THE OFFICIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION OF THE UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

Vol. 4, No.1

Printed Material Code of Points for Women 1981 FIG Supplement to the Women's Code of Points 1982 FIG Supplement to the Women's Code of Points USGF Supplement to the Women's Code of Points National Compulsory Routines for Women Women 's Olympic (Elite) Compulsories Women's Elite Compulsory Cassette Tape

USGF Rules and Policies and Elite Program Book for Women Code of Points for Men Jr. Olympic Age Group Compulsory Exercises for Men USGF Jr. Boys Age Group Compulsory Film Men's Olympic (Elite) Compulsories Men's Program Guidelines and Coaching Manual Code of Points for Sponive Rhythmic Gymnastics Rhythmic Compulsory Exercises Reference Set (2 Books) 1) History of the Depanment of the USGF (71) 2) 100 years of International Gymnastics

Federation (1881 -1981) 8 assoned back issues of the USGF Magazine

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~~~ Educational Reference Books! to locate a structure and then manipulate their partner's movement to demonstrate the function. Learning the funda­mentals of anatomy is fun when s t udents use the practical "hands on" method for learning instead of relying on rote mem­orization.

IN PURSUIT OF EXCELLENCE

CHILDREN IN SPORf We ll -known authorities in

the area write about readiness for participation, anatomical and physiologica l concerns , psychological issues , soc ial processes, and the history and future direction of youth sports. In addition to articles reviewing the current state of youth sports research in certain areas, the editors include arti­cles that help bridge the gap between research and practice by prOViding useful guidelines to be applied in the sport set­ting. 1982 • Paper· 327 pp $10.95 -- US & Canada

JOY AND SADNESS IN CHILDREN'S SPORfS

Read what the "experts" have to say about the pros and cons of children's sports, the nature of competition, cutting kids , sandlot vs. organized sports , matching kids for competition, and the role of coaches and par­ents in youth sports . This unique blend of informat ive and entertaining articles by well-known writers and ath­letes, combined w ith extensive introductory and closing com­ments by the editor, helps to focus the reader's attent io n on the key points and to provide an excellent framework for class d iscussion. 1978 • Paper· 375 pp $11.95 -- US & Canada

COACHING YOUNG ATHLETES by Rainer Martens, Ph.D., Robert W. Christina, Ph.D.,John S. Harvey, Jr., M.D., and Brian J. Sharkey, Ph.D.

Becoming a successful coach is what Coaching Young Ath­letes is all about! Readers learn that being successfu l doesn 't just mean winning games; it means helping young athletes to enjoy mastering new skills, to enjoy competing wi th others, and to feel good about them­selves.

1981 • Paper· Illus • 200 pp $12.00 -- US & Canada

Technique

ERGOGENIC AIDS IN SPORf

Are ergogenic aids helpful to athletic performance? What is known about the effects ofvari­ous nutritional, pharmacologi­cal, physiological, psychologi­cal, and mechanical ergogenic aids on performanc'e? In Ergogenic Aids in Sport, well­known authorities report the latest research on 13 common substances or treatments used by athletes today in an effort to gain the "winning edge." 1983 • Hard· 395 pp $23.95 -- US & Canada

LIVING ANATOMY See how fast your students

will learn anatomy w ith this " nontraditional" approach! Through living anatomy stu­dents learn about human move­ment by working with a partner

1982 • Spiral· Illus • 207 pp $13.95 -- US & Canada

PHYSIOWGY OF FITNESS

From students at the military academies to housewives in fit­ness classes, the message is the same: Physiology of Fitness is the most comprehensive, yet easy to use book ever written on the subject. In clear, concise language, Sharkey describes the "hows" and "w hys" of fitness and explains the total fitness concept. 1979 • Paper· Figures • Tables· 430 pp $10.95 -- US & Canada

by 1erry Orlick, Ph.D.

Based on his own experi­ences as an athlete, coach, and sport psychologist , author Terry Orli ck has written an applied sport psychology book used worldwide by students, athletes, and coaches. 1980 • Paper· 326 pp $10.95 -- US & Canada

COACHES' GUIDE m NUTRITION AND WEIGHT CONTROL

Coaches' Guide to Nutrition and Weight Control is not just for coaches! Teachers and stu­dents in fitness and weight con­trol classes will find an abun­dance of information on th e "whys" and "hows" of weight control, muscle fue ling, and hydration . 1982· Paper· Illus· 255 pp $9.95 -- US & Canada

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possible publ icat ion in the fol lowing procedure. First t he artic les are sent to:

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Upon receipt of the article, to the USGF off ice , the research coordinator will review and forward copies to the appropriate USGF Sports Advisory Committee members for rev iew. On receiving the ir review, copies Of the article will go to the Managing Editor and Executive Director for final approval for publicat ion .

If it is necessary for the article to be edited or rev ised in order to improve the effectiveness of communication to a wide variety-level of readers, the author will receive the edited article prior to publishing for their approval.

' If t he article or parts of have been submitted and / or pub l ished by another publication , a complete name and address of the Editor and Pub li cation shou ld accompany the art ic le upon subm ission to the USGF in order to fo ll ow proper procedures of publ ishing and to receive approval to reproduce the art icle in the USGF publication .

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Ed itor, Mike Botk in/ Production Director, Dr . Gerald George/ Educationa l Research Editor.

Un less expressly identified to the contrary , all articles, statements and views printed herein are attributab le solely to the author and the United States Gymnastics Federation expresses no opinion thereon and assumes no_responsib lity therefor.

THE OFFICIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION OF THE UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

Vol. 4 NO.1

Table 01 Contents 5 Editorial Mike Jacki

6 "10.00" Jackie Fie

8 New Skills and Trends Jim Howard

10 The Perfect Connection Kimberli J. Lewis

12 Vaulting Board Analysis

14 Abdominal Strength Dave Hen ley

17 Psychological Profiles Keith Henschen

21 Achieving Maximum Performance

Steven Edwards Richard Gordon Kenneth R avizza

Dan Bernardot Jan Anthony

Technique

USGfII ISlJlTtJRIAL

Learning, A Never Ending Task Learning is the master force behind progress. No

decision can be made , no solution can be envisioned , no hypothesis can be formulated until the approp riate learning has taken place .

Once we stop learning , everything else ceases . We are only as effective as the information we have to work with . The more information we have , the better our background on which to base decisions, solve problems and substantiate theories .

The USGF is pleased to present "Technique", our publication for the students of the sport of gymnastics. "Students" applies to all of us who still have the desire to learn about our sport. Since pro­gress stops when learning ceases , we are all encouraged to continue this vital involvement.

This publication will present valuab le information fo r all of us. The "State of the Art" in research , information , concept and theories will be presented . We sincerely hope all gymnastics coaches , judges, parti c ipants and enthusiasts will support this project and recognize its importance .

We should never ho ld back the advancement of our sport or the talent of our athletes because we have failed in the most fundamental area of progress . .. Iearning .

