL DlERGE...-OES. hmntclon/wpcni-. >hould be ••'1l'c d thepolmtialmcdic:>lnnagcncicsttu1 C"OUldoccurlngrm!U.>lics >ndbeprq>arcdto adcqu.nd)· respond 10 lhnn in :an appropti.a1c nunncr. : =~~~;-~ ... RD.· "~ ~E·R· xtMry,nukcw1c - mcnt i pr ) nuning•pproprU!CIO I . .

6 . c.ut..El. E.SSN E.SS CA....-N l . an . r ri .cth·c conccn1u 1ion 110.,.cplay or •ny othct form of c .. da.>nn.1 onno• be tolttatcd •• llly tlmc for :iny , .,__ Conwlo '""' iMUUnor

7. FOU 0 11i' PROPER SKIU PROG RESSIONS. 11 Qfe lnm.ng cn•irOO'Utlnlt includes• COt<rtl un<lcr>1>nding of 1he ol<>ll bnng pnformcd and follo•~ng pr~r okill prosrc:Woni.. '1."bcnindoubl.>l•-a},«tnMlh )Ult itc>U\lctoc

8 . MAS'TERl.NG IMSIC SKIU.'i. ~c lnmong pncticcs dcm.>nd ftU$1.<11ng buic ~ bdoc-cptngJO>ingto""'·>ndf0<morc<l.nku!1l.,.·m

SI. ATTE.\.lPTING NE11i' A.'"DIOR DlfflCUlT SKIU.'i. Tllc rn<J;"""'-:and •biUI}' 1.,.·d ol the pnf0<mtt, lhc rururc of the c...ii, and the compc1<ncy of the ..,...,er >II "''"' be tUcn 1ntOC<>n>i<lttatK>n .. ticn >ncmp•inga ,,.... . .,..dilli<\Jh o\lll

10 _ PROP ER LANOING TEOll\1QUE. S>fc di>mount! . .. ,...,u u un.intcntion>l f>ll!, require JMopcr W>d.ng t«hniqucs. No amoun1 of nuuing .-anbe • f.a;l....:"ot. A...:iid W>dlng on hn<l or ncd: >t >ll c .... u ...-riOU• oouwoptuc onjuncs m.ai· rcsulL

Formorcinform>uon.lboutj01'lnut1C.ot•d<l!IJ<Jnilc<lunt1orul m>tcn>I> • ..,.,; , ., th ~ USG r &luotion Ocp>rl m<"n1. McrchJ nl> 1'11z..a51"'"l l HE, l Ol \I01UJ.>tl1ng<onSi . lrMl1•rupol,.. lndian> 462C><

T

II

·~ ~

I(,"<)-. 'l'OOlU .. nATIO~"S

Diann )ll/ianne Miehe/Jc e Dllrh;11n A1cNan1;u·;i Berube

Valerie Zimring M. ·h , Tracee Ta lavera Il e (,aylortl

) '1\!.\!.ett Loll Retton -~. \l'' \ ' Bart Conner M<1rY

Please indicate autograph choices I.

2.

3. (Chokes nu1 guaranu:c<l )

Others

(Safety Poster 1) {Safety Poster 2)

TECHNICAL MATERIALS Cost Quantity Total FIG Code of Points for Women S 14.00 198 1 FIG Supplement to che Women's Code of S 2.00 AJincs 1982 FIG Supplement to the Women's Code of S 2. 00 A:>incs USGFSupplemenc tot he Women's Code of Points 2.00 Natio nal Compu lsory Routines for Women 6.00 ( 1980-84) Women's Olympic (E lite) Compulsories ( 1980· 4. 00 84) USGF Rules and Policies and Elite Progr;un Book 6.00 fo r Women FIG Code of Poincs for Men s 14.00 Jr. Olympic Age Group Compulsory Exercises for S 6.00 Men ( 1981-84) USGF Jr. Boys Age Group Compulsory 16 mm 535.00 Film ( 198 1-84) Men's Olympic (E lite) Compulsories ( 1980-84) S 4. 00 Men's Program Guidelines ;md Coach ing Manual S 9.95

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Technique 5

Ellglbillty Code of the United States Gymnastic Federation

Rules and Guidelines I. AMATEURISM

An amateur gymnast is one who trains and performs without searching for or accepting personal financial reward or material benefit in connection with his or her sports participation. (FIG Rule of Eligibility 1.6. IOC Rule 26) II . FINANCIAL AND MATERIAL BENEFITS

A. No gymnast may take part in a sporting event for which he or she is paid immediately. (FIG Statutes. Art. 38)

B. No gymnast may give authority to or allow a professional agent to represent the gymnast in negotiations regarding his or her participation in compet.ition. No gymnast may give authority to or allow anyone to represent the gymnast in negotiations regarding receipt of money in exchange for participation in competi­tion .

C. No gymnast may accept. directly or in­directly. any money or other considera­tion for expenses or loss of earnings. except that during the preparation for gymnastics competition conducted . sponsored . sanctioned or approved by the IOC. USOC. FIG or USGF. or the competition itself. a gymnast may receive the following types of financial and material benefits . provided such support is received through the USGF 1. Board and lodging expenses . 2. Transportation expenses. 3. Sportswear and sports equipment . 4. Pocket money in an amount per dav

to be fixed by the USGF. · 5. Expenses for medical treatment .

physiotherapy . medical services and medicine.

6. Expenses for training facilities or instruction.

7. Premiums for insurance . 8. Educational expenses . 9. Compensation to cover financial

loss resulting from a gymnast's absence from work or basic occupa­tion in order to train for or partici­pate in an event conducted . spon­sored. sanctioned or approved by the IOC . USOC FIG or USGF. A gymnast may not receive such "broken time payments· in an amount in excess of what the gymnast would otherwise receive from an employer during the same period . (FIG Statutes . Article 38: FIG Rule of Eligibility 1 ?l

Ll . A gymnast may.be an employee paid by a sports organization. including but not limited to employment as a counselor or instructor. provided any compensation received by the gymnast (1) is not in return for his or her athletic performance and (2) is not excessively out of propor­tion to the payment normally received for like work in that area of the country. (FIG Rule of Eligibility 172 Bl

Ill . SCHOLARSHIPS /DEVELOPMENT FUNDS A. A gymnast may accept scholarships a)

given to support his or her preparation for and participation in gymnastic com pet it ions a·pproved or sanctioned by the USGF. or b) granted on the basis of and fulfillment of scholastic obligations

IV. AWARDS . GIFTS . UNIFORMS A. In any competitive event. a gymnast may

not accept monetary prizes. and any other prizes or awards received may not exceed the maximum value designated

6 by the USGF. (FIG Statutes . Art. 38)

B. A gymnast may receive uniforms. travel apparel and accessories from the USGF . FIG. IOC or USOC. Uniforms . appar el and accessories donated to entrants in USGF events by sponsors are also allowable insofar as they are presented to all entrants and carry personalized markings to specify the event. A gymnast may not convert into cash any award . gift or uniform received from the USGF . FIG. IOC. USOC or comoetition sponsor

V. ADVERTISING & PROMOTION A. A gymnast may not authoriz e any

indiv idual or organization to use the gymnast's person . name. likeness picture. or sports performance in such a way that his or her position or reputation as a gymnast is used to advertise or promote any commercial service . act1v1t y or enterprise unless the USGF has entered into a co .1tr act for sponsorship or equipment making that individual or organization a USGF sponsor A gymnast may enter into an agreement with a USGF sponsor for the use of a gymnasts person . name. likenes s. picture or performance in advertis ing or promotion provided that agreement complies with the terms of the USGF Sponsorship Program (FIG Rule of El igibility 1.8 IOC Bye-Law to Rule 26\

B. A gymnast may permit his or her na me. photograph . or personal appearance to be used for news reports or to publicize a competition or exhibition conducted sponsored. sanctioned or approved by the USGF. provided such use 1s not al so directly associated with com me• c1a l advertising in a manner inconsistent with the USGF Sponsorship Proqram

VI. DRUGS The use of any drugs appearing on the IOC s

list of prohibited drugs is strictly forbidden . An y gymnast who. at any competition conducted . sponsored . sanctioned or approved by the USGF. (1 l refuses to submit to a medical examination designed to detect the use of such drugs . (2) refuses to sig n a statement representing that he or she has not used such drugs . or (3) uses such dru gs shall be disqualified from competition pending an investigation by the USGF El1gibil1ty Committee (FIG Rule of Eligibility 1.8 IOC Rul e 291 VII . PROFESSIONALISM

A. A gymnast may not be 01 ha ve been a professional in any sport or ha ve signed a contract for that purpose !FIG Rule of Eligibility 1.8 IOC Bye-Law to Rul e 261

B. A gymnast may not be or have been a pro­fessional coach in any sport. !FIG Rule of Eligibility 1.81

C. A gymnast may not knowingly take part in a competition or other event with pro­fessional gymnasts . (FIG Stat utes. Art 38)

VIII. MEMBERSHIP A. A gymnast may not participate in any

event conducted . sponsored. sanctioned or approved by the USGF unless he or she is a member in good standing with the USGF

B. A gymnast may not compete against any other gymnast he or she knows to be ineligible to compete under USGF rules .

IX . ELIGIBtUTY COMMITTEE A. There shall be a Committee on Eligibility

consisting of the Executive Director of the USGF and an even number of additional members numbering not less than 4 who shall be appointed by the Executive Director and approved by the Executiv.e Committee of the Board of Directors . At le ast 1 / 4 of the members of the

Committee on Eligibility shall be ath let e representatives .

B. The Committee on Eligibility shall be charged with the responsibility of

1 Overseeing compliance with the rules of elig ibi lity as defined by IOC. USOC. FIG and USGF.

2. Recommending to the Executive Committee of the Board of Directors of the USGF revisions of the Eligi­bility Code.

3. Responding to inquiri es from gymnasts. or their coaches . parents or representatives . concerning the Elig ibility Code.

4. Investigating alleged violations of the Eligibility Code and recommend­ing to the Executi ve Committee sanctions to be imposed for viola­tions of the Code .

X ENFORCEMENT A. The Elig ibility Committee sha ll act on any

complaint alleging that a gymnast has violated the Eligibility Code provided the complaint (1) is in writing. (2) is signed by the per son or persons filing tile complaint. and (3) alleges conduct wlli cl1 does in fact violate the Eligibility Code .

B. Upon receipt of a complaint. the Eligi­bility Committee shall notily the named gymnast in writing by certified mail of the all eged vio lation and appoint one ot its members to conduct an investigation of the underlying facts . That investigation sllall at least include an interview (01 attempted interview) witll the gymn<ist the person or persons filing the complaint. and otller persons who may have direct knowledge of t11e alle9ed violation.

C A written summary of the investigation and the Committee member's conclusion as to whether there is reasonable cause to believe th e alleged viola tion occurred will be sent to the gymnast al'ld each member of the Eligibility Committee . 1. In the event the Committee member

concludes that reasonable cause do·es not exist. no further action will be taken on the complaint unless a majority of the membership of the Eligibility Committee vote to conduct further investigation.

2. In the event the Committee member concludes that reasonable cause does exist the gymnast will be asked to provide a written response to the complaint and the evidence as summarized in the Committee member's report. In addition the gymnast may request a hea rin g before the Eligibility Committee. No less than 10 days prior to his or her appearance before the Committee. the gymnast shall receive a written copy of the procedures to be followed during the hearing . Those procedures shall include the right to be represented by another. present witnesses and cross examine any adverse witnesses.

D. At the conclusion of its investigation the Eligibility Committee will prepare written findings of fact and . in instances where a violation is found . recommend sanctions in the form of : reprimand. restriction of participation . probation. suspension or loss of eligibility.

(Continued on page 22)

Technique

Injury Data NCAA Female Gymnasts 1983-84

Data Reveals Potential Patterns By Bill Sands

University of Utah

A mong the data collected from the 1983-84 gymnastics season for the

NACGC-W was inju ry information . The coaches were requested to send injury information to the University of Utah for col­lection and analysis. Gathering this infor­mation was looked upon skeptically by some of the coaches who were concerned that published knowledge of this informa­tion might reflect upon their individual pro­grams or that the word would "get around" and harm their prospects for recru iting .