For the United States Gymnastics Federation,

Mike Jacki

UNITED STATES GYMNASTICS FEDERATION

~~~il~appropria'df' IoII-' >«<f"nI"""""'P pn<tic~ 0 rnpg~ in Ih~ xtin,y

o~ Can YOU

Afford To Be :T. 8tfOl~ direcllr c"",ginl'" '''1 r l''''I'U> ';Q

anl"~ -c~ , ,,, ..s;u.ccd>nd>«wcdpropcrlr 1ndtlu,~,c

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~"""IIiiIt~ti.!"'''':'1 =7"!:!,,O~I~'!'::' ~::"~otnrcltMn"'" nnno. be ROPER SKILl. PRIX>RESSIO:<iS. A We I""ming c"'_· ~, IndudQ I

C u""croundlng 01 ,lie .kill bnng p .. , forMed and fo llo. i "8 p.ope •• kllI ..... -. "'l'>min doubt...J ..... r>con.ult )"OU . inolNnot

~~G BASIC SKIlLS. !We Icuning prKtlCQ dc .... nd I1U$tning baoic okiLb bdo«JIf"ll'",....;njj:'''nc.o.· ....uot mo<cdilli<'uhl ..... ·cb.

9. AlT£){P'J1:-.'G !'IE\!;' A. ... -o:OR DtfFI OJLT SKIllS. Thc .""dlMO.!. 1nd 1bI~'\' I""d 01 the pnfotmn. the """, ... d,h .. , ...... ~nd "'~ rompn<1>C}' 01 "' .. """,.n >II II"N", be uJ,;m tn,oCO<l>JdnOlfon .. h .. n." .. mpunganoo' otdd6cuhmU

10 PROPER lA.."DU"'G TEOI1II1 Q UL S:af~ di,moun .. , '" .. · .. 11 '" unin ... n.iOtl>l '>lb, .equ l ... p<opcr l,andillJl ..... hrliquo No .moun. d "''''iRjl: nn be. , .... ....r ... AHlid landingOtlhnd ur n .... It .... , Co>" "'...,;ou ........... ophlc InjIJrinm.o y .nu'L

Without p o S T E R THESE???

(~et~;.@o&t~ ) ( )

The USGF has Issued the Second in a Series of Safety and Instructional Posters

Dr. Gerald George, Educational Research Editor Says . ..

"On behalf of the United States Gymnastics Federation, I strongly urge all of you to further enrich the safety environment of your gymnastic programs by posting a series of these official safety guidelines in your facilities. Always remember that safety is a fundamental cornerstone to gymnastics success."

Technique

See page 2 for ordering instructions 5

6

By Jackie Fie Women's Technical Committee

Representative to the FIG on behalf of the USGF

y now all avid gymnastic enthusiasts must be aware that the Code of Points is an "objective " set of rules, which B serves as a basis for the "subjective" eval ua­

tion of gymnastic exercises . This set of "evaluation regulations " was written during 1978 and 1979 and became valid in February of 1980. Subsequently, th is 1979 Code was first utilized at the XX II Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980. As decided by the FIG WTC, it will remain in force through the XXI II Olympic Games of 1984 in Los Angeles .

Ha ve the top gymnastics performances outgrown and exceeded the requirements and regu lations of the 1979 Code during it 's five years of va lidity? Is it possible within the conf ines of this Code to distinguish between the levels of perfection that have been accomp·lished? Were the numerous high marks, especial ly the 1810's in the women 's competitions, justified? Let's examine the many influenc ing ·factors and statist ics beginning with 1980, the bi rth year of the 1979 Code on a world level.

In the 1980 Olympic Games with only 8 teams (all from "eastern " countries) and 14 individual compet itors, the mark of 10.00 was already awarded 7 times in the women 's competition as follows:

Competition la Ib II III

Vault 1 Shaposnlkova URSl Ruhn ROM 0 0 Bars 0 2 Gnauck GDR 1 ComaneCl 0

Eberle ROM Beam 1 Comaneci ROM 0 0 0 Floor 0 1 Davydova URS 0 0

Note , however, that only two 10.00's were given for compu lsory exercises which were in their fourth and last year of va lidityl The judges had their first experience applying these new optiona l ru les at a world competition . Th e prestigious Olympic Games cu lmin ated the four year cycle of ath lete readiness and preparation .

In 1981 the four year competitive cycle began again . This was the first year for the new FIG 1981-84 Compulsory Exercises. The top gymnasts were developing new routines. The 1980 junior gymnasts, now seniors, were making their debut. The judges, through courses and practical experience, also had more knowledge of the Code. Of most significance was the fact that 1981 was not a qualification year for the Olympic Games, although the top 10 teams wou ld automatically earn a judge placement on the floor during competit ion 1 a of the 1983 World Championships. It was not a surprise that , out of the 19 teams (135 total participants) , at the XX I World Championships in Moscow, only two 10

Nadia Comanecl waves to the crowd after receiving a perlect 10.00, her first

In the optionalsat the 1976 Olympics in Montreal. (photo by Tom Salvas)

point exercises were performed , one by the All Around champion Bicherova on vault in competition two, and one by Maxi Gnauck on bars in competition three.

Then came Budapest in 1983. The 1979 Code had now been in force for optionals for four years . The exercises were consequently better constructed to fulfi ll the requirements . Th e level of difficulty had increased markedl y , especially among the middle teams. The scores of these middle teams , performing in seeded order based upon compulsory performance , served to push the scores of the best teams to unparalled heights . For the top exercises , there were often no marks left except 10.00 1

qualification for the 1984 Olympic T o add to the tension , this was the

Games for both team and individual. The fiercest competition was among the middle

teams, since only twe lve would qualify. During the World Championships prior to the Olympic Games there exists an enormous pressure , a stained atmosphere, rivaled only by the Olympic Games itself . Here the world team rankings , as well as qualifications are determined after Competition la & lb . Th e AII­Around (Competition II ) and Event Finals (Compet ition III ) establish the world champions and resulting world ratings with reputations being strengthened or weakend for the forthcoming Olympic Games.

The World Championship is not just an invitational. Each team spends tens of thousands of dollars to travel there and attempt qualification . Many National Olympic Committees base future funding allocations on team

Technique

and individua l placement . Many sponsorships are won or lost at thi s competi tion . For man y teams it is a matter of program survival in future yea rs. Occasionall y, an NOC due to budgetary co ncerns for all sports, will disapprove it 's team 's part icipation in the Olympic Games, even if qualified , when a pre­determined placement is not met.

Given todays concept of what is the "ideal", that is physically possible within the limits of the body, the apparatus, and the strict rule interpretation, very few gymnasts, if any, are "perfect."

Often officials, trainers , coaches , and judges are evaluated by their respective federations as to th eir effectiveness, ability to abide by the rules , as well as accomplish the maximum possible for their own team through training , performance , strategy, and influence.

All of these factors co ntribute to the esca lation of scores as occurred at the XX II World Championships in Budapest, where a record 28 teams (a total of 176 competitors) took part. The perfect mark of 10.00 points was awarded 18 times during the women 's competition with the following distribution:

Competition la Ib II III Vault 0 4 Ba rba lala AD M 3 Yu rtchenko 0

Yurlchenko UAS Mostepanova Bicherova URS Szabo Mostepanova URS

Bars 0 3 Gnauck GO A 1 G nauck 1 Gnauck Agache ADM Szabo ROM

Beam 0 1 Yu rlchenko URS 0 0 Floor 0 1 Szabo ROM 2 Yurtchenko 2 Szabo

Szabo Mastepanova

It is of interest to note that no "10s" were awarded in the compulsory program , which had now been performed over a three yea r period. Imperfec tions in compulsories are quite readily seen and th erefo re compu lsory perfection in comparison to the " known limits of achieve ment" is more difficult to obtain . The compu lsories are always judged w ith less leniency , than optionals.

Nine of these perfect marks were awa rded during the hotl y contested optional team competition (Ib) , five in competition II , and only three in Competit ion III.

A summation of the outside forces brought to bear on the judging situa­tion has been exam ined . Now let us treat the judging and app licat ion of the Code itse lf ,

influenced by the philosophy of the FIG . Th e FIG Statutes encourage participation of all

member federations in the World Championships by estab li shin g open entry regulations with only the recommendation that an average score of 8.50 be achievable by the team or individual participant . Hence , the difficulty requirements for the team competit ion Ib are not set very hi gh in comparison to those difficulty requirements for Competition II and III.

For examp le, in Compet ition Ib : a. an impeccable exerc ise with 1 "C" , 3 " Bs" , 6 " As "

and one extra " CR" with OV (origina l value) gives a starting score of 10.00 points, and

b. a faultless exerc ise that fulfills the difficulty requirements of Compet ition III with 3 "Cs" (possib ly even 2 of which are "CRs" ), 2 " Bs ", and 2 "As " and fu ll Bonus (ROC) also starts from 10.00 points.

A we ll performed exercise, as in examp le a will cause

Technique

escalation of scores for impressive exerc ises as in examp le b . The current diffi cu lty, compos itional, virtuosity , and execution requirements and accepted trends do not allow for su ffici en t differentiation between th e various levels of performance. Thus the " bunching " of scores and the tendency to have "no where to go" . Yes , the gymnasts have exceeded the requirements of today's Code of Points , in particular , as evidenced by the len ient interpretation of man y of the faults and penalties , as recorded or not recorded by num erous international judges.

Given todays concept of what is the " ideal " , that is physically possible within the lim its of the body, the apparatu s, and strict rule interpretat ion, very few gymnasts, if any are " perfect" . If all deductions for even the slightest fault in compos ition , execution , or virtuos ity were taken , virtually no gymnast should receive a score of 10.00 points. At times it would seem desirable to be ab le to score in hundredths , such as awarding a 9.65 instead of deciding between 9.60 or 9.70. Thi s would better differentiate between the performances and be feasib le in th e age of computer scor ing . Seating 6 judges on a panel , and averaging the middle four sco res , wou ld in some way help to better rank the gymnasts , eliminating ties, even though the point differences would be very sma ll.

All judg es selected for World Championships should be frequently exposed to the "world 's best " . They shou ld con tinuall y study film s especially after major world level compet iti ons , analyzing execut ion and composition in order to supplement or re-adjust their "idea l" or "max" concept in line with what is currently possible.

Ideal ly the rules demanded by the Code of Points and their interpretation should be app lied uniformly by all judges to all gymnasts irrespective of. . .

i. the ind ividual and her previous compet iti ve record and reputation , and

ii . the team and its previous co mpetitve record and reputation , rank position compared to their own team , and relationsh ip politically to their federation .

Let the judges be influenced or motivated not by the scores , but rather by the performances of the gymnasts, who have devoted years to the development of their exercises . It is of most importance that the best gymnasts are ranked properly , not that the best gymnasts receive 10.00 points. " Best " and " 10.00" are not synonomous .

I n the 1984 Olympic Games , sim ilar forces and tensions wil l affec t th e evaluat ion of the competit ion . Strict applicat ion of the Code can be emphasized

during the Judges' Course prior to the competit ion through lecture and practica l evaluation . But what actua ll y happens during the competition is again the "sub ject ive " appli cat ion o f the "ob ject ive " set of rules.

T he next Code of Points , effect ive for 1985 and after , has already been through its final draft . Will it direct , influence and change the trends in gymnastic

composition and execution and its resulting eva luat ion ? Hopefu ll y, it will encou rage: 1) development and progress in the gymnastic elements, as well as the acrobatic elements , especia ll y in combina tion , 2) the uniform app lication of precise and spec if ic penalties for compos ition and execution , 3) the appropriate rewarding of unique and original combi nation s and elements o f not only "C" and " CA" value , and 4) th e proper apprec iat ion of th e elegant , faultless , and truly virtuous performan ce.

7

8

New Skills, Trends In Men's GYITlnastics Events

By Jim Howard University of Nebraska

Pommel Horse

U until recently , the pommel horse event was not real popular with your average gymnastics fan . Although pommel horse routines are escalating in the difficulty of skills being

performed, they lack a dimension that would make that event exciting for the spectator. The thought of doing a handstand on the pommel horse seems, at first, to be gymnastically incorrect. Handstand positions are usually achieved through forward and backward pendular swing or strength , both of which are foreign to pommel horse.

The basic swing on pommel horse is circular in nature, so how do you change angular momentum into an upward direction leading to a handstand? Mechanically, several things should occur:

1. The gymnast's hips should counter-rotate in the front half more sharply than they would in the normal execution of a double leg circle.

2. Right hand placement (clockwise circle) should be much faster than in a normal double leg circle.

3. If the above hand-placement is correct, the gymnast's hips should begin to rise (pike) before swinging through a front support.

4. The shoulders should remain well forward during the first phase of the swing to handstand.

For most gymnasts the handstand skill is first learned as a dismount and is executed from a "flair" circle. The " flair" circle tends to have a more severe counter­rotation due to the downward force of the left leg (clockwise circle). The wide straddle in a " flair" circle makes it easier to elevate the hips , much the same as it's easier to execute a straddle press versus a pike press.

To increase the difficulty of this skill , the gymnast need only change the circle position , i.e. double leg circle with a straddle up to handstand or double leg circle and pike up to a handstand. Another means of escalating the difficulty of the pommel horse handstand is to have the gymnast work down from the handstand into another skill. This is extremely difficult to perform without breaking rhythm or hitting the horse.

The last skill to radically influence pommel horse work was the "flair" . . . although not an event requirement, it quickly became so popular it was expected in order to score well. The handstand skills are growing so popular, so fast, they are close to becoming an event requirement.

Parallel Bars

-'" u ~ CD Ql > OJ o "

T co

he "Giant swing " and "Healy spin " are 0>

notrecent innovations to parallel bars, but are just ~ now being performed by a considerable number .2 of gymnasts of various skill levels. Variations a.

of these skills are beginning to be developed so it ~ would be worth while to take a look at the basic ~ mechanics of these two skills .

Ideally, the parall el bar giant swing begins from a handstand position . The initial swing or " bail " from the handstand sho uld be very straight and the body should be firm throughout. This "bail " could be compared to the technique used to execute a horizontal bar type " bail " on rings . The body should stay stretched as long as possible. Unless you are an extremely short gymnast, the knees should flex prior to swinging through bottom. There is a slight " topping " action prior to the bottom of the swing which is an arching of the chest and shoulders. This "tap" should be executed as late as possible, similar to a " tap" for a fly-a-way recatch on horizontal bar. An early "tap" will make the turnover more difficult. The " tapping" position (chest arch) should be held well past the bottom making the initiation of the turn over as late as possible.

The turnover begins by decreasing the shoulder and hip angle. In slow motion , this looks like the gymnast is going from an arched hang to a tucked inverted hang. The chest should remain down or hollow throughout the turnover. Very simply turnover, then pull up. This aspect of the giant swing is similar to the turnover and pull-up technique used to execute a " locked" arm shoot on rings.

If all of the aforementioned mechanics are adhered to , the gymnast should be able to maintain a firm grip. Easier said than done! The Japanese gymnast, Gushiken, swings around to an "eagle" grip!!

Giant to" handstand on the end of the p arallel bars!

Technique

The teach ing progression goes something like this: 1. Long hang swings under the bars. 2. Long hang swing and turnover (tucked "skin the

cat" ). 3. Long hang swing and turnover, elevating the

shoulders (tucked fly-a-way , hanging on as long as possible).

4. Repeat #1 , #2, and #3 , starting in a support swing execut ing a " baby bail" .

5. When #1, #2, and #3, can be executed from a horizontal "bail ", the gymnast is ready to complete the giant swing ending in a straight arm support. At this point, an overhead belt is used to assist the gymnast in arriving in the support pos it ion.

Two teach ing hints that I might suggest wou ld be: (1) work with over-rotation in mind and (2) regrasp w ith locked arms, hands behind shoulders.

The "Healy" spin is not a new ski l l, it was reported in sequence photos in the November 1964 issue of Modern Gymnast! The skil l is just now becom ing popular, probably because it's now being performed by a few world-c lass gymnasts. Everyone wants to copy a world champion, no one wants to imitate a "rookie" even if he did orig inate the trick!

The "Hea ly" spin is the reverse of a Diamidov, which basically is a full turn on one arm. Mechanically the "Healy" is more difficu lt because the gymnast is swing ing down from a handstand , therefore tends to accelerate. Second ly, to reg rasp in stra ight arm support is somewhat blind, similar to a back stutz.

Mechan ically, the skil l begins as a swinging forward pirouette. As the weight shifts over the shou lder of the support arm , the turn (sp in) is initiated by extending from the shoulder. This extension should be re lative ly late in the swing, as an ear ly extens ion w ill slow the swing and prevent the center of gravity from passing over the supporting shou lder. Most of the mechan ica l emphasis shou ld be placed on keep ing the gymnast's weight balanced over the support arm as the body descends from the handstand. The body position during the downward swing should be somewhat sideways, similar to that of an upward stutz swing. Regrasp of the bar should be prior to the hips passing through the bottom of the swing. The earli er, the better! The body position at the moment of reg rasp shou ld be one in wh ich the shoulders are sl ight ly behind the hands, chest is down and the hips are f irm and stra ight. Ideal ly, this position should simu late the downward­backward port ion of a good cross support swing.

Thi s ski ll should f irst be practiced from a pirouetti ng motion on the f loor with soft mats for the body to land on. The next step is to practice the "spin" on a low set of para llel bars w ith a coac h slid ing a mat on top of the ra il s as the gymnast begins the downward portion of the sk il l. As the gymnast becomes more prof icient in his execution, a mat can be held under the rai ls to slow the le'gs as the downward swing is comp leted .

Floor Exercise

W ith advent of the spring and foam f loors, we are see ing male and fema le gymnasts executing ski lls that were at one time witnessed on ly in the world of div ing and

trampol ining . These skil ls are the tw isi ng, mu ltip le somersaults. The first of these ski lls to be executed on floor was the "fu ll - in" variety of twisting double-back somersault. This sk i ll saw the gymnast initiate two rotat ions at the same time, One somersau lting and one tw isting . If executed proper ly, this poses no problem, but, if the twist is initiated too early, somersau lt ing

Technique

rotation wil l be slowed mak ing the second half of the doub le-back more difficu lt.

More recently, we are seeing gymnasts perform the "ful l-out" var iety of the ful l-twist ing doub le-back somersault. Th is technique requires the gymnast to initiate a strong backward rotation and then use some of that momentum to init iate a twist in the second half of the doub le-back somersault.

Regard less of the technique se lected to use in perform ing a fu ll-twist ing double, the gymnasts prime object ive is to initiate strong backward rotat ion , To help achieve this objective, here are some mechan ics the gymnast and coach shou ld emphasize:

1.Speed, accelerate through the round-off, back handspring,

2.00 not over block the back handspring. 3.Before the feet leave the f loor, the arms and

chest shou ld be stretched past verticle , this wou ld be an idea l posit ion from wh ich to generate maximum pos it ive rotat ion .

If the ski ll is a "fu ll -in " tucked, the knees shou ld come up into the di rect ion of rotation very qu ickly and ma intain constant pressure throughout the execut ion of the sk ill. "Constant pressure" simp ly means the body should maintain the same tuck posit ion unt il t he sk ill is completed .

The "fu ll -in" executed in the pike posit ion presents a l itt le diff icu lt skil l execution. The take-off positio n for both tuck and pike "fu ll - ins" is the same. As the gymnast init iates the twist, there shou ld be a tota l body pressure exerted in the rotatio nal d irect ions, somersaul t and twist. The body is in a longer position so it is mechan ica lly advantageous to comp lete or "square" the twist before turning the last portion of the doub le somerault. Somersau lt ing before complet ing the twist causes the gymnast to rotate at an ag le to his somersau lti ng ax is or more simply stated, there wi ll be a "wobble in your f li p" ! To prevent the "wobble," do not drop the arms down to the legs to ach ieve the pike position until the tw ist has been comp leted.

The late tw isti ng double back or "fu ll -out" technique is the most recen t va ri at ion be ing performed by we ll ­sk illed gymnasts. If I had to pin-point a single phys ical characteristic that al lows a gymnast to perform the " full -out" it wou ld be total body qu ickness, The "full ­out" accelerates at the initiati on of the ski ll, whereas, the " fu ll -i n" demonstrates an acce ll eration in the fin al phase due to the c losing of the turn ing rad ius.

The take-off position wou ld be the same as the prev ious two sk ill s, but the knees and feet shou ld come up into the rotat ion much qu icker, As the body beg ins the first rotat ion, the arms w ill shorten, but the hands should not drop below shou lder level. A ll body parts should exert pressure in the direction of the somersau lt. The twist shou ld be in itiated not earlier than 1 V. rotat ion and not later than 1 Y2 rotat ions . At the moment the tw ist is started, it is very important that the head be neutra l and al l body parts should exert pressure in the tw isting direct ion, My personal coach ing advise to the gymnast is to ini t iate the tw ist with the knees, not the shou lders as in a stra ight body tw ist. Because of the many angles in the tuck position, tota l body pressure is an absolute necessity, If one-ha lf of the body re laxes as the other half initi ates a tw ist, the opposite half wi ll slow down or twist in the opposite d irect ion. Newton did it to us again!!!

From a learn ing standpo int, there is one prereq uisite sk ill the coach shou ld contin ually stress, That is, the "open" tuck and "open" pike doub le-back somersaul ts. More than anything, these ski lls teach the gymnast to in it iate qu ick rotation and mainta in constant body pressure throughout two somersau lts.

9

Dance And Gvmnastics The Ultimate Connection

By Kimberli J. Lewis

B ecause both dance and athletics are based on human movement , the rational that dancers are really athletes and athletes are really special ki nds of dancers, is not new to any observer of

both activities (Pruett, 1981 , p. 27). What better example of this statement can be found than

in the sport of gymnastics which developed through the desire of humans to move, to dance. The movements of gymnastics evolved through ancestral motions of dance, the two often being referred to as gymnastics-dance or dance-gymnastics . Then what occurred?

While the two continued to develop, this development was performed in isolation. Dance excelled ; and those who wanted to dance became dancers. Gymnastics excelled ; and those who followed that path became gymnasts. Soon each had its separate identity.

Today in a world of high-risk sport , many gymnasts and coaches find themselves peering over their shoulders toward the origins of their sport-human movement­primitively recognized as dance. Although dance is thought of in a sophisticated manner, its foundations are based on a wholistic body discipline which provides the unique body/ mind connection often found lacking in gymnastics training.

'Gymnastics is not only a sport but also an art of body expression.'

Gymnastics is not only a sport but also an art of body expression which requires exceptional form. This expression and form is becoming increasingly important in competition , and gymnasts who have reached this height in skill level often find this is the differentiating factor which separates them from other gymnasts in competition. But how can our gymnasts be taught the art of expression and form?

Dance provides the fundamental learning skills which increases the body's capabilities in logical order; yet many gymnasts are not being trained in dance. Current literature on gymnastics often provides coaches and gymnasts with basic dance warmups to be used , but th is is not incorporating dance training into the program.