The following consists of 100 injury rec­ords submitted to the national statistical service for the NACGC-W during the 1983-84 season . The information obtained is strictly for preliminary examination since

statistic obtained from the data is that the average weight of these 100 injured girls was over 125 pounds. Correlation between height and weight produced an r of .676. This is in contrast to earlier research that I did with gymnasts from my former program in Chicago who ranged in age from 8-17, were highly trained , pre-pubescent , and Class I or Elite level competitors . The r was 30 in the earlier study and the r for height correlated with weight was .982. This earlier study showed that height and weight were quite linearly related while the heights and weights of the collegiate girls does not appear to be nearly so. We all know that increased weight can be a predisposing fac­tor in injury and this area along with its corollaries should be investigated more closely.

the amount of data is insufficient and the In looking for a profile of the injured ath­potential biasing of results due to unbal- lete from this data we can begin with height anced participation of some programs does not afford us the opportunity to draw conclu-sions. The treatment of the received data is still interesting however, and as a prelimi-nary example of injury data one might be able to see some potential patterns that deserve further investigation .

The following tables and graphs show the resu Its of treatment of the data sent regard- " ••· .,. ing injuries to female gymnasts in the NCAA. These include Division I, II, Ill , .,,,. NAIA, and Junior College athletes . The " total number of injuries reported was an ' . , even 100. Although this makes the percent- '~· ·:,.,! age calculations very easy it does not pro-vide us with a large enough sample to draw any firm conclusions about the role of injury in women 's gymnastics . Some schools were very diligent about reporting injuries and of course, some schools did not report any. This can bias the results iri the direction of the conduct of these reporting programs enough to make the results very suspect.

I have only included the percentages on each category or factor in the injury data

Aet•ala A. ra o..iFl'04'Tf F ull Twisi S.C.ll Back l..lrOU'C B<1t k Stra6dlelB

sent to me. This low level analysis is due to ~::::.;:: the cursory information and the small and ~::.:,;::,.0• possibly biased sample . You should be very g~~~ careful about interpreting the results of this g::=Somer analysis and perhaps use it only in deter- ; ~·:,~~oism

Front Som..

mining new directions to proceed in further ~;~::;-:;;;: 0• research . It is a shame that the number of ~= ~.~ injuries reported was so small since I ~=~o!.ips~ believe that even this type of epi - HeehlF.J•

Corr elation of Height and 'll'e ight.

I" L I G .. I ( /I,~)

1,.._ mNCAA F..,,... a ,._,aieta 1~ Sllll la lmof'H4

ln1ur1oe - ,. .... ' ' JaozFront

1 Jump Landing

' )(1pCi!cft

' From on Mount HaJlon lr.lounl Ovll'UM ?trouel'I • ~e-.erw Hecht Rudi Dismou nt Runn wi.g , StrlddoeVaun

11 11 Swrtcti Gli6e Kip • • S• rtd'I LNP • • Toe on Froni Oism T:wk.,._1 Tumbling Tw1!il l'l9 l aap Ur>OerSwin9 1 112 un-l'lo.n w ........

••• Regression Line

"'' 100

which indicates that our athlete will be slightly over 5 feet 3 inches. Her weight would be approximately 125.5 pounds. She would most likely be injured in November or January and the injury would probably appear somewhere from the knee down. She probably strained or sprained some­thing, and if she were a little less lucky it may be a ligament tear or a bruise. The injury would probably have occurred on floor exercise and the most likely skill was a double back somersault. Finally, she is less than 22 years old.

In conclusion, let me thank the NACGC­W for the opportunity to participate in the statistical service and the NACGC-W through the NCAA for the funding of this project.

Supported by a grant from the NCAA through the National Association of Colle­giate Gymnastics Coaches for Women .

T I Pl £ SER IES

TEST FOR TR£N0 ( Z 1 = 0

VAHJANCE ACC0uN l"£0 FOR BY i'R£N0 .:

J 29 . 00+

24 . 67+ I

20 . 33+

e. . 18 :4

Sep ' .

ll.67+ I

7. 33+ I

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' 0 ( 198J >'iON.IH 9 l

Graph of Injuries Over The Training Season

A.'llALV'SIS I

TRC:ND L!Nt: t:G!:..iA TION: Y' = 17. 71'+3 - l.:.4206 X OH IG IN : 1983 - ."iON": .-i '3 ·rrME UN!T : l ;r,Q:-.:Trt

J an

l·lar

Feb

demiological approach can tell us a great deal about how to prevent some of our inju­ries by being particularly alert to those areas that the statistics show us are likely to be connected with injury in some way.

CORRELATION & LIN E AR REGRESSION

Perhaps the most interesting and useful

Technique

VARIABLE X: WEIGHT (lbs) VARIABLE Y: HEIGHT (Inches) CORRELATI ON COEFFICIENT (R) = .675

MEAN OF X = 125.595 S.O. of X = 12.5762

MEAN OF Y = 63.3925 S.D. OF Y = 2.2625

NUMBER OF PAIRS (N) = 100

(More statistics on page 22).

DEGREES OF FREEDOM (OF)= 98 SLOP E (M) OF REGRESSION LINE = .121611 Y INT ERCEPT (B) FOR THE LIN E = 48.1188

7

__ M,odalities __ A Hot And Cold Subject In Sports Medicine

By Jack Rockwell Associate Director

Center For Sports Medicine

The word modalities as defined by Dorland 's medical dic­tionary means : "A method of application, or employment

of any therapeutic agent, usually having to do with physical therapy." What will be attempted in this article will be to describe the action, need for, and in some cases the applica­tion of many of the modalities that are employed in treating gymnastic injuries.

Let's fi rst explore some of the modalities we all hear about, have used on us at times, but must be applied legally only by a therapist, a person certified or licensed in their use, a physi­cian or an athletic trainer. It is important to note these matters as litigation is an ever increasing problem amongst all of us employed in both athletic and sports as well as medical and all ied medical work . The modalities listed below wil l be described as to their action and in what type of injuries they are usually employed. This first group are all modalities that pro­duce either heat or cold , the two basic reasons we use any of the modalities.

(1) Diathermy- As we know it now is primarily short wave or microwave. The action is somewhat different in that diathermy will produce heat in a more general area while microwave heat over a local area. In both cases the heat is generated in the tissues by the direct action of electrical energy. Short wave diathermy and microwave are both used to some degree in the following situations : Trauma and inflam­mation to the bursae and joints in congestive conditions such as bronchitis, and in callous formation and ankylosis following joint injuries.

Diathermy and microwave have been used less in recent years with the advent of other modalities which seem to do the job better.

Infra-red radiation is exactly the same type of heat we receive from the sun, the proportion of impaired being over 60 percent in the average sun light as compared to ultraviolet and visible light. This impaired generation is a very convenient source of heat and until recent years the most popular source of external heating . Unfortunately the penetration of this heat source is very small and other modal ities have proven much more efficient.

U ltrasound is a term we hear a great deal more about and in fact is one of the very highly used modalities by

therapists and trainers in the treatment of athletic injuries. The mode of action is actually the irritation of oscillation of very high frequencies into the body. These are purely mechanical in nature and in turn develop an irritation or vibration effect within the tissue which in turn creates a deep tissue heating effect. Ultrasound is indicated for use in the treatment of muscle bruises, tears, sprains, dislocations, hematomas, and con­tractures. Ultrasound, although an extremely valuable tool in the treatment of injuries, can be extremely dangerous and should not be used unless the application is done by a trained technician.

High voltage pulsed galvanic stimulation has burst on the medical field in the past 7 to 9 years. This is in fact no more than electrical muscle stimulation but actually has been a great

8

addition to the modalities we al ready have available. The cur­rent emitted by these units varies to some degree in almost every brand of unit on the market but is basically either faradic or galvanic and either pulsed or continuous with several units having superimposed currents available. The units are useful in treating the following injuries : muscle spasm, areas where increased circulation is needed, as a tool for reeducation of muscles atrophied from disuse, reduction of edema through the pumping action of the contraction and relaxation of these muscles being stimulated. This modality has been one of the best things to happen in the area of sports medicine in a long time.

TENS units are and have been a very wonderful addition to the sports medicine field as a whole. TENS, or TNS, refers to transcutaneous nerve stimulation. This modality works on the principle of applying electrical current through the skin to a peripheral nerve or nerves for the control of pain . Although the "Gate Method" or "Gate Control Hypothesis" was first widely accepted as the mode of pain control , this has been shown to be only partially right and at present although we know it works we are not totally certain as to how it works. In the case of chronic pain syndromes it has been a tremendous help, but it has just as much help in relief of acute pain. In the relief of extremity pain , back pain , and headaches it (TNS) has almost been miraculous in a majority of instances. TNS does not seem to produce any physiological changes other than pain relief.

E ach day we pick up medical magazines as weli as news­papers and read about new medical miracles brought

about by some new modality. Most of these are unproven and fall by the wayside quickly. I've taken one easy way out to include the remainder of the modalities I had wanted to cover in this article. Sherry Buickel , athletic trainer, University of Flor­ida put together our extremely good modality guidelines some time ago, and has been good enough to allow its reprint in this article. The modalities listed in this guide are those that most of you should have access to if needed. They are the simple things that far more often get the job done in treatment far better and faster than the expensive, complicated modalities. If I were operating a gymnastics school I would like to have, in fact would feel that I needed to have, the following modalities : An automatic ice maker, (refrigerator, styrofoam chest filled with ice, freezer for ice cups) to have ice available at all times, plastic bags and elastic bandages to apply the bags, two or more large plastic tubs (wastebaskets, etc.) for contrast baths, and if possible a treatment table. None of these things are terribly expensive and they can help cut down the incidence and particularly the length of injuries.

In closing , I'd like to add one more piece of equipment to every gymnastics school , that is some form of a stationary bicycle to be used by impaired gymnasts who cannot bear full weight on their lower extremities. To be able to keep up the cardio-vascular efficiency, reduce the atrophy in the hip and thigh muscles is of extreme importance.

Please feel free to write care of the Journal to the author at: Center for Sports Medicine - Saint Francis Memorial Hospital -900 Hyde Street - San Francisco, CA 94109 - if you have any questions we might be able to help with . We love gymnastics as you do and want to see it continually developing.

Technique

Modality Guidelines I

Sh erry Buick el , Athletic Train er, University of Florida

Modality Physiological Effect Indication for Use Techniques for Application Time Intervals Precautions

Hydrocollator Circulation is increased Pos t acute conditions of Wrap in hydrocollator covers J0-20 minutes per Never apply where there is a loss of Packs Tissue temperature rises . sprains or s trains. or in about 6 la yers of application . sensation, immediately after an (moist Relaxes muscles. toweling. inj ury, when there is decreased heat) Helps relieve muscle arterial ci rculation, or directly over

spasms. eyes or genital areas. Don't overheat sensitive skin .

Whi rlpool Circulation is increased Before range of motion Use at a temperature from 20 minutes less Sensitive skin cannot handle the higher (moist followed by a reduction in exercises. J02"-J JO". time when tem pera ture . heat ) congestion, spasm, and Relieve muscle spasms. contrast ing (see Use lower temperature if whole body is

pain . To contrast with cold (see contrast bath ). submerged. Relaxes m uscles. contrast bath ). Helps relieve muscle

spasms.

Analgesic Give the feeling of warmth . Pos t acute conditi on of Massage analgesic in area. Will generate a mild Blistering could occur. Pack Increase in loca l circulation sprains and s trains . Place on area and cover wi th analgesic effect

creates a mild anesthesia. piece of combine roll. for as long as 3 Secure with elastic wrap. hours.

Ice Pack Reduces circulation . Acute conditions. To Cover area with a cold, wet 20-45 minutes with Be sure there is something between ice Reduces pressure on nerve control bleeding and elasti c wrap . compression and and body part to avoid frostbite (cold

endings resul t ing in less reduce pain . Secure ice pack on with elevation . we t elastic wrap) . pain . elastic wrap, then elevate Continue cold

area . treatment for I - ice 24-72 hours. C - compress ion Apply cold pack E - elevat ion alter activity to a

post acu te injury to control swelling.

Ice Massage Reduces circulation . Post acute. Freeze a cup full of water lice JO-I 5 minutes . Keep ice moving so creates a massaging lee massage al one or in cup). effect.

conj unct ion with heat modalities such as hydrocollator.