Coaches require a conceptual understanding of dance content and how this can enhance the gymnastics skill. Dance training must become an integral part of a gymnastics training program , as noted in many of the United States ' gymnastics competitors training programs and even national programs.

Here, gymnasts are not only drilled in dance skills but are also trained in the philosophy of dance technique. Americans have stood in the shadow too long. After sporadic flourishes of interest, the issue of dance training often fades like sunbleached clothing; but the time has come where coaches will be required to make a commitment to dance in order to remove themselves from that shadow.

10

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With an increased number of skilled gymnasts and a more concentrated understanding of biomechanics, it is vital to perfect expression and execution as well as skill. Virtuosity , the ultimate in body discipline as well as expression and execution, are valuable components of gymnastics which can be improved through dance training . Becaus~ these components are related directly to a skill, gymnasts of any level can increase performance by improving execution and virtuosity. Dance improves virtuosity through building a mind/ body connection, and helps to improve execution through improving balance, spacial range of movement, fluidity of movement and movement control.

B alance errors in gymnastics are frequent, evident and often unnecessary. Balance, basically the ability to maintain equilibrium, is a concern to both the dancer and the gymnast

and can be improved through proper dance training. Gymnasts who decrease balance errors through constant repetition of routines can enhance balance performance through appropriate dance technique training. Various techniques help the gymnast build a conceptual understanding of body parts and their roles in maintaining equilibrium, as well as the entire body's relation to gravity.

Such training perfects balance skills and, through drills, defines the laws of gravity and how these affect equilibrium. As gymnasts increase the understanding of body parts , the ability to maintain equilibrium increases spacial range of movement, and in turn, performance.

Spacial range of movement refers to the ability to initiate

Elena Davydova, URS

Technique

•

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and complete a movement to its fullest , i.e. within the physical limitations of the body, and to utilize the maximum kinespheric space available to that movement. This is a combination of two elements-the range of movement which can be increased through flexibility training and spacial awareness which results from an, understanding of movement. Proper dance training provides flexibility training while increasing the intellectual understanding of movement. This physical conditioning and intellectual comprehension improves gymnastics performance ; but the ultimate in performance can be achieved only through a combination of balance, spacial range with fluidity and overall movement control.

'Fluidity of movement is the continuous successful motion throughout a movement. '

Fluidity of movement is the continuous successfu l motion throughout a movement, often observed as gracefulness, and giving an aesthetically pleasing quality to movement. Even the most dynamic movements must contain a fluid base if they are to transcend smoothly into the next movement. Gymnasts often lack fluidity , such movements at times appearing discontinuous, disjointed and containing unnecessary pauses and stops. Fluidity is found in the lyrical combinations of dance. The constant success of motion is practiced during dance training ; yet this successive motion often is overlooked in gymnastics training.

Fluidity of movement can be mastered only through time as gymnasts gain better balance , spacial range and movement control. It is a myth gymnasts gain only at the risk of faulty execution . The two elements go hand-in-

Technique

hand-the improvement of one can only help , not hinder, the other . .

Overall movement control is the final step in gymnastics performance-often the ultimate extra which officials call virtuosity. The control of movement has its base in understanding the functions of muscles and the ability to master individual mu scles in isolation . In dance training , gymnasts become aware of errors in movement control and learn the appropriate use of muscles . Exercises increase not only isolation of the muscles but also strength. "The gymnast who maintains a good tight body through isometric concentration will always make it tough for a judge to deduct faulty execution", (Oldham, 1978, p. 75) . Maintaining this good tight body through isometric contraction can result only through increased body awareness, muscle control and muscle strength gained through a dance training program yet lacking in a gymnastics training program .

Dance training has more to offer gymnasts than series of choreographic steps to include in beam or floor exercise routines , but it is dependent upon gymnasts, coaches and officials to extricate themselves from their rigid parameters established over time and review their priorities to incorporate dance training into their gymnastics preparation . To make this economically feasible , educators must include dance training in their own formal preparation , thus extending individual capabilities as well. The onl y question left to answer is "when?"

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Oldham. S. " Tig ht Body Control Concept in Gymnastics." Scholastic Coach. March 1978, 47, pp . 75-76 .

Pruett, D.M. "Athle tes and Dancers-T rai ning and Moving Together". Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance , May 1981 , pp. 27-28 .

Pruett, D.M. "Bal let for Divers", Journal of Physical Education , Recreation and Dance, May 1981 , pp. 35-37 .

11

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Editor's Note: This report was submitted 1982 to FIG by Jackie FIe, Project CoordInator, FIG-WTC member.

T he study of the vaulting boards has brought to light many very interesting results. The hypothesis was proven and very strongly substantiated . This study allowed for further evaluations and

additional observations to be made. Let us first present the hypothesis, release the data, summarize, and evaluate.

HYPOTHESIS:

W ood vaulting boards do not provide the most essential characteristics required of a piece of gymnastics apparatus, i.e. : first , that the apparatus be safe and durable,

therefore dependable, and second , that the apparatus provides skill performance facilitation , and third, that composite type vaulting boards (those made of synthetic materials) such as fiberglas , steels, aluminums, p lastics, and other such materials) will be superior in both criterias.

Therefore, composite boards should be the only apparatus all owed to be used in world class gymnastics competition .

THE TEST:

I n order to eval uate the performance characteristics , a test was devised to record specific properties of vaulting boards. It was determined that since a vaulting board is a propelling or rebounding device,

that the most significant feature of the board would be how much force the board will provide given a specific in put force . The coeffic ient of rest itution or the measure of res iliency of the board was determined. This was done using a n umber of boards.

The final results show three boards evaluated. The boards listed as A and B were reuther style wood vaulting boards. The board listed C was a composite style vaulting board constructed primarily of steel base with a fiberglas spring system . The boards were completely compressed and the number of compressions (cycles) were counted . The coefficient of restitution was measured and determined after similar intervals on all boards . Rather than dealing w ith percentages, whole numbers were used w ith a base of 100 being set. The fact that the composite board was more resilient to begin with was not taken into the results . All boards were started with a base of 100. It should be ment ioned that almost all wooden style boards will have variations in the restitution prior to the first compressions due to the very nature of differing wood characterist ics . Th is is not true with composite type boards.

The coefficient of resitution is given by the formula: C of R = V Out

V In Where this is a comparison of the velocity of an object as

it makes contact with another object as compared to the

ve loc ity of the same object as it leaves the contact object . .. otherwise stated , the entry velocity as compared to the exit veloc ity. This is an appropriate re lationship to evaluate, since it can be assum ed that a perfect vaulting board would provide the same velocity from the board as the gymnast provides upon contact with the board .

Also , it should be mentioned again for clarification , that the absolute resiliency of each board is not being compared . Th e resiliency of different boards with prolonged use is the subject for comparison.

Each board was subjected to compressions and measurements of the C of R were taken at 500, 1,000 , 1,500, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000,5 ,000, 7,500,9,000, 10,000 , and 12 ,000 cycles respectively. The same test procedure in a controlled situation were utilized throughout .

APPENDIX A

RESULTS OF RESTING:

The measurement of the coefficient of restitution is a determination of the relationship between the entry velocity as compared to the exit velocity-C of R = V Exit

V Entry

Rather than comparing the boards directly, the standard was set using a base of 100. Th e difference in the C of R was compared after compressions were completed on each board, to see if use and fat igue entered into the consideration.

It is mentioned again that the board listed as Board C has a much higher initial coefficient of resitution and also a greater distance of force applicat ion . Therefore, its performance characteristics are substantially higher from the start.

The two boards listed as Board A and Board Bare standard wooden reuther type boards. Board C is a new­type composite board with a suspension system made up of a sol id fiberglas spring .

Us ing a tolerance of about one percent, there was no significant change to Board C at all during the cycles from one to 12,000. Any change would be listed once the board changed from the base of 100 to any number below 99.

Compressions were rapid and complete. The board would undergo simulated force appropriate to its intended use.

BOARD A

CYCLES 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 75009000 10,000 12,000 Coeffi c ient of Restitution (base-100)

96 93 90 97 86 85 84 82 81 90 78

BOARD B CYCLES 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 7500 9000 10,000 12,000 Coeffi c ient of Restitu tion (base-100)

97 94 91 89 87 86 85 83 82 81 79

BOARD C CYCLES 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 75009000 10,000 12,000 Coefficient of Restitution (Base-100)

NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV

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(

DATA ANALYSIS:

As we look at the data that was obta ined , we see a stead il y diminishing C of R for both boards A and B. At the same time, we also see that these results are not exactly the same, even though the two boards are made by the same manufacturer and are listed as the same product. In the case of Board C, we see the results show no variance. This means that there was essentially no difference between the C of R starti ng with a base of 100, at zero cycles (initial test), and 500 through 12,000 cycles. The tolerance used was one unit out of 100 or a one percent variance allowed.

DATA EVALUATION:

After the results were tabulated , some important deductions were made:

1. It is obvious from the results that the wooden boards have a lower C of R than the composite boards.

2. The coefficient of restitution decreases more abruptly with a wooden board , as compared to a composite board. The greatest decrease occurs in the early use of the board and continues to decrease with repeated use.

3. Through photographic analysis, it is evidence that the wooden boards not only have internal changes during use, but also external changes . The fact is that when secured , and jumped on, a wooden board will in fact move backwards. This is not true with the use of a steel frame board.

4. Different wood boards will react differently under stress and there is virtually no consistency of performance from one wood board to another. However, this is not true with the composite boards, of the same design from the same manufacturer, where these two different boards will also have exact features and performance profiles.

5. The wood boards are much more susceptible to fatigue than the composite boards. This affects durability, performance, and safety.

The above results support the determination that a composite board will be more consistent in performance , provide better elasticity and restitution , and will resist fatigue.

SEE CHART-APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

VAULTING BOARD CHARACTERISTIC COMPARISON

BOARD C

Fiberglas Spring No external board movement Tilted spring-pivot. to accomodate contact variations High etasticity coefficient High restitution coefficient High resistance to fatigue High consistency of deflection Greater distance of force application Greater impulse velocity""

"" "Described in results and analysis

BOARD A & BOARD B

Woodleaf spring External board movement No accomodating spring position changes Low elasticity coefficient Low restitution coefficien t Low resistance to fatique Low consistency of deflection Lesser distance of force application

Lesser impulse velocity

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS:

It has been observed and determined that the coefficient of restitution decreases during the use of the wooden vaulting boards. It can be assumed that this same effect will take place during the time span from the start of training and during the entire length of competition of a world class gymnastics event such as the World Championships or the Olympic Games. Since there is a

Technique

steadi ly decreasing C of R with the greatest changes being seen in the initial phases, the greatest effect will be on those vaults held during the Finals, when the C of R is approaching its lowest point.

The effect on the vault is determined through the investigation of the impulse force. The impulse force is essentia lly the force the gymnast derives from the run and the jump off the board. This is the force and energy that is utilized by the gymnast to perform the vault. We know the impulse force formula to be:

I = Force X Time To maximize the impulse force , we would maximize the force over the greatest period of time. Therefore,

I Max = F Max X T Max Using figures, for an example, with a force of five hundred pounds over a one second time period-

I = 500 X 1 = 500 Now, in the case of the vaulting boards, we know that if the coeff icient of restitution goes up, the time on the vaulting board will decrease. This is to the advantage of the gymnast when determining the impulse force . The fact is that because of the reactivity of muscle tissue, as the time span decreases, the athlete is able to generate greater amounts of force for shorter time intervals. So, instead of creati ng five hundred pounds of force during the board time of one second , as the time factor is cut by one half second, we find the athlete can then generate one thousand two hundred pounds of force . Inserting the equation,

1 = 1,200 X .5 = 600 Thus , the gymnast, during the shorter duration has

acquired a greater impulse force and has more power and energy to perform the vault. This is in itself the most important reason for the vaulting board to have a high coefficient of restitution and a more important reason that it remain constant and unchanged throughout the duration of the competition.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION:

It should be the concern of the 'gymnastics federations' that the apparatus is always preceding the athlete in terms of performance. If the athlete can out-perform the equipment , two results are probable-one is poor performance and the other is the possibility of injury.

The 'gymnastics committee' has attempted to concern itself with addressing this problem by allowing the advancing technologies to be introduced, tested, and approved where the criteria were determined to be appropriate. The vaulting board issue is now at a critical stage and action is necessary in order to remain consistent with the purpose of apparatus modifications, i.e. , safety and skill / performance facilitation .

As shown in the results, the wood boards performed below the standards necessary for world class competition. The nature of the materials brings about inherent problems in terms of durability, consistency, and homgeneity. New high technologies and the newer sophisticated materials eliminate these problems while, at the same time, introduce much higher performance standards.

The coefficient of restitution tests are the strong basis for the eva luation . Other such tests need to be developed and the testing procedures must become an integral part of apparatus modification evaluation.

The final determination is accurately stated in the comparison of wood , and its characteristics, as opposed to new synthetic materials. The wooden spring system contains certain properties inherent to its composition that are inappropriate and unsuitable for its use. The fact

(see Vaulting, page 19)

13

Abdominal Strength Linked With Better Performance

s By Dave Henley

Oklahoma State University

uccess in completion of many movements performed by a gymnast depends on the strength of the abdomina l area. Many times slow rotation or lack of rotat ion in tumb ling

or vaulting can be traced to abdom inal weak ness. This can also be seen through an inabi lity to hold body positions necessary for circling movements around the bar.

The abdominal muscles connect and help coordinate movements of the upper and lower body. Decreased strength in these muscles can lim it sk ill execution and even cause lower back injury.

Rotat ion of the body comes from a sequence of muscular contract ions of different body parts. A weak area in the sequence causes one or more body parts to compensate, causing poor execut ion of a ski ll. Increasing the strength of the weak body part can restore the muscular ba lance needed for effective movement coordi nation.

There are many abdominal exercises which wi ll streng then the abdominal area. The traditional situp is a good exerc ise. Leg ra ises are another classic exercise, but sometimes causes lower back injury.

Each musc le has two places for attachment. The abdom inal muscles connect at the upper portion of the rib cage and at the pubic bone. When the abdom ina l muscles contract, the direct ion of body movement depends on which end of the muscle is stabi lized . For instance, if the hips are stab il ized , as in situps, the shou lders will move forward. If the shoulders are immovable, the hips w ill rise. The abdominal muscles also act to jo in the upper and lower body together as one un it.

Exercises wh ich strengthen the abdominals shou ld be bas ic and fo ll ow the natural movement patterns of the muscle. The abdominal muscles react the same as any other musc le to stress. Over 15 repet itions per set wi ll not show any sign ificant strength gains. Increasing the amount of sets will be more beneficial. The descript ion of the fo ll owing three exercises and

(Photo 1)

14

prog ressions wil l enable the gymnast to strengthen the abdominal musc les without risking back injury. Once the gymnast has attained the strength to perform these exercises correct ly many other exercises can be safe ly administered .

The sit up strengthens the abdom ina ls for a forward pull ing act ion . To prepare for the situp, the gymnast shou ld l ie on the back with the knees bent at a 45 degree angle. (Photo 1) The feet should remain in the f loor but not supported to eliminate muscu lar assistance from the legs. The arms shou ld be held across the chest and the lower back pressed down to the f loor.

Performing the situp beg ins by li fting the chin to the chest and curling the upper body to an upright sitting position . (Photo 2) When return ing to the beginning position the action is reversed mak ing sure the back does not arch. When three sets of 15 can be performed correct ly more resistance will need to be added . Resistance can be increased by placing the arms behind the head. The arms shou ld not be used to help the body get started. Even more res istance ca n be added by placing a pole beh ind the head and grasp ing it with a wide grip. (Photo 3) Twisting to both sides can be added to strengthen the accessory muscles of the abdomen. The twists should in itiate from the starting position .

When three sets of 15 repetitions can be performed correctly , the situp can be performed by allowing the shoulders to hang off the end of a bench. (Photos 4 & 5) The arms should be crossed over the chest and the feet secured . The knees should be bent to a 45 degree angle which el iminates assistance from the leg muscles. To perform the situp, the shoulders shou ld drop down below the bench level and then return to a sitting pos ition by curling up as in the bas ic situp. Th is exercise should only be used after sufficient abdominal strength is achieved through the previous situp exerc ises .

The "Hip Lift" is performed by stabi lizing the shoulders which cause the abdominals to pull the hips upward . The resistance against the abdominals is

(Photo 2)

Technique

n

increased or decreased by the distance of the legs from the upper body.

The position for least resistance is Iyi ng on the back with the arms extended on the floor, overhead. This places the abdominals in a stretched position for a more efficient contraction and helps balance the body. The legs are lifted to a 90 degree ang le to the body with the knees slightly bent. (Photo 6) To perform the hip lift, curl the hips up to a shoulder stand position . (Photo 7) When returning to the starting position , the legs must first move away from the body. This places a greater resistance against the abdominals for added strength gains. As the hips reach the floor the abdominals should remain tensed to prevent the lower back from arching .

When three sets of 15 hip lifts can be performed correctly, resistance should be increased by using an incline bench. (Photo 8) The gymnast should hold on to a support at the top of the bench to keep from sliding and to stabilize the shoulders and chest. The legs are positioned at a 90 degree angle to the body with a slight bend at the knees. Perform the hip lift the same as the movement on the floor. The resistance can be increased by the angle of the incline bench and the position of the legs.

The maximum amount of resistance can be realized when the gymnast hangs from a bar with a support at the shoulders . From a hanging position, the knees should lift to a 90 degree angle with the body. During this time the abdominals are stabilizing the hips and no arch should appear. When the legs reach the 90 degree angle the hips should lift out and up. (Photo 9) When the hips reach a horizontal position the movement should be reversed and returned to the starting position. The speed of the lift should remaiR constant. Starting quickly and letting the legs drop on the descent reduces the effectiveness of the exercise and could cause injury to the lower back.

When deciding on the angle of the legs for resistance, it is important to remember that the number of repetitions performed and correctness of the movement determine the intensity. The knees should be placed at an angle to allow the gymnast to move the hips through the full range of each lift.

The last exercise in the series is the "Rocker. " This exercise uses the abdominals to stabilize the upper body and lower body as one unit.

To perform the rocker, the feet and shoulders should raise si x inches off the floor with the lower back pressed against the floor . (Photo 10) The shoulders and hands should be stretched forward to an area over the middle of the thigh. Begin the rocking action by either pulling the chest forward or feet up. The rocking action should continue for 20 cycles. Resistance can be added by raising the arms over the head.

It should be remembered on each of these exercises that the lower back should never be arched. If an arch occurs the abdominal muscles have become fatigued or too much resistance has been added .

These exercises can be performed in any order. A suggested method is to perform one set of each exercise in the order of situp, hip lift, and the rocker. Repeat the sequence with two more sets.

When performing these exercises, the correct form is more important than the amount of resistance. As the abdominals become stronger more resistance and a variety of other exercises can be added. (Editor's Note: Dave Henley serves as an assistant gymnastics coach at Oklahoma State University while working on a doctorate in Health Science. He also teaches gymnastics , swimming and physical fitness classes at OSU.)

Technique

(Photo 3)

(Photo 4)

(Photo 5)

(Photo 6)

Photos continued on page 16

15

(Photo 7) (Photo 8)

(Photo 10

(Photo 9)

16 Technique

Analysis of Psycholog ical Profi les Comparing Male and Female

NCAA Championship Gymnasts

By Keith P. Henschen University of Utah

Steven W. Edwards Oklahoma State University

Richard D. Gordin Utah State University

Kenneth Ravizza Cal State Fullerton

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate and quantify psychological differences be­tween male and female championship gym­nasts . The subjects included 84 female and 58