Contrast Bath Flushing effect. Post acute. Warm whi rlpool J06" Alternate cold and Watch for swell ing when in hot water. Cold constricts vessels. Can only be used on OR heat treatments, Then - certain areas of the Bucke t of warm water. beginning and Hot dilates vessels. body. Cold tank 40°-50° ending with cold . Creates relaxed fee ling. OR

Cold whirlpool OR

Bucket of cold water.

" Massage Increases circulation . Post acute to help move Move toward heart . 5- JO minutes. Don 't begin too soon after injury.

Gives feeling of warmth and out swell ing. Use a lu~ri cant. Can cause more bleeding. re laxati on . Don 't do in place of warm-up exercises.

Technique 9

An ft4pothesis Concerning Space Sickness And Its

Amelioration By Patty Carmichael-Gerard

Editor's Note: This article is a continuation of Patty Car­michael-Gerard's article "From Tiny Tots To Astronauts" which appeared in the March/April issue of USA Gymnastics.

Accurate sensory perception of environmental stimuli and integration of sensorimotor information is appreciated

with higher cortical areas after transference of information from the vestibular apparatus. The vestibular mechanism and cerebellum along with proprioceptors in muscles, tendons and joints tend to regu late posture, equilibrium, muscle tone and the orientation of the head and body in space.

In order for the vestibu lar mechanism to send accurate information to the higher cortex it must be exposed to specific sensory stimulation. This enables the vestibular mechanisms to retrieve information and thereby suppress conflicting data. Without proper internal processing of information previously implanted into the vestibular apparatus, spatial disorientation and clinical symptoms related to equilibrium dysfunction can occur.

Two separate and very distinct types of vestibular stimula­tion shou ld be differentiated: internal and external. External vestibu lar stimulation is acquired in relation to an object ; a rotating chair (2 dimensional), a spinning aircraft (3 dimen­sional). Internal vestibu lar stimulation is that stimulation which is self motivated without the use of an object; dancing (2 dimensional), skating (2 dimensional), gymnastics (3 dimen­sional).

External stimulation is of lesser significance to the vestibular apparatus. It will recall and transmit the information to the higher cortex on ly when the exact object is used in the same type of environment. External stimuli to the vestibular appa­ratus need not always translate to internal vestibular informa­tion.

Astronauts in a weightless environment floating in three dimensions experience internal vestibular stimulation. This type of flipping and twisting is not the same as that learned in relation to an object, (a chair, an aircraft). Without prior proper stimulation and training the vestibu lar mechanism would react to this unusual environment by producing the various clinical symptoms of an immature vestibu lar system: disorientation, nystagmus, vert igo and gastrointestinal upset.

G ymnastics , using a three dimensional environment deve lops the interna l vestibular sense . What is

especially attractive about the developed internal vestibular sense is that internalized information can be transferred to the external environment. This important distinction between external and internal stimu lation is perhaps the reason why conflicting data has been obtained with regard to vestibular reaction in space compared with earthbound studies on the vestibular apparatus.

As far as I know, I am the only gymnast to have been tested

10

by NASA techniques. Under the guidance of Dr. Hornick, head of vestibular research for NASA (Johnson), I sat in a rotating chair, performing head movements from 12V2 rpm 's to 30 rpm's for 20 minutes without feeling any symptoms of sickness. When the "dead stop test" was performed , Dr. Hornick found it quite curious that instead of the sensation of the room spinning in the opposite direction , my sensation continued the move­ment in the same direction about 45 degrees and then pulled back to center. I had no fee ling of vertigo upon leaving the chair although I did feel a sense of motion as if I had been flying or driving for a long period of time. I wou ld like to think my performance could be attributed to the fact that I was unique. Research of the pertinent literature demonstrates that this is not the case.

Dr. Brian McCabe conducted a research project in 1960 entitled "Vestibular Suppression in Figure Skaters."(1) The procedure included two highly proficient figure skaters. They performed rapid spins on the ice (at four rotations per second). Slow motion fi lm was used to reveal if spotting (as in ballet) was evidenced. In the Baranay chair close observation for post­rotational nystagmus was made after adequate stimulation. Baranay spins were filmed with and without blindfolds, observ­ing nystagmus and staggering on immediate tape walking . These tests are all considered non-maximal vestibular stimuli . To provide maximum stimulus a caloric test using 20 cc of ice water playing directly on the posteroinferior quadrant of the tympanic membrane for 20 seconds was employed. The pos­terior semi-circular canals were tested in unison , and the hori­zontal canal separately.(2)

. .. "after each spin , the subject was able to stop suddenly, holding a graceful pose for as long as required. Post rotational nystagmus was absent. This applied whether the horizontal or vertical canals were stimulated .. . subjects were able to tape walk after a Baranay spin, equally wel l whether blindfolded or not. Nystagmus was absent whether blindfolded or not . .. Neither vertigo nor nystagmus could be elicited by stimulation of the vertical or horizontal canals . "(3 l Logic should allow that gymnasts wou ld perform equally wel l in simi lar testing. Gym­nasts perform in a 3 dimensional environment, therefore, 3 dimensional information could be equally and accurately pro­cessed by their vestibular apparatus.

D r. McCabe also took three novice skaters and had them train over a period of five months, concentrating on the

specific art of spinning. At the beginning he found all had normal responses to caloric and Baranay testing . (4 l By the end of the fifth month all had a markedly diminished but not com­pletely absent response to the tests employed .(S)

Dr. McCabe concludes that central suppression is possible and is an abi lity that can be developed.

"It is possible, then, to attain complete vestibular suppression by physiologic means .. . This evi ­dently has been an active intended suppression . . . that particularly in motion sickness, a method

Technique

of central suppression would be a more phys­iologic and , hence, a more desirable method of management than is presently available."(6)

Similar testing was done in 1972 by Kameswaran on the vestibular function of the Karagam Dancers in South India (who spin quickly while balancing an object on their heads.) The study concluded that in all dancers the cap ulo-ocular reflexes are subject to conditioning. (7) .. . The dancers did not feel vertigo even though nystagmus was present.(Bl

I find the presence of some nystagmus in the Karagam Dancer quite curious. It is similar to tests done on ballet

dancers in 1957 by Kurt Tschiassny.(9) When blindfolded , dancers who could normally spin without vertigo, experienced normal post-rotary nystagmus and past pointing . I contend that each of these tests performed on different groups repre­sents different levels of internal vestibular stimulation :

1. Ballet and Karagam dancers develop to a pri­mary level where sight is of primary importance to the vestibular mechanism. Without it they experience the symptoms of vestibular mis­match ; nystagmus and past pointing .

2. Skaters with an opportunity to experience more rapid rotation under their own stimulation develop an intermediate level of vestibular adeptness. Nystagmus and vertigo are com-

pletely absent whether blindfolded or not. Skating , however, is still two dimensional in nature and I contend that skaters, if placed in a flipping environment, would experience symp­toms of vestibular mismatch.

3. Gymnasts perform fast twisting and flipping in a three dimensional environment. I believe that at the present time they would be placed in the highest category of vestibular development and that this development is highly inter­nalized.

Many symptoms of space adaptation syndrome are proba­bly the result of an immature or inadequately developed ves­tibular mechanism. As the mechanism is further internally stimulated, (first in the 2 dimensional then in the three dimen­sional phase) the symptoms of space adaptation syndrome will be suppressed and the current problem our astronauts face will subside. Vestibular stimulation and training should be regarded as a necessary program for the development of the new "space man".

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1-6 McCabe. B. Vestibula r Suppression in Figure Skaters. Trans. Am. Acad. Ophth. and Otolaryngology. 64: 264-268. 1960.

7.8 Kameswaran, S., Rajender Kumror, P.V. International Surgery. 57: 976-977, 1972. 9 Tschaissny, K. Studies concerning vestibular factors in the ballet dancer, the pigeon

and the bli nd person. Trans. Amer. Acad. of Ophth. and Otolaryngology. 61 : 503-506 (July-Aug) 1959.

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11

RELAXATION RESPONSE: STRATEGY FOR EFFECTIVE USE IN GYMNASTICS

By Robert McKelvain, Ph. D. Department of Psychology

Harding University

Editor's Note: Th is series of articles on relaxation training is being reprinted from Coaching Men 's Gymnastic , th e journal of the USGF Junior Olympic Men 's Program . These articles are part of the result of the on­going research , program development and integration of sport sciences into the junior men's program.

The author, Dr. Robert McKelvain , a psychologist. is a member of the Junior National Team Coaching Staff and liaison for sport sciences for the Board of Directors of the Junior Olympic Program.

E Part I: Introduction

xperienced coaches can use the relaxation response to improve gymnasts' performance. Athletes and coaches are hearing more these days about using relaxation and other psychological

skills, but most of the information is based on informal reports and the popular press and is incomplete . Consequently, coaches often underestimate the complexity of the relaxation response and also underestimate its great potent ial for helping athletes improve. Coaches and gymnasts who understand relaxation can avoid the dangers of improper use and enjoy the benefits of the skill . Coaches can use the relaxation response as a good beginning point to increase their skills in using sport psychology with their ath letes.

This article is the first in a series devoted to informing coaches about when and how to use relaxation techniques with gymnasts. While a coach cannot learn how to teach relaxation skills from reading only , these art icles will provide a basis for demonstrations and supervised practice in clinics and workshops.

Improper use of relaxation has some subtle, but real, dangers. Improper use of the relaxation response produces transiet, undependable results. Inconsistent results from any training techniques lead the athlete to lack confidence in himself and his preparation . Beginners in learning the relaxation response often find the response a remarkable experience and assume that that experience can easily be translated into improved performance. Without proper training these experiences and any trans ient improvement in performance are soon lost. Subsequently, the athlete and coach may attribute the failure to the ineffectiveness of the relaxat ion response rather than to poor training and become disenchanted w ith relaxation and other sport psychology skills . Having heard the relaxation response is effective in im proving performance, a gymnast who is performing poorly

12

\

I I

1983 Junior National Team member practices mental relaxation techniques prior to parallel bar routine to improve performance. (USGF photo © 1984 Dave Black).

may grasp relaxation as a solution to his problem. Under these circumstances improper use and the inevitable poor results may deepen the athlete 's self-doubt and discouragement because he attributes the failure to himself rather than poor training.

As with my training technique the relaxation response must be thoroughly understood and properly applied for it to produce consistent results . Coaches and athletes must know that they have properly learned and used the relaxation in order to judge its effectiveness-another reason for this series of articles .

Briefly stated the keys to successful use of relaxation training are:

1. Proper training and practice of the relaxat ion response as a self-control skill .1·2

Technique

2. Selection of appropriate techniques and objectives for training.

3. Combined use of relaxation training and thoughts about self and performance.

4. Use of relaxation to enhance imagery skills. 5. Integration of relaxation training in the work-out gym

and on the competition floor. These and other aspects of relaxation training will be

explored in this series. Part II describes what relaxation is and why it is helpful to a gymnast.

Part II: What Is The Relaxation Response

T he relaxation response is a change in the state of the body's nervous system. The change may occur in response to changes in the environment or it may be produced by the use of specific skills which

can be learned. The relaxation response and its usefulness is best understood in biological terms.

The internal balance of the body is maintained by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). This network of nerves automatically regulates heart rate, blood pressure, skin temperature, digestive activity, hormone secretion and many other functions . One part of the ANS-the para-sympathetic system-manages minute-to-minute internal business-as­usual in the body. The sympathetic system, a second part of the ANS, may override the minute-to-minute functions of the body in order to coordinate all the body's functions to meet some threat of harm to the person. The sympathetic system response prepares a person physically to fight or run as a means of avoiding harm.

The "fight or flight response" is characterized by familiar changes in the body-butterflies or queasy stomach, rapid heart beat, blanched skin , cool sweating palms, trembling hands, and a sense of being uptight, uneasy or jumpy. If the threat is indeed an occasion for fighting or running, the body is well prepared to meet the challenge with extra blood flow and energy in the muscles. If the situation does not call for a physical response, the arousal will result in inefficient performance.

Over-arousal can effect performance in six ways. 1. Increase muscle tension . 2. Disruption of concentration . 3. Disruption of imagery skills . 4. Disruption of internal dialogue. 5. Disruptive escape and avoidance responses in

practice. 6. Subjective distress which triggers further over­

arousal.

T he relaxation response is basic to solving problems of both under-and over-arousal. Problems of under-arousal are best solved through imagery training. The relaxation

response can be used directly or indirectly to solve the problems caused by over-arousal.

The relaxation response is the physiological opposite of the arousal response. 3 The athlete who has the skill to produce the relaxation response can voluntarily alter his internal processes-muscle tension can be reduced , heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to skin can be controlled . By using the relaxation response a sense of calmness and self-control can be achieved in contrast to the sense of being uptight and nervous.

Over-arousal has two direct and four indirect negative effects on skilled gymnastics performance. First, over­arousal causes increased skeletal muscle tension. This excess tension restricts swing. The proper balance of relaxation and tension in the upper body is an essential

Technique

Jon Omori, USGF National Team member, traces mental preparation steps prior to his routine. (USGF Photo © 1984 Dave Black).

part of all events, but pommel horse and parallel bars are especially effected by excessive arousal. The relaxation response allows the gymnast more control over the muscle tension level and consequently improves basic swing.

The gymnast may think "I must not miss the stutz, I have to hit the stutz." This gymnast will likely miss the stutz or, if he hits he stutz, will miss a small, relatively easy part immediately following the stutz.

A second direct result of excess arousal is a change in attention or concentration. Excessive arousal may increase distractability and cause lapses of concentration due to irrelevant thoughts or external distractions.4 The gymnast may be distracted by thoughts of poor performance, of an injury, of an opponent's score or by other thoughts which are unrelated to his performance. Excessive arousal may also produce narrowing of attention .5 The gymnast may think "I must not miss the stutz, I have to hit the stutz ... etc . ... " . This gymnast wil I likely miss the stutz or, if he hits the stutz, will miss a small, relatively easy part immediately following the stutz. A coach's last minute instructions which focus on a particular skill combined with excess narrowing of attention is especially likely to produce bad results. Use of the relaxation response at the proper time can help the athlete concentrate on total performance while screening out both internal and external distractions.

13

The four indirect effects of over-arousal are the inhibition of imagery,6 distruptive self-talk,6 escape and avoidance responses, and subjective distress. Detailed descriptions of the role of imagery and self-talk will be included in a later part of this series .

T he fourth indirect effect of over-arousal is the distress of feeling an xious or uptight. Taken alone, subjective distress would not have an effect on performance. However, the gymnast

experiences the upset of over-arousal as a signal that a situation is hazardous. From experience athletes learn that they perform more poorly when they are anx ious. Consequently, athletes become more anxious when they recognize that they are anxious.

The essence of the fight or flight response is escape or avoidance of the situation which is perceived as threatening . Considering effort is needed to motivate young gymnasts to practice the events on which they need the most improvement. This avoidance response may be caused by over-arousal which is produced by failure on those events.7 A major factor in this process may be anxiety and consequent avoidance of potential failure. Properly applied , the relaxation response can reduce the avoidance response in practice and perhaps reduce the drop-outs which may result.

When an athlete becomes over-aroused telling him to relax is of little value. The relaxation response provides a self-produced , portable skill to directly reduce the subjective distress which can rarely be reduced by other means. Relaxation is a self-control strategy which is the basis for developing other sport psychology skills .

Part Ill and Part IV of this series will describe how to train the relaxation response so that it can be utilized by the athlete when and where he needs it.

Part Ill: Training Methods

E x perienced and properly trained coaches can teach athletes the relaxation response and its applica­

tion in practice and competition . This article describes the criteria for choosing a training technique and outlines the key elements in the training procedure for the relaxation response.

Criteria Three criteria must be applied in the

selection of a training strategy for teaching the relaxation response . Several different training approaches are available, but not all meet the demands made by the sport, coach , and athlete for a usable technique. The first criteria for choosing a training technique is an acceptable rationale for a particular procedure. Both coach and gymnast must understand why a particular approach is used and how it is supposed to produce results . Also, the technique must not trigger any preex isting negative attitudes . For example, hypnosis is an effective tool in acquiring the relaxation response, but coaches, gymnasts, and parents may have beliefs which cause resistance to using hypnosis.

The second criteria is that the strategy be easy to teach both to coaches and to athletes. Coaches who will be training athletes must have an in-depth knowledge of the training technique­this is no less true in training the relaxation response than in training any gymnastics sk i ll. For conscientious coaches to be willing to teach the relaxation skill , the coaches must feel confident that they understand what to do. Procedures such as hypnosis or biofeedback which are complex, time­co nsu ming to learn , and which engender uncertainty uncertainty for the coach , may effectively produce relaxation , but they make too many

14

Dr. Bob Mc Ke/vain. member of the men 's Junior National Team coaching staff.

gymnast to wonder whether the training is worth the time.

The third criteria for choosing a relaxation training technique is that the training be usable and effective in the situations in which it is needed. The relaxation process must be easily self­induced without the aid of special equipment in c ircumstan ces which are highly distracting. M e ditation techniques are often used to induce the rela xation response , but ther e is growing doubt that the techniques are effective .8 Meditation and autogenic techniques are not easily used in highly distracting or urgent situations .

demands upon the coaches who will learn them . As with the coach , the athlete must also be able to master the skill efficiently. Long training sessions are boring and lead both coach and

W hen these three criteria­believable rationale, ease in teaching, and effective­ness-are applied to the five

common approaches to rela xation training, progressive muscle relaxation as a self-control strategy stands out as the most suitable procedure .

Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) procedures are well researched and effective in reducing muscle tension and in controlling the emotional consequences of over-arousal. 9· 12 The PMR procedure is easily taught both to coaches and athletes and does not evoke the negative attitudes and misgivings which hypnosis often evokes. When properly trained in PMR , athletes may relax when and where it is necessary without the assistance of another person and without the aid of special conditions or devices . PMR has the added advantage that it can be taught by audio tape programs when these programs are properly utilized by a coach who personally directs the training. 13 Taped programs also allow for standardized training procedures which maketraining and evaluation much easier. Because of its relative advantages , progressive muscle relaxation as a self-control skill is the procedure which forms the basic for the training outlined in this series on relaxation training in gymnastic.

Figure Criteria for Selection of Training Technique

Techniques believa ble ease of usa ble an d rationa le learn in g effective

biofeedback yes no ? medi tation ? yes b i autogenic tra ining ? no hypnosis no yes prog ressive mu scle

relaxatio n yes yes yes

Table 1. Comparison of re laxation training tec hn iques for use in gymnastics.

Technique

Training There are four stages in training the

relaxation response using progressive muscle relaxation.

1. Explaining the rational e and getting commitment to practice.

2. Inducing relaxation by focusing on the tensing and relaxing of specific muscle groups.

3. Attachment of special cues or images to the relaxation process.

4. Practice of the relaxation response in the actual setting in which it will be used.

This article will describe the first two stages. Future articles will explain the imagery training and on-site practice.

Rationale and commitment The relaxation response is a sport skill

similar in many ways to other gymnastics skills . Gymnastics requires a difficult , precise balance of muscle contraction to generate force and relaxation and flexibility to facilitate swing . The relaxation response is comparable to flexibility as an athletic skill . By developing the rela xation response the gymnast will be able to use mental imagery more effectively, reach just the right balance of arousal and self­confident in competition , be more efficient in each workout session , and be more consist e nt i n competitive performance. Each of these points reflects needs often expressed by gymnasts and is an incentive to practice the skill.

L ike any sport skill, the relaxa­tion response must be practiced. However, the time spent in relaxation response training is

part of the mental training which should be included in the preparation of all elite gymnasts. At the beginning of training , a minimum of three, twenty-minute sessions per week is necessary for efficient acquisition of the relaxation response. Less practice lengthens the period required to achieve the relaxation response at an effective level. In about four weeks the average athlete should have sufficient ability in the relaxation response to use the skill in som e ways .9 ,

13,

14 Full usefulness of the

References•

potential of the skill will take longer. To promote adherence to the training

program, the coach should monitor the practic e. 15 Monitoring may b e accomplished either by doing the training during scheduled workout time or by having the athlete keep a notebook or other record of the tim e and place of the practice. Some coaches find that practice of the relaxation response and of related imagery skills prior tob workout improves the athlete ' s concentration during the workout . For the relaxation response to benefit the athlete it must be practiced . Inconsistent practice and monitoring will produce poor results and lead to the premature dismissal of sport psychology skills as ineffective or to the loss of self­confidence by gymnast and coach .

Training activities The actual relaxation training consists

of four activities in which the trainer assists the athlete-preparing for relaxation , contrasting tension and relaxation , controlling the relaxation , and recognizing progress in learning the relaxatin response. Preparation.The trainer first makes clear that there is no " right" or "wrong " way to experience the relaxation response . Concern over evaluation can seriously reduce the effectiveness of training. All that is necessary is for the athlete to listen to the instructions and focus his attention as he is directed. The rationale for relaxation training in gymnastics should be explained .' Athletes should be encouraged to maintain a certain curiosity and expectancy about what their experiences might be .

In the initial phase of rela xation training the coach should provide a comfortable environment as free from distractions as possible. As training progresses th e athlete will be able to rela x in less comfortable , more distracting surroundings , but beginning training is most effective in a quiet comfortable place. Procedures for transferring the relaxation skill to more realist ic situations are described in Part IV of this seri es. Contrasting . The central aspect of

learning relaxation is the ability to distinguish between muscle tension and relaxation .16 We sometimes take for granted out ability to make this distinction, but we quickly habituate to sensory feedback which indicates muscle tens i on . Consequently , gymnasts are often more tense than they realize . The ability to discern th is muscle tension is crucial in preparing for competition and for using the relaxation response.

In progressive muscle relaxation the trainer instructs the athl ete to tense and release specific muscle groups in a prescribed order (hence the name, progressive muscle relaxation). As each muscle group is tensed, the trainer instructs the gymnasts to attend to the tension . When the muscle group is relaxed the athlete's attention is directed to the sensation associated with relaxation. The procedure of tensing then releasing muscle groups serves two purposes. First, tensing heightens the sensation of tension so that the sensation of relaxing is a more noticable contrast. Second , tightening the muscle is like pulling a pendulum far to one side so that it can swing further to the opposite side. The relaxation which follows the tension builds momentum and once moving , the relaxation is easier to control. Control. The athlete is instructed to "contro l" the continuing progress of the relaxation by " letting go" or by "letting the relaxation flow". The mechanisms through wh ich the athlete "controls " the relaxation are passive. The process is not effortfu l; "try ing " to relax produces tension . The athlete 's control of the rela xation is a subjective experience and the manner in which the athlete "controls " the relaxation will elude precise description, but the athlete will " know" how he does it. Recognizing progress . Finally, the trainer gets feedback from the athlete about the athlete's experience as he describes it. Th is feedback is used for three purposes . First , the trainer can

(see PART Ill, page 22)

in the relaxation treatment of sleep disturbance , general tension , an d specific stress reaction , Behavior Research and Therapy. 16: 7-20, 1978.

1. Goldfried , M .. The use of relaxation and cognitive relabeli ng as coping skil ls. In Stuard, R.B .. ed .: Behavioral Self-Mangement: Strategies, Techniques, and Outcomes. New York, Brunner/Maze!, 1977.

10. Deffenbacher, J . L. , and Michaels, A. C.: Two self-contro l procedures in the reduction of targeted and non-ta rgeted anxities- A year later, Journal of Counseling Psychology. 27 : 9-15, 1980.

2. Suinn. R. . and Richardson , F .. Anxiety management training: A non-specific behavior therapy program for anxiety control, Behavior Th erapy .2: 498-510, 1971.

3. Conner. W.H .: Effects of brief relaxation training on au tonomic response to anxiety-evoki ng stimu li, Psychophysiology 11 : 59 1-599, 1974 .

4. Easterbrook, J. A.: The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior, Psychological Review. 66: 183-201 . 1959.

5. Wachtel, P.L.: Conceptions of broad and narrow attention , Psychological Bulletin . 68 417-429 , 1967.

6. Schwartz. G. E., Davidson. R. J. , and Goleman , D. J .: Patterning of cognitive and somatic processes in the self-regulation of anxiety: Effects of mediatation vs . exercise, Psychosomatic Medicine. 40: 321-328, 1978.