male gymnasts who competed in their respective 1982 NCAA National Collegiate Gymnastics Championships . Psychological variables included the tension , depression , anger, vigor, fatigue and confusion sub-sca les of the Profile of Mood states (POMS) and the masculine, feminine and neutral sub-scales of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI). Discriminant function analysis was used to evaluate the strength of the discriminant analysis . The results indicated that the POMS alone, the BSRI alone and the POMS and BSRI together were ab le to significantly discriminate between the males and females . The best discriminant function was able to correctly classify 75 .2 percent of the cases. It was concluded that the male and female intercollegiate gymnasts exhibit similar psychological profiles of mood states and possess sex-role orientations consistent with traditional sex stereotypes.

H istorically the preparation of athletes for competition has emphasized the development of physiological variab les which underlie success for a given competitive performance.

The research literature is replete with studies which have formed the basis for the development of training regimens in such areas as muscular strength and endurance, cardiovascular endurance and techniques for skill acquisition. Until recent ly psycho logical preparation for competition has received proportionately less emphasis . This is in part due to the complexity of the human psyche alone and in concert with a plethora of other intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors which impinge upon athletic performance at anyone moment. As can be seen in Figure 1, even the most fundamental paradigm of human performance provides

Technique

LABI LE

Figure 1

EXTRINSIC FACTORS

Situational Variables

Display Characteristics

Etc.

PERFORMANCE

Psychological and

Psychological Variables

STABLE

I NTRINSIC FACTORS

a complex interaction of factors both internal and external to the athlete's performance. Additionally , physiological and psychological characteristics exist in enduring, relatively stable forms referred to as traits or in temporary , readily labile states which are subject to immediate change in the moments which surround a competitive performance. Certainly physiological characteristics also exhibit trait- and state-like di mensions but the stable traits seem to predominate in the face of no deterring injuries or traumatic physical occurrences. Therefore, the moments which surround athletic performance are most influenced by psychological variables such as personality have been studied and some differences among athletic groups have been noted.

During the 1960's, a number of researchers attempted to study el ite performers via personality characteristic assessments (A lbaugh 1970, Kane 1964, Kroll 1967, Lakie 1962, Ogilvie Johnsgard 1967, Slusher 1964, Werner and Gattheil, 1966, Wright 1973) . The intent of these research studies was to identify the personality profiles of superior performers with the basic premise being the existence of an athletic personality. These studies tended to show that although a part icular personality trait or profile may be associated with enhanced probability for success in a given sport, it is by no means necessary. The opposite would seem to be true for the more labile psychological states which can change rapidly as one approaches a competitive event.

William P. Morgan has taken this theoretical approach and his research indicates that total personality is not the answer to overall athletic competence; but rather emotional disposition at the time of competition might be most influential on immediate performance (Morgan , 1978, 1980). Stress , anxiety, concentration, expectation ,

(continued on page 18)

17

aspiration level and many other psychological determinants of success must exist in optimum fashion in order for the highest levels of performance to be expressed.

It is hypothesized that there is a psychological profile of these more labile states, moods if you will , that exists across the athletes who exhibit the highest levels of success. The purpose of this study was to determine if such a profile of moods existed in a group of elite collegiate gymnasts. Additionally, these male and female gymnasts provided the opportunity to investigage one of the more stable psychological traits, sex-role orientation, and its possible influence in a sport which is interlaced with such masculine qualities as strength and power and such feminine qualities as grace and poise.

Method

T he subjects for this investigation included 142 collegiate gymnasts who competed in their respective 1982 NCAA National Gymnastics Championships. All of the male and female

gymnasts who qualified for their 1982 championships were asked to participate in the study. One hundred and sixty-nine gymnasts were initially contacted and 84 percent of the subjects, 84 females and 58 males, volunteered to participate.

In the hours prior to their first performance at the national championships two standardized instruments were administered; the Bem Sex-role Inventory (BSRI) (BEM, 1974), wh ich assessed sex-role orientation , and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) (McNair, Lorr & Droppleman, 1971), which was used to assess emotional disposition . Approval to conduct the study was received from the NCAA Research Committee, the athletic di rectors and coaches of the represented institutions, and the University of Utah Human Subjects Research Committee. All of the subjects signed statements of informed consent indicating their voluntary participation.

Discriminant function analysis was used to determine if the scores on the POMS sub-scales (tension, depression , anger, vigor, fatigue and confusion) and the sub-scales of the BSRI (masculine, feminine and neutral) were able to significantly discriminate between male and female elite collegiate gymnasts. I ndependent variables were selected for inclusion in the discriminant function according to the method of maximizing the minimum Mahalonobis distance. The significance of the discriminant function was determined by use of Wilk 's lambda and its associated chi-square test of significance (Klecka, 1980) .

Results

W hen the si x sub-scales of the POMS were entered as independent variables in the analysis , three of the sub-scales were able to Significantly discriminate between the males

and females, !'::, = .8985 , X2(3) = 13.863, (p < .01). The sub­scales and standardized coefficients are: Fatigue (.8309) , tension (.7276) and anger (-.7381). Each of the sub-scales contributed approx imately equally to the discriminate function . Classification analysis determined that the linear combination of variables was able to correctly classify 62.4 percent of the cases. The canonical correlation coefficient associated with this function is .319.

When the three sub-scales of the BSRI were entered as independent variables in a separate analysis, all three were able to significantly discriminate between males and females , !'::, = .8081 , X2(3) = 27 .959, (p < .001) . The sub­scales and standardized coefficients are: Feminine

18

(1 .0742), mascul ine (-.3342) and neutral (-.4410). The femin ine sub-scale contributed approximately three times more to the discriminate function than either of the other two sub-scales. Classification analysis determined that the linear combination of variables was able to correct ly classify 69 .8 percent of the cases. The canonical correlation coeffic ient associated with this function is .438.

When the six sub-scales of the POMS and the three sub­scales of the BSRI were entered as independent variables in the combined anaysis , five variables were able to Significantly discriminate between the males and females, _ = .7265, X2(5) = 41.058, (p .001) . The subscales and standardized coefficients are: BSRI-feminine (1.0197) , POMS-tension (.6083) , BSRI-neutral (-.5591) , POMS­fatigue (.3994) and POMS-anger (-.3621). The greatest contribution to the discriminant function was the feminine sub-scale of the BSR I followed by the tension' sub-scale of the POMS. Classification analysis determined that the linear combination of variables was able to correctly classify 75 .2 percent of the cases. The canonical correlation coefficient associated with this function is .523.

To further elucidate the differences between males and females regarding the sub-scales of the two instruments, t-tests were used to compare the two groups on each of the sub-scales. Table 1 lists the significant differences between males and females for each of the perti nent sub­scale scores. Figures two and three graphically illustrate the profiles of the male and female athletes for the POMS and BSRI sub-scales.

Table 1

Means and standard deviations lor sign iii cant t·tests.

Variable

POMS-Tension

POMS-Fatigue

BSIR-Masculine

BSRI-Feminine

' p < .05. "p < .01 .

' '' p < .001

Males

48 .8 ±8.42

43.3 ±7.52 105.1

±14.82 90.7

±10.80

DISCUSSION

Females 5

52.4 2.3t · ±9.23

47.4 2.80" ±8.83

99.9 2.24' ±12.74

99.7 4.91'" ± 10.63

T hese data confirm the hypothesis that a profile of optimum psychological states exists for both male and female competitive performers. Although subtle differences exists in the degree

to which males and females exhibit these states, the same pattern of psychological readiness exists for both groups, namely, moderate levels of tension and anger, low levels of depression, fatigue and confusion, and a high level of vigor. The result of this study roughly coincides with the "iceberg profile" reported by Morgan (1980). While tension levels are above those of the iceberg, and vigor is a little lower, the approximation is along the lines expected.

Interesting to note was the fact that the females demonstrated significantly greater levels of pre­competition tension and fatigue than did their male counterparts. Although beyond the scope of this study , it might be conjectured that tension is a product of cultural conditioning and likewise the fatigue variable might be attributed to training and/ or peaking factors utilized by different coaches. The moderate level of pre-competition tension exhibited by these subjects is consistent with the prevailing notion that an optimum level of arousal exists for competitive performers and , according to inverted-U hypothesis suggestion, it is neither too high nor too low

Technique

n

60-

55-

50-

45-

40-

Figure 2. POMS sub-scale scores for males and females.

• • • •

--Females

.. ... ..... ... . Ma les

• • •• •• • •• • • •••

Tension Depression Anger Vigor Fatigue Conlusion

PROFILE OF MOOD STATES SUBSCALES T-scores

but moderate in its expression . Indeed these results suggest that psycho logical traini ng

programs need to be implemented for the purpose of teach ing athletes how to achieve and mainta in these optimal states of psycholog ica l readiness just pr ior to and during a competit ive event (Krenz , Gordin & Edwards, 1982).

The sex-ro le orientat ion of these gymnasts is cons istent with a lack of c lear gender ident ifi cat ion associated with gymnast ics. Apparently the male gymnasts associate themselves with the more mascu line qualities inherent with gymnast ic activity and females do the same for the more femin in e qua li ties . Even though gymnastic performance may seem to require opposite-sex behavior (i .e. the graceful dance-like elements of male floor exercise and, conversely , the powerfu l tumb l ing associated with female floor exerc ise), the more dominant features of one's sex-role orientat ion prevail and , thus, permit expression of the more traditiona l sex stereotype.

The contribution of stab le and labile psychological characterist ics to the psycho logica l prof il e of a successfu l male or female gymnast appears to be about equal. Of the five variab les which composed the most discrim inating linear comb ination , two were stab le characteristics and three were labile characterist ics. Further research needs to be conducted in order to determine the pred ictabi lity of such a profile regarding the recruitment and se lect ion of championship co llegiate gymnasts.

BOARD A

CYCLES 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 7500 9000 10.000 12.000 Coeificient of Restitution (base-l00)

96 93 90 87 86 85 84 82 81 80 78

BOARD B CYCLES 500 1000 15002000 3000 4000 5000 75009000 10.000 12.000 Coefficient of Restitution (base-l00)

97 94 91 89 87 86 85 83 82 81 79

BOARD C CYCLES 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 7500 9000 10.000 12,000 Coeificient of Restitution (Base-l00)

Technique

105-

95-

90-

85-

BEM SEX-ROLE INVENTORY SUBSCALES

NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV NV

• • • • • • •

Masculine

• • •

Raw Scores

--Females

.............. Males

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••••••••••

Feminine Neutral

Vaulting (from page 13)

that is has a lower coefficient of rest itution , inconsistent character, and a high fatigue and deterioration rate makes a wood board c lear ly out of character to be used with world class compet iti ons. It becomes the respons ibilities of the gymnast ics commun ity and its committees and the manufacturers to find the best and most appropriate substitutes . There are such boards ava ilab le today. This is not to say that even the cu rrent models cannot and wi ll not be im proved in the future .

The fina l issue is the determ ination that when a board has a lower coeff ic ient of restitution , the time duration on the board increases. The fact that a wood board performance profi le indicates that the coeff ic ient of rest itut ion changes sign ifi cantly during a competi tion , means that the ath letes are in effect using a d ifferent board during each new da il y schedu led competition. We also know that the board with a lower coeff ic ient of restitution w ill not allow the athlete to generate the same amount of power from the board . In multiple somersau lting vaults, this is not to say that the rate of rotation w ill slow down .

The fact is, it will not. However, with less energy and power produced by the ath lete, there wil l be a defini te decrease in the height and distance of the performed vault. This means a poorer performance and the possibility of in ju ry. In essence, this is in opposition tothe most important reasons for modificat ion of standards.

Consistent with the above proven results it is the conclusion of this eva luat ion committee that the wood boards be substituted with the new high performance vau lt ing boards. The addit ional crown height means greater distance of force appl icat ion which will help guarantee a higher coefficient of rest itution . Th is is also a factor that the manufacturers can utilize in the development of new products that will aid both the performance and the safety. Periodic evaluations shou ld be encouraged to make sure that the ath lete is never put at a disadvantage so as to jeopardize his performance or his safety.

(see Vau lting II, page 23)

19

USGIF "'fI"'.flR ASSOCIATION United States Gymn astics Federation Meeting of the Executive Committee

Minutes December 3-4. 1983

Downtown Hilton Indianapolis. IN

The meeting was called to order by President Bud Wilkinson at 9:35 AM . President Wi lkinson welcomed the members and guests to the meetings of the USGF Executive Committee and Board of Directors . Members Present:

Mr. Bud Wi lkinson-President Mr. Les Sasvary-Vice President for

Men Mrs. Roe Kreutzer-Vice President for

Women Mr. Mike Milidonis-Secretary Mrs . Sue Ammerman-Member at

Large Mr. Bill Roe tzhei m-USGF Delegate to

the FI G Men 's Technical Assembly Dr. Andrea Schmid- USGF Delegate to

the FI G Rhythmic Gymnas tics Committee

Mrs . Nancy T. Marshall-Ath lete Representative

Mr. Larry Gerrard-Athlete Represen­tative

Guests Present: Mr . Mike Jacki-USGF Executive

Director Mrs. Linda Chencinski-USGF Women's

Co mm ittee Chai rperson President Wil kinson introduced Mr. M. Jacki and reques ted the report of recent office po licies and procedures. Mr. M. Jacki presen ted the revised USGF Athlete Eligibi lity Po licies . The proposed po licies are being evaluated by the legal firm in regard to the interrelationship with elig ibi lity policies of the IDC. FIG . USOC. the Amateur Sports Act, and other National Govern­ing Bodies. Mr. M. Jacki explained the recent rev ision of the Athlete's Foundation and the conversion to a proposed USGF Athlete Trust. Mrs . S. Ammerm an proposed that the USGF Offi ce complete the fi nal USGF Eligib il ity Code and USG F Trust document and submit the polic ies to the Execut ive Commi tt ee and Athlete Representatives for approval. Second By Mrs. R. Kreutzer Motion Passed . Mr. M. Jacki explained the 1984 proposed budget revenues and expenses. The events shall be projected based on approved contracts . The addi t ional revenues availabl e shall be directed to program development. The office staff budgets have been departmentalized based on revenues and forecasts. Th e offi ce has beco me organized and the departments contro l able. The most diff icu lt problems arise from commit­tee structure, ac tions, powers, proce­dures, involvement in the office and program decisions , etc . From a bus iness standpoint the committees generate much add itional work and expense. and there is concern of the legal defensible posit ions . The members discussed the di ffi cu lties crea ted by committee ac tions and involvement in offi ce program deci­sions. Th e members discussed the procedures of committee minutes and their impl ementation, pu blica tion, and communication.

20

The members discussed the committee organization of the USGF. There are committees which are curren tly not active or confict with the responsi ­bilities of other committees. Proposed by Mr. M. Mi lidonis that the fol lowing committees be dissolved:

Ad Hoc Advisory Equipment and Liabi lity Comm ittee

Ad Hoc Advisory Sanctioning Commit-tee

Contract Committee Finance and Accounting Committee Membership Committee Credentials Committee ByLaws Committee

Seconded by Mr. L. Sasvary Motion Passed. Mr. L. Sasvary presented the Men 's Program Committee report. a. The performance of the men 's

team at the world championships was excel len t.

b. The program needs improvement in the areas of difficulty improve­ment. more str ict application of the rules (execution) and interna­tional exposure.

c. The MPC Minutes of October 8. 1983 were discussed regarding the selection of judges to the USA Championships. The members discussed the selection procedure . financial considerat ions. etc.

Mrs . S. Ammerman proposed that an Advisory Committee for Judges Selec­tion be charged with the responsibility of the se lection of judges to the National Champions hips and Interna­tional Competitions. Th e committee shal l be chaired by the Na tional Techni­cal Director and includes as members the Men's Program Committee Chair and the President of the National Gymnastics Judges Association. Second by Mr. M. Milidonis

Motion Passed. Proposed by Mrs. S. Ammerman to delete paragraph VII of the MPC Minutes of October 8. 1983 and renumber the remaining paragraphs acco rdingly. Th e minutes shall be accepted as corrected . Seco nd by Mr. M. Mi lidon is. Motion Passed. Mrs. S. Ammerman presented a report on the recent meetings of the Women 's International Program Committee . Proposed by Mrs. S. Ammerman that the Executive Committee accept the appo intments of Mr. Don Peters, Na­tional Coach . and Mr. Jim Gault, Elite Coaches Assoc iat ion as non vot ing members of the WIPC. Second by Mr. L. Sasvary. Motion Passed. Proposed by Mrs. S Ammerman that the qualif icat ion for the 1984 Women 's National Team and final Olympic Trials be based on a co mpu lsory score worth 60 percent and an optional score worth 40 percent. Second by Mrs. R. Kreutzer. Motion Passed. Proposed by Mrs. S. Ammerman that the Executive Com mit tee accept the recommendat ion of the WIPC to qualify the six gymnasts who co mpeted at the Wor ld Championships to the Champion­shi ps of the USA. 1984. Second by Mr. L. Sasv ary . Motion Passed.

Proposed by Mrs. S. Ammerman that Ms. Tanya Service be added to the USA USGF National Team and receive all apparel. Second by Mrs . N. Marshall. Motion Passed. Proposed by Mrs. S. Ammerman that any ath lete who competes for the USA /USGF be supplied with competi­tive apparel and all necessary acces­sories and be permitted to retain distri ­buted items. Second by Mrs. N. Marshall Motion Passed. Dr. A Schmid presented a report from the Rhythmic Gymnastics Committees . The communication between the USGF Office and committes has improved . The performance of the individuals at the recent Wor ld Championships was good but the group rou tine perform­ance was a disapPo intment. The commi ttees are concer ned with the preparations for future competitions and budgetary needs for the develop­men t of the program. President B. Wi lkinson recessed the meeting of the Executive Committee and requested the committee to re­assemble at the conclusion of the meet­ings of the USGF Board of Directors . 12:40 PM Recess.

Sunday. December 4, 1983. 1 :50 PM President B. Wi lkinson reconvened the meeting of the USGF Executive Commit ­tee. The Presiden t welcomed the mem­bers elect to the cont inuat ion of the meeting. Members Elect Present:

Mr. Rusty Mitchell-V ice President for Men

Mrs. Judy Avener-Secretary Mrs. Linda Chencinski-Member at

Large Guest Present:

Mr. John Traetta-High Bar Produc­tions and USGF Agent for Televi­sion Promotion.

Mr. M. Jacki exp lained the need to develop a fr inge benef it package for the USG F Off ice to include pension pro­gram for USGF staff and the need to in­crease salar ies to compensate for the increase in the 1984 Social Security Act.

Proposed that the Execut ive Director have permission to crea te the position of Ed uca tion Director with the guaran­tee of creating the revenue for the new position from new sources or grant. Proposed by Mrs. S. Ammerman. Second by Mrs. N. Marshall Motion Passed. Proposed by Mrs. N. Marshall that the Exec uti ve Co mmitt ee support the philosophy and pro posals for the 1984 USGF Budget di rect ion and expendi ­tu res. Second by Mrs. S Ammerman .

Name

Motion Passed. Mr. John Traetta presented an update on the USGF event negotiations for television contracts . The history of the past year was explained in relation to the strategy for the coming events. a. The USGF must improve com­

municat ions to the sponsors and networks.

b. The USGF must stabi lize a media package of events and dates to promote long contrac ts. The poten tial contract for the USA Championships is a three year proposal wit h NBC including excellent sponsor involvement.

c. The USGF must develop a standard procedure for planning and promotion of events. includ­ing media promotion .

d. The USGF shou ld develop a three year plan to schedule even ts. sites. dates, promot ion an d pro­gram development. The possibi lit ies include a Post Olympic tour, Dual Meets. Ameri­can Cup, National Champion­ships. FIG events. etc .

e. The USGF shou ld develop the market for professional educa­tiona l materials to include video instructions. books, fi lms. charts, etc.

Mr. J. Traetta expressed the desire to perform to the best of his abi li ty during the period allotted an d requested con­siderat ion for an ex tension of the orig in al period. Mr. M. Jacki explained the planning of the upcoming events in relat ion to potential contrac ts. The members discussed the possible schedul ing of even ts. The members suggested that the good faith agreement be cont inued with Mr. Traetta.

Mrs . Joann Aschenbrenner of the Na­tional Association of Women 's Gym­nastics Judges presented in formation to the Executive Committee concerning curren t litigati on invo lvin g the judges associat ion. The association is currently work ing with contr act law inter preta­tions and the responsibili ty of the ju dge. The members asked to be kep t in­formed of the situat ion and suggested that the USGF Legal Firm aid the association if possible. On motion duly made and seconded the meeting of the USGF Executive Commit­tee was ad journed at 2:10 PM.

Submitted for Consideration by: Michae l J Mil ido ni s, USGF Secretary

Execut ive Committee Approval

Date . .. . .. . . . . . . . Executive Director ______ _

(PI •• e. Print)

Naw Address.s _ _ _ _ ___ ___ Apt. No. ____ _

City Stata Zip, ____ _

Mail to: 1D1 West Washington Streetl Sui te 11 ~4!' 1ndianapolis, In 46204

Technique

)

Achieving Maximum Performance Through Specialized Nutrition And Fitness Program

By Dan Benardot, Ph. D., R.D. and

Jan Anthony, M.S.

INTRODUCTION:

M aintaining optimal nu­triture has increasingly become viewed by coaches of all sports

as an important factor in athletic performance . Yet, many problems still exist in helping athletes alter existing eating behavior in a positive way. Some of these problems occur because of common misunderstandings about what nutritional factors actually impact on performance. Another problem is the common use of less than adequate educational models for helpi ng athletes understand how best to eat.

One of the major nutritionally related problems is the common misunderstanding of how "weight " might have an impact on . performance. This is particularly true of sports such as gymnastics, where there is a combin ed emphasis on esthetic beauty as well as strength . Yet weight measurement by itself is an extremely misleading figure. Since it is so often the only regular measurement taken as an indicator of fitness , many athletes are being asked to follow inappropriately low caloric intakes . In addition , this constant emphasis on weight alone frequently leads to compulsive eating behaviors that may initiate long-term health concerns as well as less than optimal performance.

The reason weight measurement by itself is misleading is that it does not differentiate between lean (muscle) and fat mass. Most coaches would like their athletes to have relatively less fat , but certainly would not like to see a decrease in muscle mass . The effect on performance of losing muscle mass is two-fold . It leads to weakness and premature fatigue, plus it decreases the athletes' ability to use calories. This lowered energy­calorie metabolism actually

Technique