7. Passer, M: Fear of fail ure . fea r of evaluation. perceived competence, and self­esteem in competitive-trait-anxious children , Journal of Sport Psychology. 5: 171- 188, 1983.

8. Holmes , 0 . S. : Meditation and somatic arousal reduction: A review of the experimental evidence, American Psychologist. 39: 1-10, 1984.

9. Borkovec, T.D., and Henning, B. L. : The role of physiological attention-focusing

Technique

11 . Gray, C. L. , Lyle, R. C .. McGuire, R. J ., and Peck, D. F .. Electrode placement, EMG feedback, and re laxation for tension headache , Behavior Therapy and Research . 18. 19-23, 1980.

12. Oven, H ., and Lanning, W.: The effects of three treatment methods upon anxiety and inappropriate atten.tional style among high school athletes . International Journal of Sport Psychology. 13. 154-162, 1982.

13. Borkovec, T. 0 ., and Sides . J . K.: Critica l procedu ral variables related to the physiological effects of progressive relaxation : A review, Behavior Research and Therapy. 17: 119-125, 1979.

14. Chen, W.: Retention of EMG biofeedback relaxation training, Perceptual and Motor Skills: 56: 671-67 4, 1983.

15. Shelton, J . L. , and Levy, R. L.: Behavioral Assignments and Treatment Compliance. Champaign, 11 1. , Research Press, 1981 .

16. Bernstein, 0 . A., and Borkovec , TD.: Progressive Relaxation Training: A Manual for the Helping Professions . Champaign, 111., Research Press . 1973.

' The references cited in this series have been chosen to illustrate the scientific research basis for these articles; they do not represent a comprehensive review of the literature.

15

THE USE OF ROV IN JUDGING THE NCAA MENS

GYMNASTICS FINALS By Ted Muzyczko

T he purpose of this article is to review the applica­tion of the new ROV (Ris, Originality and Virtuosity) rule for bonus point awards used in the NCAA Mens Gymnastics Finals Competition . An explana­

t ion of the landing deductions is also included. A lthough the new ROV bonus award points are for the NCAA Gymnastics Finals only, the interpretations described here, are a guide for general use during the entire season . The landing point deduction interpretations are within the context of the FIG Code.

The change to higher bonus point awards (from .6 to 1.0) for the NCAA finals was based on a cooperative efforts of gymnasts, coaches, judges and administrators. All of these groups working together positively have strategized to improve gymnastics. The rules have been approved by the NCAA Rules Committee.

It was clear in the NCAA finals of 1983, as well as other competitions in which the f inals rules were used , that many ties were inevitable. The old scoring system forces ties in many instances. An event that shows great inequ ity is vaulting . This has been resolved by a re-evaluation of the maximum scores possible in different categories (see reference 3) . This rule change has also been approved by the NCAA Rules Committee and should move us forward. How­ever, for the remaining five events, the bonus point award system is really the cutting edge of the sport. No matter how right it sounds to work on moves of greater originality and better virtuosity, most coaches and gymnasts simply do not put forth the effort unless a core award reflects their efforts. In short , if we want our gymnasts to do better , one way is to structure scoring rules and interpretations so that the gymnasts will perform exerc ises in the desired manner to get the highest score possible. This , of course, must be balanced with an awareness of international trends in judging and safety consideration.

The rule change was a pilot program for the 1983-84 season. An evaluation of this rule based on the 1984 NCAA Finals is included in the summary of this article.

Our current international scoring system has difficulty, combination and execut ion elements together with the bonus point category. Each are related as shown in the fo llowing Figure 1.

FIGURE 1 JUDGING CATEGORY RELATIONSHIPS

Note, The Total Final Score Cannot Exceed 10.0

VIRTUOSIT up to .2

16

OR IGINALITY up to .3

RISK up to .3

M ost of the gymnastic scoring is based on deduc­tions. The one area in which we truly add awards is the bonus category. Too often judges and coaches still say "how much will you give back for

ROV. " You cannot give back what you have not taken away. Therefore, we must think positively about this category.

In summary, a departure from international scoring has been made. For the NCAA Finals competition, all events, except vaulting now have a base score of 9.0. Bonus points of 1.0 (max imum) in the following categories are awarded:

Virtuosity Up to .2 Risk Up to .3 Originality Up to .7 Total Cannot Exceed 1.0

The additional originality award (.4) is "taken" from the combination category.

The use of up to 1.0 bonus points (especial ly .7 for originality) has been established for the following reasons:

• A better means of separating finalists is needed. The past rules force ties .

• The growth of our sport nat ional ly and internationally is tied to new move introductions.

• The combined elements of virtuosity and originality provide the possibi lity for alternat ives to risk .

The following Table 1 summarizes the interpretations or the use of bonus points in the NCAA Finals.

TABLE 1

MENS GYMNASTICS 1983-84 SEASON-NCAA FINALS, BONUS POINT AWARDS-SUMMARY

VIRTUOSITY =

RISK =

O . . 1 or .2 REGARDLESS what is awarded for RISK or ORIGINALITY i.e .. 2 maximum.

DEFIN IT ION-ANY PART . SEQUENCE O R ENTIRE EXERCI SE EXECUT ED WITH FORM EXCEEDING CURRENT M IN IMUM ST ANDARDS- AN D THAT DOES NOT RAISE THAT PART OR SEQUENCE TO A HI GHER DIFFI CULTY CATEGORY . GIV EN FOR- FLAWLESS PER FORMAN CES ONLY FOR GROUP ED A PARTS. B PARTS. C PARTS. SEQUENCES OR T HE ENT IRE EXER CISE.

A nominal base o f up to .2. but can be ra ised to .3i f ORIGINALI TY is dropped to .5 o r less (See Example 4).

DEFINIT I ON - LI S TED C P A RT S (COD E O R N GJA SUPPLEMENTS ) OR NEW C PARTS IN WH ICH EXECUTION FAU LTS DO NO EXCEED .2 FOR THOS E PART S.

ORIGINALITY = A nom inal base of up to .6. but can be ra ised to .7 if RISK is dropped to .1 to less (See Example 2).

RISK ORI GINALITY VIRTUOS ITY

MAX IMUM TOT AL POSSIBLE

DEFIN ITION - ANY NEW PARTS (SER IES O F A"S. B PARTS. C PARTS. SEQUEN CES O R WHOL E EXER CISES ) FOR WHICH NO FINAL DEDUCTION HAS BEEN MADE FOR EXECUTION ER RORS. EAC H JUDGE DETERMINES WHAT IS OR IG IN AL BAS ED O N HI S V IEW ING EXP ERIEN C E . A ND T H E FREQUENCY O F PART PERFORMANCES. ALSO SEE TH E LI ST OF POT ENT IAL ORIG INAL MOVES PR EPAR ED BY THE NGJ A (1983-84 SUPPLEMENT). NOT ALL OF THESE ARE O RIGIN AL. BUT SOME AR E. THESE MOV ES HAV E BEEN REVIEWED IN CERTIFI CAT ION CLIN ICS. A PARTI AL LIST IS APPENDED T HE F IG LISTIN G IS ALSO INCLUDED.

EXAMPLES OF ROV AWAR DS

NOMINAL BONUS

BASE " CATEGORY" EXAMPLES

MAXIMUMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

.2 .3 0 .1 .2 .3 .3 .3 2

.6 .7 .7 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .6

.2 .2 2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 . 1

1.0 1.0 .9 1.0 1.0 1.0 .9 .8 .9

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R +O = .8 Maximum, and R cannot exceed .3 nor can 0 exceed .7 . Further, V canno t exceed .2 Any single part canno t be g iven more than .4 for R + 0 + V

N ote, all original C or CC dismounts or landings in floor exercise passes can be judged more leniently if the potential execution error is not more than .3 points for that part. This interpretation is within

existing rules , since " upt to" .5 may be deducted for dis­mount/landing errors. Simply deduct less. This has been used internationally and is reasonable. Note, this applies to vaulting as well. An example would be an original floor exercise tumbling pass that has the C valuation mentioned above. If a gymnast has a potential deduction of .3 , you may deduct only .1. In other words, you may deduct less by an amount of .2, but not more. Another example is if a gymnast lands from a high original C dismount on the horizontal bar and the potential deduction is .2, you may chose to deduct nothing. But in no case should the " leniency" exceed .2 points. Further, if a gymnast incurs .3, .5 or more deductions on the landing or pass , then this rule does not apply. We want to encourage gymnasts to do original movements, but these must be under control. For original parts that do not involve landings, use the existing rules and your judgement .

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF IMPLEMENTATIONS VIRTUOSITY

As the term virtuosity implies, performances must be truly extraordinary, as far as techn ique and execution are concerned . Virtuosity awards may be 0, .1 or .2 regardless of what is awarded for risk or originality. Note, the maximum award possible is .2 . The definition of Virtuosity is as follows:

ANY PART, SEQUENCE OR ENTIRE EXERCISE EXECUTED WITH FORM EXCEEDING CURRENT MINIMUM STANDARDS-AND THAT DOES NOT RAISE THE PART OR SEQUENCE TO A HIGHER DIFFICULTY CATEGORY .

Obviously virtuosity is not a static concept , it is dynamic. What is acceptable as virtuosity today may be a minimum standard tomorrow.

Some examples of virtuosity include the following : 1) Very high tumbling 2) Very rapid tumbling 3) Unusuat rhythms in sequences or an ent ire exercise 4) Very tight pikes or very tight tucks (clear body posit ions are shown 5) Pike opening combinations (this shows an exceptional command of the move) 6) Piking out from double twisting or trip le twisting somersaults rather than simply

tucking into the mat 7) Unusual ly straight cross positions. par ticularly if the cross is perfo rmed on the

fingers . 8) Straight arm work fo r an en tire still ring exercise 9) Arms kept straight fo r an entire horizontal bar exercise

10) Extremely exaggerated and unusual extensions in movements on the pommel horse

11 ) H igh. free and stu ck landings on t he parallel ba rs 12) Terrif ic post fl ight on vau lt ing. par t icularly when the landings are stuck

The concept of virtuosity based on the definition above requires a little amp I ication . If we take as an example the front stutz-kehre on parallel bars , consider the following possibilities: a stutz-kehre to a horizontal position= A move; a stutz-kehre to a 45° = B move; a stutz-kehre to handstand, held on second = move ; stutz-kehre to handstand held one second with a 2/ 10 deduction or a stutz-kehre to handstand held two seconds = C move. In the A move category, if the gymnast performs the stutz-kehre very high, he has an opportun ity for virtuosity . However, if his ang le hits 45° , then the stutz-kehre must be viewed as be ing a B move. In order to get virtuosity for a B move, the gymnast may do a high 45° to 90° angle stutz-kehre or do it to a handstand position , but not hold the handstand for two seconds . In the C category, it is difficulty to get virtuosity in the conventional fashion. However, if the stutz-kehre is very high and falls off the arm position is excellent, there is a possibility for virtuosity. If a gymnast does his stutz-kehre to a B position, (i .e. 95° angle­rather than a horizonta l position) his award is a rise in category , in other words from a A to a B, but this does not

Technique

necessaril y mean a virtuosity award . See the foll owing Figure 2.

FIGURE 2 STUTZ-KEHRE TO CATCH ON PARALLEL BARS

::r_ -==,r_·_ A

B

A + VIRTUOSITY

B + VIRTUOSITY (NOT HELD)

Another example would be the hollow back press to a handstand on either the floor, the rings or the parallel bars. An extremely virtuous press wou Id be one which the arms are very sl ightly bent and there is not much dipping of the shoulders (i.e . he approaches the C move, but is not quite there.) If, however the arms are kept perfectly straight, the the category of the part moves up from a B to a C and virtuosity is not awarded . A similar analogy may be drawn for other held positions such as planches. A straddle planche is generally given B credit on the sti ll rings . If the legs are held together it would be raised to a C category. Also static parts which are in their fully extended form with excellent body positions are candidates for virtuosity awards.

On a pommel horse, an uphill reverse stockli without the use of a "touch back" is a candidate for virtuosity .

RISK The award for Risk is based on a nominal amount of .2 . But

it can be raised to .3, if the originality nominal value is dropped from .6 to .5 or less. Note, that article 40, Section 2 of the 1979 Code, requires that if risk is raised to .3, the additional .1 award must be based on a flawless performance of the part in question. Again you can refer to the Example 4 in the summary table above. The definition of Risk (application) is:

PREDETERMINED, LISTED C PARTS (CODE OR NGJA SUPPLEMENTS) OR NEW C PARTS IN WHICH EXECUTION FAUL TS DO NOT EXCEED .2 FOR THESE PARTS. RISK IS DETERM IN ED BY THE JUDGE, BASED ON OBSERVING THE PART BEING PERFORMED AND BEING SURE THAT THE PART MEETS THE CORRECT PERFORMANCE SPECIFICAT IONS.

The part in question is then compared to the comparab le part in the Code or NGJA Supplements. If the part is not listed , then the judge must use his "gymnastics sense" to determine whether or not Risk should be awarded . For additional commentaries on Risk see References 4 and 6.

17

Some examples of Risk are shown below: 1) In Floor Exercise the front somersault to front leaning rest position or the 1-3/.:

sommersault . 2) On the Pommel Horse. circles on one pommel 3) On the Still Rings, the double layout dismount 4) The triple back salto on Still Rings 5) The double full in back out dismount on Still Rings 6) On Parallel Bars. the back rise to a hop pirouette 7) The giant swing wit h one half twist on Parallel Bars 8) The front uprise stutz to handstand on Parallel Bars 9) The Healy turn to support on Parallel Bars

10) The double front salto disniount on Parallel Bars 11) The double pike salto dismount on Parallel Bars 12) On Horizontal Bar. the double layout dismount 13) On Horizontal Bar. the double full in back salto out dismount

Note, although Risk is easy to obtain in floor exercise and pommel horse, it is more difficult to obtain on the parallel bars and rings . The judge must be very obse rvant here . Risk on the horizontal bar is also relatively easy to obtain. In vaulting , the Risk elements are already incorporated in the valuations of the vault. For new vaults , the bases described above shou ld be used.

It should be noted and emphasized that if 3/ 10 or more in execution errors are incurred , no Risk points may be awarded . Risk points are awarded for C parts essentially. If B's or A's may be combined to make a C, then the awards for Risk are possible. Risk points are generally not awarded for an entire exerc ise .

ORIGINALITY Originality has a nominal base of .6 but can be raised to .7

(maximum) if Risk is dropped to .1 or less. Article40, Section 2 of the Code applies in this case. Th e definition of 0 riginality is as follows :

ANY NEW PARTS (SERIES OF A'S, B PARTS OR C PARTS, SEQUENCES OR WHOLE EXERCISES) FOR WHICH NO DEDUCTIONS HAVE BEEN MADE FOR EXECUTION ERRORS. EACH JUDGE DETERMINES WHAT IS ORIGINAL BASED ON HIS VIEWING EXPERIENCE AND FREQUENCY OF PART PERFORMANCES.

Also see the list of NGJA assigned moves in the 1983-84 Supplement.

The following guidelines are to be followed in assessing Originality and using the point awards mentioned above:

18

1) Originality awards mu st be given for flawless parts only. I f any final execution deduct ions are incurred for a part or a sequence of three parts that are being considered for Originality (or even a whole exercise). then no Originality bonus points can be awarded .

2) A ll judges are required to assess new parts objectively. with an open mind . before passing judgement as suitability of the new parts for a given event. This reservation of judgement certainly has not been true historically. Jn the past . the Japanese had shown very Original pommel horse movements on the parallel bars. These exercises were ded uct ed. rather than bei ng viewed as original cont ribu tions . We cannot let th is happen in the U .S. Suspend judgement: be objective in your evaluation ; remember this is the creative cutting edge of ou r sport. H owever. be sure that there are no gross violations of existing ru les . Should sitting or brushing be considered within the context of an Original move as seen? These are judgement questions which you must answer on the floor. Again, you must use you r background experience to determine if the move in question is original. A nu m ber of moves that are listed in the Code or even Supplement. as mentioned above. are still considered Original.

3) An Original move must show mastery and premeditated thought . not a defensive. "save" For example. a "twist-off' to a one arm catch on the horizontal bar. though possibly Original . may not be premediated . Mistakes can be a source of Orig inality in practice. but rarely would be so in a finals competition .

4) Any new "Original as the individual judge sees it" group of three or more A moves, a - B ORA - C part may receive: up to 1/ 10 for the 3A parts: up to 1/ 10 for the 3A parts: up to 1/ 10 for the B part: up to 2/1 0 for a C part.

5) Any sequences of three moves. that are Original in their combination in which at leas t one is a B or C part. can receive up to 2/10 for Originality .

6) A new technique of part execution can be considered as Original. Award up to 1/ 10 for each part so performed. An example of this would be a straddle piked back sal to in Floor Exercise. Th is is a whole new Original techn iqu e.

7) An entire exercise can receive up to 4/ 10 for Originality. A gymnast has a reperto ire of eleven nominal parts to show you what his combination possibilities are. In the pommel horse event for example. if the gymnast shows one type of movement such as front support work on ly (czechkehres) . then he is showing you that he has a lim ited repertoire . A good pommel horse exercise these days could consist of the following :

• Balance of more types and workin g the entire horse • Behind the back work as well as front leaning rest work • Flaring motions • Some handstand position • Some variety in scissors and/ or sing le leg work. • Some single pommel work • High value mou nt and dismount • Hand positions on the horse, in the saddle

A pomm el horse exercise composed in the above fashion certainly is balanced and can be shown by a number of our top performers in the U .S.

In Floor Exercise. sometimes a gymnast will derive over 50% of his difficulty from one "type" of movement. This is maybe the use of fou r or five different types of front saltos . Th is shows a li mitation. A good exercise should show rapid tumbling , twisting tumbling . double backs. good! ran sit ions , good solid balances and good rhythm. A good exercise should not consist of high value C moves with military turns. poor rhythm and poor transitions . etc.

The same thing is tru e of the horizontal bar. There we should see good controlled releases. high controlled dismounts and a variety of in bar work.

8) Keep in mind that in no case should a bonus award exceed .4 for Risk plus Originality plus Virtuosity for any given one part .

9) In vaulting, a reasonable interpretation of landings must be used for Original­vaults . Th is means that we wou ld show some leniency if the deductions "potentially '' do not exceed .3 . Leniency must not exceed .2.

10) Al l Original C or CC dismounts or land ings in Floor Exercise passes are to be judged leniently , if the potential deduct ion does not exceed .3 . We can be lenient up to 2/10 of a point. This is an interpretation that is within existing rules. since "up to" .5 may be deducted for dismount landing errors. Simply deduct less when app licable and appropriate.

EXPECTED CONSEQUENCES AND COMMENTS BY EVENTS

FLOOR EXERCISE Floor Exerc ise presents the greatest possibilities for

Originality . More elegant " transitions" are expected . It should be easy for the better "Finalists" to get 1.0 bonus . . . . 7 for Originality. Here original techniqu es of execution will be extensive ly tried . Watch for rhythm and whole exercise Originality. Watch the choice of moves-is the gymnast showing a full " range" of skills or is he hiding behind single strengths.

POMMEL HORSE Many finalists should have an easy time getting up to .7 for

Originality. Certainly their sequences and "whole exerc ises" could get .4 for Originality. The use of one or two predominant types of moves would be awarded, less for Originality. Watch the choice of moves. See item 7 above.

STILL RINGS Originality here is still difficult to get. We need a " Fl air

Breakthrough ". Scores will be lower, but note the applicable points listed above .

PARALLEL BARS Many new combinations are possible. Flair moves ,

Horizontal Bar moves and Pommel Horse moves wi ll g ive good carry-over bases. Also Women 's Uneven Bar moves are sources.

HORIZONTAL BARS This event has been and will continue to be innovative. It

should be possible to make easy separations based on Originality. The dismount interp retation will be important.

The following table compares bonus point awards of the o ld system to the new: PERCENT MAXIMUM BONUS POINT AWARD

COMPARISON FACTORS RISK VIRTUOS ITY OR IG INALITY

TOTAL

OLD SYSTEM '3.0 2.0 3.0

6.0

NEW SYSTEM 3.0 2.0 7.0

10.0

COMMENTS Same Value Same Value Emphasized

·Examp le: ·3 (lOO) ~ 3.0 percent

10.0

We are constantly reviewing the methods of awarding bonus points at all National Certification Courses. Further, all coaches are sent these guidelines through the NACGC/ NGJA. For additional background information , see Referen ces 3 and 6.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE 1984 NCAA FINALS

T here was considerable originality shown in the preliminary competition . Many of the compet itors did not make the finals but nevertheless did show many original movements and sequences . We

need more of these " trial bal Ions". If a movement or sequence is good , it will be maintained as part of the gymnast ics thinking ; if it is not, it will be rejected and others will replace it thereby facilitating positive, effective growth .

(see ROV, page 22)

Technique

" '

Biasing Factors Affecting Judging Of Gymnastics

Charles J. Ansorge and John K. Scheer

School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Ideally, scores which judges assign to a gymnast should be based on objective criteria and should not be influenced by any extraneous fac­tors. Practically, however, few judges for either men's or women's gym­nastics are able to base all of their scores only on the appropriate objective criteria. Attempts made in the past to improve the objectivity of judging gymnastics (e.g. , Hunsicker & Loken, 1951; Faulkner & Loken, 1962; Landers, 1970; and Wilson , 1976) have achieved mixed results. Many gymnasts, coaches, and spectators at all levels of competition are still distressed about judging irregularities. All problems associated with evaluating gymnastics competitors have not been resolved.

Landers (1970) , in a review of the literature on gymnastics judging, expressed surprise that a sport which relied so much on judges to determine the outcome did not have more research knowledge regard­ing factors which may influence the accuracy of the judges' scores. Since Landers made this observation over ten years ago, some litera­ture has been published which might shed light on those factors which may influence judging. The purpose of this article is to review pertinent comments made by gymnastics authorities regarding potential biasing factors and also summarize the research which has been published in the past decade which is related to this topic. This information may be useful to help future researchers who are interested in studying the judging of gymnastics to focus on areas which are currently void of scientific substantiation. Also, the information, if read by currently certi­fied gymnastics judges or individuals who are considering being certi­fied, may serve to alert them to potential biasing factors and thus im­prove the validity of their judgments of gymnastics performers.

The authors of this paper believe that the factors which may affect the judgment of judges can be grouped into the following classifications : ( 1) subtle influences, or those which judges are not even aware of as they are judging; (2) pressure influences, or those which are usually obvious to judges; (3) expectancy infuences, or those which are related to various expectations which judges have. (See Figure 1 for examples of the extraneous factors which may influence judges.)

TEAM MOMENTUM

Pressures SPECTATORS CONFORMITY AFFILIATION

JUDGES

BIASED?

Subtle Influences MULTIPLE SESSIONS

Figure 1. Factors Affecting Objectivity of Judging

Subtle Influences

Expectations ORDER EFFECT

REPUTATION

SCORES

UNBIASED?

Multiple Session Effect. In gymnastics meets having more than one session during a day of competition , the scores tend to rise from session to session. Calkin (1979) called this tendency the "Multiple Session Effect. " From 1972 through 1975 the NCAA Championship format had three compulsory sessions on a Thursday and three optional sessions on a Friday. Complaints regarding the multiple session effect were made almost yearly by coaches and gymnasts. Criley (1972) noted in his report on the 1972 NCAA championships , "Some observers charged

Technique

that the judges were fatigued by the third session, and that the scores had crept up as the day wore on. " Other comments were sometimes made (Criley, 1974) that one team or another received a "good draw" for compulsories (i.e ., they competed in the last session) or a "bad draw" (first session) . Fatigue of judges has been the primary reason offered for the tendency of scores to rise during multiple session days. Following the 1975 NCAA Meet, the NCAA Gymnastics Rules Committee voted to change the meet format to only one session of compulsories on Thurs­day and one optional session on Friday by having six events underway at a time. In response to the change , Biesterfeldt (1975) wrote, "We heartily approve. The three-session system has been very un­satisfactory, due to fatigue of judges . ... [Now a judge] does half the work, so he should be less exhausted. "

In addition to the opinions expressed above, Feigley (1980) reported the results of a meet in which data were collected to determine if judges' scores tend to rise from session to session. In the 1978 USGF Class I East Sectionals, he found judges' scores on both balance beam and floor exercise rose by an average of two-tenths in the afternoon session over the morning session, and all-around scores rose by an average of five-tenths . These increases in scores, in spite of random assignment of girls into morning and afternoon sessions, were statistically significant (p <.001) .

Overall Order Effect. The overall order effect refers to the contention that judges' scores tend to rise as the order of competition within an event progresses, even within the same session or in a one-session meet. For example, a gymnast who appears first in the finals of an event, or a team that competes first in the preliminaries of an event, is generally considered to be at a disadvantage, while the last competitive spot is considered to be the most advantageous.

Scheer (1973) supported the existence of an overall order effect when he analyzed the scores in the preliminary competition of the Ne­braska State High School boys' meet, which was contested in one ses­sion. For statistical analysis the competitive order in each event was divided into thirds. Even though gymnasts were randomly assigned to the orders of competition , in three of seven events the teams and in­dividuals in the first third of the order were at a significant scoring dis­advantage (p < .05), with scores increasing in the middle and last thirds . In the remaining events, scores tended to increase through the orders, although not to a significant degree.

Viewing Perspective Effect. Landers (1970) and Feigley (1980) sug­gested that the angle from which a judge evaluates a routine may in­fluence his or her score, although in many instances judges may not be able to control this factor. In an unpublished study, Scheer and Ansorge (1974) investigated the effect of judging angle, using the preliminaries of the Nebraska State High School boys' meet. The floor exercise, pommel horse, and parallel bars were each videotaped from four angles, which approximated the actual judges' positions.

During four judging sessions, over a two-week period, each of 12 judges, using a counterbalanced design, viewed and scored all the routines from each of the different perspectives. The angle from which they scored the routines had no effect on their scores in the floor ex­ercise and parallel bars. However, for the pommel horse their scores were significantly affected by angle (p < .05). Further analysis revealed that the majority of gymnasts had completed their scissor requirements facing the same direction . Scores were significantly lower for the routines on the two tapes in which the majority of gymnasts had done their scissor work facing the cameras than for the same routines on the other two tapes in which most gymnasts had done scissors with their backs to the cameras. It was concluded that a piece of apparatus which partially restricts the view of judges may influence scores. In men 's and women's gymnastics the men's pommel horse may be the only event where the judges' viewing perspectives may influence scoring.

Momentum Effect. Calkin (1979) has suggested that judges will favor a team which takes a lead in a meet and appears on the way to victory. However, he stated that if gymnasts for a trailing team can perform a series of outstanding routines in an event or two, then there may be a shift in the scoring of the meet by the officials . The judges may reverse their trend and favor the come-from-behind effort.

19

The above phenomenon is also identified as "momentum" and it affects sports other than gymnastics. Spectators are aware of shifts in momentum for a basketball game or football game and what effects this may have on the outcome of the contest.

For a phenomenon which has received so much attention in recent years, it is surprising that there has been no research evidence to sup­port the effects which momentum may have on gymnastics meets. A likely reason for the dearth of research is the difficulty in scientifically manipulating the variable. Until evidence is available for scrutiny, there can be no confirmation that momentum impacts on the objectivity of judging a gymnastics meet.

Electric Event Effect. The performance by a team of a series of extremely well executed routines in an event can lead to what Calkin (1979) called the "electric event effect." According to Calkin, as each gymnast, one after the other, completes his or her skills exceptionally well , an "electric" atmosphere is produced which can lead to overscor­ing by the judges.

Scheer and Ansorge (1980) hinted at the possible existence of this "electric" influence when they wrote about the importance of a team 's consistency in pumping the scores higher for each succeeding gymnast in an event, although both consistency and exceptionally well executed routines would be required to achieve the electric event effect. Any observer of gymnastics can relate to the heightened sense of arousal or anticipation that one feels as a series of exceptional , exciting routines are completed , or to the deflation one feels as such a series is broken by a gymnast who falls or suffers a major error. However, since no research exists to support the idea that judges' scores are influenced by such an effect, these comments represent only speculation .

Pressures Which Influence

Audience or Crowd Effect. Landers (1970) reported that research investigations on judging should be conducted under controlled and semi-controlled conditions without an audience. This suggestion was made because he believed that an audience may influence gymnastics judges. Calkin (1979) indicated that a judge may question his or her own score simply because spectators may have responded very enthusiasti­cally to a routine . In such a situation , judges may feel pressure to give the gymnast an extra one or two tenths of a point to reflect the approval of the spectators to the routine. No research has been completed to determine the effects of a crowd on gymnastics judges, so the degree of possible crowd influence is unknown.

Home Team Effect. A number of writers have noted that the home team qppears to be in an advantageous position . For example, Criley and Biesterfeldt (1980) , in writing about the 1980 NCAA Championships , stated , " Nebraska, with Hartung and Cahoy, and the home gym advan­tage (underlining ours) was a strong favorite ." If a home advantage exists, a number of factors may be responsible. First, judges' scores may be influenced by the crowd effect noted earlier. Second, for most meets most of the judges come from the region of the home team, and Landers (1970) noted that the judges, due to their increased familiarity with home gymnasts, may be influenced by their performance ex­pectancies for those gymnasts. Third, Calkin (1979) stated that gym­nasts frequently perform better at home, thus earning higher scores. In writing about the 1980 NCAA Team Finals, Criley and Biesterfeldt (1980) concurred with this when they said, " Nebraska's team score, 282.075 (9.40 average) was the highest ever recorded (amazing what encouragement a home crowd can give) ." If the home team does, in fact, perform better because they are at home, then judges' scores should be higher than average for the team , and this factor would not be considered an extraneous influence on judges' scores . However, in spite of the opinions expressed above, no research is available to establish the existence of an advantage, or, if it does exist, its degree of influence.

Pressure to Conform Effect. Many judges may feel pressure to be in the "scoring mainstream" in relationship to the other judges in any given competition. In other words, a judge may work very hard to award scores which will be in agreement with the other judges. The extent to which any given judge alters his or her scores, either consciously or sub­consciously, in an attempt to be " in the middle" would reflect the effects of the pressure to conform.

A series of studies have been completed over the past 30 years to determine the objectivity of judging various gymnastics championship meets (Hunsicker & Loken, 1951 ; Faulkner & Loken, 1962; Johnson 1971 ). In each study, the authors equated agreement among judges with objectivity in judging. If there was a high level of agreement among judges, then it was assumed that they were objective ; low agreement

20

indicated a lack of objectivity. However, an open scoring system was used in each of the meets studied , and a high level of agreement among judges in such a situation may not be an indication of objectivity at all , but only an indication of the pressure on judges to conform . in fact , as Sterling and Webb (1969) pointed out, it may be inappropriate to test for objectivity by measuring correlational agreement among judges. They write, "The showing of scores after each performance serves as a feed­back mechanism which reduces the objectivity of scoring but un­doubtedly increases the agreement among judges concerning the placement of routines in rank order." (italics ours)

Landers (1970) noted that gymnastics judges may avoid giving ex­tremely high or low scores, possibly to avoid the uncomfortable task of having to explain their extreme judgments. He further stated that in­experienced judges, in an open scoring system, may be heavily in­fluenced by the pressure to conform. However, such a pressure to con­form may operate even in a closed scoring system, in which all judges' scores are released to coaches and judges after the competition .

It would seem that agreement among judges has become one of the criteria by which judges are evaluated. Individual judges and groups of judges are sometimes heard speaking proudly about only having one or two conferences during a meet, thus indicating their belief that the judg­ing was good because agreement among them was high. Judge some­times calculate the percentage of their scores which are in the middle. This widely held belief would certainly seem capable of producing pres­sure on judges to conform, the result of which would be the avoidance of extreme scores and the failure of judges to discriminate adequately among the various levels of routines they judge. It would appear that the pressure to conform could be an important factor for inexperienced judges, in an open scoring system, and/or judging with well known judges. Instead, some degree of conformity pressure may be present in all judging situations.

Affiliation Effect. Any form of affiliation which a judge may have with a team or gymnast could be a source of influence on the judge. For example , affiliation bias may influence a judge who formerly competed for a university and then judges that school's team. If a high school or club coach judges a university for which some of his or her former gymnasts are competing, a similar form of influence may be possible. A third form of affiliation pressure may be felt by a judge who officiates a meet involving a school where he or she is employed. Regional affilia­tion has also been suggested as a possible biasing factor in national meets. For example, does a judge score the team or teams from his or her region higher?

Landers (1970) cited an unpublished study on Big Ten dual meets in which it was found that home judges scored significantly higher for the home team, and away judges scored higher for the away team. While the exact source of the bias was impossible to pinpoint, it was, nonethe­less, present.

The effects of affiliation on judges' scores could take any of several forms. First, judges' scores could reveal outright cheating for their team or gymnast. The literature, for example, is so full of evidence regarding affiliation bias in international judging as to leave little doubt that cheat­ing exists at the international level. A second, more subtle, form of affiliation bias may be shown by some judges who , without even realiz­ing it, give the team from their home town or region the benefit of most doubts, thus scoring them somewhat higher than other teams. Yet other judges may be resistant to affiliation pressures , showing essentially no bias in the scores they award .

Aggressive Coach Effect. Some coaches have been known to try to pressure judges in a variety of ways . Coaches who show obvious dis­pleasure with judges' scores during a meet may be attempting to in­fluence judges' scores for their gymnasts yet to compete. A few coaches have been known to stand directly behind a judge where they can see the judge's scoresheet as a gymnast competes, possibly hoping to pres­sure the judge into being lenient with his or her deductions. Some judges may be influenced by such pressure tactics from coaches, other judges may be resistant to the influence attempt and may even be influenced in a direction which is opposite to the wishes of the coach .

Expectancy Influences

Personal Appearance Effect. The effects which the personal appearance of a gymnast may have on his or her scores have never been determined in a controlled research investigation. However, there has been some research evidence reported in recent years suggesting that the attractiveness of a student may bias his or her evaluation . Clifford and Waister (1973) found that attractive children were perceived

Technique

•

by teachers to possess a higher IQ, greater educational potential and more interested parents. Dion (1972) reported that college females in a teacher preparation program attributed fewer antisocial traits to attrac­tive children and also perceived unattractive children as being more dishonest and unpleasant than attractive children. Adams and LaVoie (1974) determined that the facial attractiveness of children may have an effect on the expectations which teachers have regarding peer relations, attitudes, and work habits.

Results of these few studies suggest that physical appearance may influence teachers' expectations and perhaps even their assessments of students. If one accepts this premise, then it is pe.rhaps equally likely that some gymnastics judges would allow the physical appearance of an athlete to interfere with his or her objective judgment of that athlete's performance. Maybe such factors as length of hair, facial attractiveness, and appearance of the uniform may affect the objectivity of judging. As suggested by Landers in 1970, controlled research studies are needed to identify if any influence is exerted by personal characteristics of gym­nasts. No such studies have been done in the 1970's, and they are still need.ed.

Reputation Effect. Many gymnastics authorities would say that the reputation which an individual gymnast or a team carries into a competi­tion can significantly influence the scores for that individual or team. Landers (1970) stated, "Although coaches have cautioned judges not to be fooled by the name of the performer, the fact is that judges do not live in a vacuum ; as familiarity with the competitor increases, the tendency for a judge to associate a score or range of scores with a particular gymnast increases." The writers would suggest that this effect of reputa­tion can influence scores of gymnasts who are less well known than the top-scoring individuals within any level of competition. For example, a gymnast who regularly scores 9.0 to 9.2 in an event may develop a reputation for scoring in the low 9's. When this particular gymnast, however, unexpectedly performs the best routine of his or her life, the " low 9's" reputation may prevent him or her from being fully rewarded with a deserved 9.4 or 9.5 score. The same tendency for judges to associate a range of scores with a particular team may have a similar impact on team scores.

However, reputation is probably most noticeable for top, well known gymnasts. In his report on the 1976 Olympics, Criley (1976) said, " ... when I saw 'name' gymnasts getting scores one to three tenths higher than 'unknown' gymnasts following the same mistakes, I couldn't help but feel that the politics were still there. " While no empirical research investigations have been completed regarding the effects of reputation on judges' scores, most observers, nonetheless, believe that reputation , or "developing a name", is an important factor in gymnastics judging.

Within-Team Order Effect. There now is some research support for the hypothesis that scores for gymnasts who appear last within a team order of competition may be artificially enhanced by a clever gymnastics coach. Scheer and Ansorge (1975) and Ansorge,Scheer, Laub and Howard (1978) reported that both male and female gymnasts were at a scoring advantage if they were judged as either the fourth or fifth, rather than the first, competitor for their team. Because of a long established pattern of coaches placing gymnasts in a low to high scoring order, judges apparently expect the quality of the scores to improve throughout each team's order. It was shown in two separate studies, using edited videotapes, that this natural expectation resulted in the biased assess­ment of gymnasts by some judges. The results of both investigations revealed that gymnasts were scored, on the average, from one-tenth io one and one-half tenths of a point higher when they appeared in the fourth or fifth positions for their team than when they appeared as the first competitor. This difference may not seem to be consequential until one considers that even smaller fractions of a point have separated winning and losing in both team and individual competitions.

Suggestions

Some steps should be taken to help judges improve their objectivity of scoring gymnasts. First, there should be an effort to incorporate in­formation presented in this article into materials which are distributed to those individuals who are interested in acquiring judging certification . Second, both the NGJA and the NAWGJ should distribute information regarding potentially biasing influences to the well established or veter­an judges. These individuals as well might be able to improve their evaluation of gymnasts.

The writers believe that further research related to potential influenc­ing factors is needed to improve the objectivity of gymnastics judging. Much of the information presented in this article was based on opinions

Technique

of gymnastics authorities. Carefully designed investigations are neces­sary to determine whether the beliefs expressed by these individuals are tenable. In Table 1 is presented a summary of the influence areas dis­cussed. Of the thirteen areas, only four are supported by research evi­dence. Those areas lacking scientific substantiation should be studied in this decade.

TABLE 1

Gymnastics Research Support for Suggested Influences on Judges

Supportive Research Evidence Effects Yes No

Multiple Session x Subtle Overall Order x Influences Viewing Perspective x

Momentum x Electric Event x Audience or Crowd x

Pressures Home Team x Which Pressure to Conform x Influence Affiliation x

Aggressive Coach x Personal Appearance x

Expectancy Reputation x Influences

Within-Team Order x

References

Adams, G.R., and Lavoie, J.C. The effects of student's sex, conduct , and facial attractiveness on teacher expectancy. Education , 1979, 95(1 ), 76-83.

Ansorge, C.J ., Scheer, J.E., Laub, J ., and Howard, H.J. Bias in judging women's gymnastics induced by expectations of within-team order. Research Quarterly , 1978, 49, 339-405.

Biesterfeldt, H.J . NCAA follow-up. Gymnast , 1975, 17(6), 48-49. Calkin, G.F. Judging effects in men's collegiate judging. International Gymnast, 1979,

21(1), 55. Clifford, M.M., and Waister, E. The effect of physical attractiveness on teacher

expectations . Sociology of Education, 1973, 46, 249-258. Criley, D. NCAA university division viewpoints. Gymnast, 1972, 14(4) , 14-31 . Criley, D. NCAA university division. Gymnast , 16(4) , 18-37. Criley, D. XXI Olympiad-questions, and answers . International Gymnast, 1976, 18(9) ,

10-11 . Criley, 0 . and Biesterfeldt, H.J . 1980 NCAA division I gymnastics championships.

International Gymnast, 1980, 22(6), 19-31 . Dion, K.K. Ph ysical attractiveness and evaluatin of children's transgressions. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 24 , 207-213. Faulkner, J . and Loken, N. Objectivity of judging at the national collegiate athletic

association gymnastic meet : A ten-year follow-up study. Research Quarterly , 1962, 33, 485-486.

Feigley, D.A. Psychological factors in gymnastic judging: Personal feelings about locus of control and susceptibility to external influences. NAWGJ National Newsletter , 1980, 2(3) , 2-4 .

Hunsicker, P. and Loken, N. The objectivity a l judging al the NCAA gymnastic meet. Research Quarterly , 1951 , 22 , 423-426 .

Johnson, M. Objectivity of judging at the national collegiate athletic association gymnastic meet : A twenty-year follow-up study. Research Quarterly, 1971 , 42 , 454-455.

Landers, D.M.A review of research on gymnastic judging. Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation , 1970, 41 (7), 85-88.

Scheer, J .K. Effect of placement in the order of competition on scores of Nebraska high school gymnasts. Research Quarterly, 1973, 44(1) , 79-85 .

Scheer, J .K. and Ansorge, C.J. Effects of viewing perspective. Unpublished study, 1974. Scheer, J .K. and Ansorge, C.J. Effects of naturally induced judges' expectations on the ratings of physical performances. Research Quarterly, 1975, 46, 463-470.

Scheer, J.K. and Ansorge, C.J. Expectations in judging.IG Technical Supplement, 1980, 1(4), T51-T52.

Sterling, l.F. and Webb , R.W. Sco ring behavior al gymnastics judges. Modern Gymnast , 1969, 11(4), 18-19.

Wilson, V. Objectivity, validity, and reliabilit y of gymnastic judging. Research Quarterly, 1976, 47, 169-174.

21

(from page 7) Injuries to NCAA Female Gymnasts 1983-84

Weights Involved Heights Involved

Event Injuries Percent Inju ries to NCAA Female Gymnasts 1983-84 A ll 1 1

Types of Injuries Uneven Bars 28 28

Type Injuries Percent Balance Beam 16 16

Concussion 4 3.88 Condition ing 1 1

Weight (lb) Injur ies Percent Heights (I n.) Injuries Percent Contus ion 11 10.68 Floor Exercise 35 35

3.88 Overuse 90-94.9 2 95-99.9 0

2 58 1 0 59 6

60 100-104 .9 105-109.9 110- 114.9 115-119 9 11 120-124.9 18 125- 129.9 18 130-134.9 15 135-1399 12 140-144.9 145- 149.9 150-154.9

61 62 12 12

11 63 29 29

18 64 14 14 18 65 5 5 15

66 13 13 12

67 6 6 68 2

1 6 100 100

Dislocation Fracture Hyperextension Impingement Synd. Jammed Lacerat ion Ligament Tears Sprain Strain Overuse Unkn own

Totals

100 100

ROV (from page 18)

0.97 Vaul t 11 11

2.91 Warm Up

0.97 Unknown

2.9 1 Totals 100 100 1.94

11 10.68 Ages Involved

21 20.39 Age Injuries Percent 36 34 .95 18 27 27

3.88 19 28 28 1.94 20 15 15

103 100. 21 27 27 22 3 3

100 100

to help our international competitors and to in c rease the qu ality of vau lts in the NCAA final s. I recomm end that we let th e better of two vaults count and that the co mpetito rs be lin ed up in a "py ram id" fashion so that th e meet can be kept moving al ong .

There was much orig in al ity shown in the fina ls. One of the notable events was that of pomm el horse. Dagget's method o f execut ion , Pineda's in cred ible d ismount and a number of Kiesos movements were breath taking . In f loor exercise the double back-fro nt combination as wel l as many oth er moves and sequences showed that our gymnasts are now mov in g in the correct direction . Still rings was a littl e stagn ant except fo r certa in moves such as some hold positions and combinations of them. Vaulting needs work and I w ill comment on that later. Para l lel bars, and especiall y horizontal bar showed some excel lent origina l moves as we ll as sequences .

The ROV max imums could be changed to th e fo llowing : 3/ 10 for Vi rtuosity; 3/ 10 for Risk; 7 /10 fo r 0 rigi nal ity- st ill maintaining a 9.0 base sco re.

We could al low mitigation for vaults w hi ch have more then one twist and more th an two rotations. This sh ould not exceed two to three tenths.

Any residu al t ies in the fin als could be broken by co nsidering how man y of th e judges ac tua ll y mad e separations. In other words if three judges gave one competitor a higher place than another then that competitor might be con sidered to be better.

Finall y , we are ahead of the FIG Intern ati o nal rul es in that our fin als are now tougher than they w ill be fo r th e Olym pi c Games. We required competiti on three rules, a 9.0 base score, and revised vault ing difficulty. We are together, moving forward.

There were only two t ies fo r the first three p laces of all events in th e fi nals: vau lts and rings. Th is was a consid erable con t rast from the 1983 NCAA finals. Further, there were no f irst place ti es.

REFERENCES Th e po int separations were generall y larger showing that

distinct dec isions were being mad e. A recommendati on here is that we should al low a 2/ 10 po int spread between scores o f 9.0 to 10.0.

1. FIG Code of Points . 1979. Edition 2. NGJA Interp retations Book. 1981 3 NGJ A Supplement and Additio ns

1983-1 984

The judges hand led the new system well.

4. T ed Muzyczko "Respons ible Risk " USGF Gymnast ics. May/June. 1982- Paqe 8 FIG . B u llet in - Tables of parts and connections w hich can be awarded by

5. Ted Muzyczko ··Land 01 The Free 6 Home O f The New-ROV USGF Gymnast ics. Sept/Oct. 1982 Pages 8- 13.

Fo r vaultin g we cou ld use 3/ 10 fo r virtuos ity. Further , I reco mmend t hat we use two vaults in du al meet co mpet it ions

PART Ill ( from page 15)

identify any difficulties the gymnast had during the train in g. These problems can be discussed and the athlete can be reassured . Second , the tra iner can learn the subjecti ve way in wh ich the athlete describes the experience and then can incorporate th is information into the

t raining program. Third , based on the ath lete's report , the tra iner po ints out the success which the ath lete is havin g and how th is success w ill lead to improved gymnast ic performance th us improving the gymnast's mot ivat in to contin ue th e pract ice. Caution

N either the relaxat ion response nor t he ski ll s fo r teaching it c an be taug ht by written i nstruct ions . L earning th e

instructins, the p roper phrasing o f the in structions, and descript ion of t he ex per ience require demonstrat ion and practi ce .

22

A numb er of t aped relaxa ti on programs are avai lable. Each of these programs is designed w ith particular users in mind , but some are poorly conce ived for any use. One exce ll ent set o f tapes by Lars- Eric U nestah l of Sweden has been prepared for use by athletes. However, even thi s program needs som e revi sion when app lied to g ymnast s , esp e ciall y young e r gymnasts. The taped programs do not

(Eligibility, from page 6)

E. A deter mi nati on by the Eli gib i lity Committee tha t a gym nast has violated the Eligibi lity Code wil l be review ed by the USGF Execu tive Com mittee. Att e1 rev iew of the entire record 1n the ca se . the Execu ti ve Committee may rever se 01 affirm the Eligibi li ty Committee·s deter­mina tion. If the Executi ve Committee aff irms a finding of a violation. it may (11 instruct the Execut ive Director to im pose the sanction recomm ended by the Eligi­bil ity Committee or any other less severe sanction. or (2) requ est that the Eli gi bili ty Committ ee rec onsider its rec omm ended sanction .

bonus points for Rand 0

teach how to appl y to rela x ation response to ach ieve maximum results once it is learned . In the near future some standardized evaluation of taped programs may be undertaken , but for now coaches, parents, and gymnasts should be cautious in investing time and money in a taped program without knowin g how the prog ram will f it into an overall sport psychology program for the individual athlete.

X REINSTATEME NT A An at hlete declared inelig ible by th e USGF

may apply fo1 rei nstatement to amaleu1 statu s by filing a peti ti on for re instat e ment witl1 the USGF Execu tive Committ ee A peti ti on fo1 rei nsta temen t 111 may not be filed wil hin a yea r of the l1111c ;i

gymnast has first been declared inel1 91-ble . and 12) mus t inc lude a conci se stat e men t of t11c ci1 cu m stances suppor t 11 111

petit ion B. A pet1 t1on fo 1 re1nstatcmcn l sl1al l Ii·

re ferred by Ille Execut ive Comm1lt ee 111 the El1gib il 1l y Committ ee for process1 nq in a 111anne1 si mila r to t11e processing r·f complain ts

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