in creases the chance for weight gain. Nevertheless, loss of fat as well as lean mass is precisely what usually occurs with individuals who are severely restricting calories as the major method for achieving weight loss. In addition , a severe restriction of calories is typically coupled with an equally severe decrease in other nutrients. Therefore, the usual daily or weekly weigh-in may initiate weakness, poor health , and unhealthy eating behaviors (such as fasti ng for 24-hours before the weigh -in to make weight , or Bulimia) .

In an attempt to overcome these problems, we have initiated a program of nutrition counseling and personal ' fitness with the Illinois State University Womens ' Gymnastics team . This program includes the following and is described in this paper:

1. Assessment of Percent Bodyfat

2. Individualized Di et Anal ysis and Counseling

3. Daily Aerobic Exercise 4. Strength Training Program

PERCENT BODYFAT ASSESSMENT:

A ssessing the ratio of lean to fat mass is a very useful indicator of fitness . A computerized skinfold

caliper, programmed to use a sum of skinfolds formula (Jackson and Pollock) adjusted by age, is the method we are using to determine this ratio. Since skinfold measu rements are pronte to between-measurer error, the same individual takes the measurements on the athletes each time to increase accuracy. The advantage of regularly measuring percent bodyfat as an indicator of fitness , rather than relying solely on weight is that the emphasis is taken off "weight" and placed on muscle-a much more positive performance indicator.

The desi rable range for ideal bodyfat in gymnasts appears to be between eight to 18 percent. ~ee ping this range in mind , and

vv ith the aim of developing national ca liber gymnasts we are striving for a percentage of bodyfat at the lower end of this spectrum . As you can see by the data in Table 1, we have been successful in reducing bodyfat in a rel atively short period of time.

Table 1: Chang es in Percent Bodyfat- Illinois State University Wo mens Gymnastics Team

(N=10)

Time Interval <· .. · ·· · · ·6 Weeks .. •· .. .. ·> Ave. & Body Fat 16.67 15.84 15.02 Standard Deviation 207 208 2.01 Range (Low·High) 12.2·19.51 1.7·1 9.41 1.0· 17.7

Using this method we are able to carefully monitor changes in muscle. For instance, a team member with a beginning weight of 112 pounds and 16 percent bodyfat has a metabolic mass or lean tissue weight of 94.08 pounds (total weight less Ibs of fat). This represents the tissue capable of burning up calories. Using a formula which uses this information plus activity level , we can fairly accurately determine the amount of calories individuals require to keep their weight the same. In addition, by monitoring pounds of lean, we are able to determine if any change in weight has resulted in a negative change in muscle. The emphasis is taken off weight and directed toward the maintenance or increase in muscle mass.

One of the benefits of using this technique is that the individual team members can clearly see that a loss of lean must also lead to a lower caloric intake. (Only lean mass uses calories. Therefore, the lower the lean, the less a person can eat to avoid weight gain.) Since no one wants to be on a restricted calorie diet, they are motivated to keep lean mass at a reasonable level. This requires that the athlete has a regular vigorous exercise routine, plus a balanced and regular intake of nutrients. Eating behavior is improved.

INDIVIDUALIZED DIET ANALYSIS:

T he food intake of each athlete is analyzed for nutrients with a computer. This analysis is performed on a

regular basis, and provides the gymnasts with precise information on their actual nutrient intake, and recommendations which indicate

(see Nutrition, page 22)

21

Nutrition (from page 21)

what foods should be eaten to bring nutrient intake up to at least the level of the Recommended Dietary Allowances adjusted for age and sex. Special emphasis is placed on the distribution of Calories derived from Protein , Fat and Carboydrates. Most athletes have protein and fat intakes which far exceed actual requirements, and carbohydrate intakes which are inadequate. The goal is to have the gymnasts obtain approximately 58 percent of ca lories from carbohydrates. Since carbohydrates are much more efficiently metabolized for energy, having sufficient carbohydrates becomes a critical factor in gymnast endurance. (See Figure 1)

Dan Bena~dot. Ph.D., R.D .

Figure 1

DAILY AEROBIC EXERCISE

T he activities and exercises usua lly practiced by gymnasts are typically not aerobic in nature. Yet,

aerobic exercise is very important in increasing the physiological ab ility to metabolize fat. Since fat is only catabolized via the Beta-Oxidative metabolic pathway-a route that is extremely oxygen dependent­increasing aerobic activity has the tra ining effect of increasing the ability to use oxygen. Therefore, the potential for using fat for energy is increased.

Aerobic activities are those that

increasing endurance. Although many gymnastic routines require a great deal of endurance, it is not often emphasized in workouts. This affects the way gymnasts plan their routines . For example, it is fa ir ly typical for many gymnasts to use their most difficult tumbling passes at the beginning of their floor exerc ise because they know they will be too exhausted to execute these passes correctly at the end . However, judges prefer to see routines that are well balanced. An aerobic training schedule will greatly enhance overall endurance. This will increase the possibi li ty of using a higher level of difficulty throughout a performance.

It is not necessary to use the tradit ional methods of aerob ic

...... NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS SUMMARy· .. • .. <AVERAGE INTAKE FOR NUMBER OF DAYS ANALYZED>

· ····· NUTRITIONAL ANALYSIS SUMMARy······

< AVERAGE INTAKE FOR NUMBER OF DAYS ANALYZED> NAME: SAMPLE DATE: 11 / 11 / 83 AGE: 18 DAYS ANALYZED

(ACTUAL) (RDA) CALORIES: 2293 • CALCIUM: PROTIEN: 109 46 • PHOSPHORUS: TOTAL FAT: 79 • IRON: SATURATED FAT: 23.7 • POTASSIUM: OLEIC ACID: 28.6 • VITAMIN A: LINOLEIC ACID: 14.9 • THIAMIN: CARBOHYDRATE: 294 • RI BOFLAVIN:

• NIACIN: • VITAMIN C:

NOTE: SODIUM should be belween 1.100 and 3,300 mg. YOUR INTAKE IS: 2062

CHOLESTROL should average 300 mg or less. YOUR INTAKE IS: 227

FIBER should average 4 10 5 gms or more YOUR INTAKE IS: 7.73

PROTEIN should conlribule aboul .12 of lolal Calories YOUR INTAKE IS: 0.19

FAT should conlribule aboul .30 of 10lal Calories or less. YOUR INTAKE IS: 0.31

(ACTUAL) 571

1316 17.2

3110 11000

1.60 2.00 35.5 268

1

(RDA) 1200 1200

18

800 1.1 1.3 14 60

NAM E: SAMPLE DATE: 11 / 11 / 83 AGE: t 8 DAYS AN ALYZED:

(ACTUAL) (RDA) CALOR IES: 2293 • CALCIU M: PROT EIN: 109 46 • PHOSPHORUS: TOTAL FAT: 79 • IRON: SATURATED FAT: 23.7 • POTASSIU M OLEIC ACID: 28.6 • VIT AMIN A: LI NOLEIC ACID: 14,9 • THI AMIN: CARBOHYDRATE: 294 • RIBOFLAVIN:

• NIACIN: • VITAMIN C:

NOTE: SODIU M should be between 1,100 and 3,300 mg, YOUR INTAKE IS: 2062

CHOLESTEROL should average 300 mg or less. YOU R INT AKE IS: 227

1

(ACTUAL) (RDA) 571 1200

1316 1200 17.2 18

311 0 11 000 800

1,60 1.1 2.00 1,3 35 ,5 14 268 60

CARBOHYDRATE should conlribule aboul .58 of lolal Calories. FIBER should average 4 to 5 gms or more. YOUR INTAKE IS: 0.31 YOUR INTAKE IS: 7.73

" 'RECOMMENDATlONS'"

According to Ihis nulritional analysis. your intake of CALCIUM is below recommended levels. You should consider ealing more of some of Ihe following foods: Dairy Producls, Dark Green Leafy Vegelables, Cabbage, Broccoli, and Canned Fish.

PROETIN should contribute about .12 of total Ca lories YOUR I NTAKE~:Q19

FAT s hould contribute about 30 of total Calories or less . YOUR INTAKE IS: 0 .31

Accord ing to this nutritional analYSis, your intake of IRON is below recommended levels. You should consider ealing more of some of the following foods: Meats. Whole·Grain and Enriched Breads and Cereals. Dried Fruils. and Dark Green Vegelables.

CARBOHY DRATE should contribute abou t .58 of tota l Calo ries.

One c lear advantage of using direct feedback about an individual's actual nutrient intake is that it allows a great deal of flexibility for individual food likes and dislikes. No one is asked to eat like everyone else. In addition, provid i ng feedback on actual intake avoids the use of general eating models, such as the Basic Four Food groups, which many athletes find overly simplistic and unconvincing. Ultimately our aim is to "fine-tune" a food intake that is acceptable for each indiv idual on the team .

22

YOUR INTAKE IS 0.51

follow these basic princ iples: 1. The person shou ld have

constant movement for approximately 20-30 minutes .

2. The act ivity should not lead to exhausion.

3. Heart rate shou ld reach but not surpass 80 to 85 percent of cardiovascular maximum adjusted for age.

4. The large muscle groups (legs) should be the center of the activ ity.

Because aerobic exercise increases the ab ility to metabo lize fat, it also has the effect of

activity (aerobic dance, jogging, etc .), although these methods certainly could be made a part of whatever is developed. Since an activity requires on ly a very few ru les to be cons idered "aerobic", it takes very li tt le work to develop an aerobic activity that meets the particular requ irements of your specific team members.

The aerobic warm-up developed for this team enhances aerobic capacity and also improves specif ic gymnastic skil ls. Besides

(see Continue, page 23)

Technique

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Vaulting II (from page 19)

Gymnastics apparatus has undergone comprehensive mod ificat ion over the past two decades in order to stay abreast with the demands inherent in complex ski ll development. Notable examples include:

equipment, thus reduc ing injuries, and 2. To facilitate skill performance,

whereas the equipment should never be a limiting factor for the gym nast.

1. Fiberglas uneven bars, paral lel bars, and rings ANALYSTS AND CONSULTANTS: 2. Rail size in smal ler and shape is more towards

round 3. Mat and landing mat modifications 4. Springier-more elastic floor systems

Dr. Charles Johnson-Professor of Physica l Education and Sports Psychology-Southwest Missouri State University

5. Carpet on floors and vau lt ing boards Mr. Greg Marsden-Assoc iate Professor of Health , Science and Sports Psycho logy-University of Utah

Mr. Mike Jacki-Director of UnitedStatesGymnastics Federation

6. Padded beams 7. Aluminum beams 8. Use of new stronger, lighter, and more durable

materia ls The primary purposes of such equipment modifications are:

RESPECTFULLY SUBM ITTED:

1. To increase the safety and safety features of the

Mrs. Jackie K. Fie- FIG/WTC Member Project Coord inator

Continue (from page 22)

continuous movement, the warm-up includes many direction and level cha nges wh ich benefit leg coordination and strength. The design of the warm-up includes a variety of loco-motor movements such as hopping forwards and backwards. These movements, which change approximately every 30 seconds , provide practice for gymnastic take-offs and landings. To maintain interest, we have also developed basic dance steps coordinated to music which achieve the same results .

(Editor's Note: Dan Benardot is Assistant Professor and Coordinator of Nutrition/Dietetics at Illinois State University. Jan Anthony is Head Coach of the Women's Gymnastics Team at Illinois State University.)

Technique

STRENGTH TRAINING PROGRAM:

A Nautil us circuit program is included in the training schedule at the end of practice three days per

week. The entire circuit involves approx imately 30 min utes inwh ich the basic Nautilus principles are followed . This involves the athlete exercising different musc le groups to the point of exhaustion.

In the remain ing two training days (of our academic 5-day week), a series of exerc ises specific to gymnastics conclude the strength program . For example these exercises include leg lifts, handstand push-ups , planche dips , hollow body holds, and stationary handstands.

SUMMARY

One of our major goals is to develop lean, strong, and healthy individua ls who are capable of enjoy­

ing the sport of gymnastics at a high sk ill level throughout their college years. To achieve th is goal we are using a combination of ind ividua lized nutrit ion counse ling, aerobic exerc ise, strength exercises, and using percent bodyfat assessment rather than weight. Statements by gymnasts on the ISU team typify our ultimate goal: "I've learned that nutrit ion is very important in an athlete ... Working with a nutritionist has given me knowledge of what kinds of foods will help produce the best results in sports. This program has helped me appreciate myself and what I can do to make myself fee l healthier."

23

"More outstanding young gymnasts have trained on our equipment than on a ll other brands combined!

We at Nissen are proud to have p layed so great of a role in America's athletic heritage.

We will continue to set and maintain the highest standards in gymnastic achievement."

NISSEN, Box 1270, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52406. Ca ll (319) 365-7561 or 1-800-553-7901. Ca ll To ll Free.

NON PROFIT ( ORGANIZATION U.S. POSTAGE

PAID Indianapo lis, IN

PERM IT NO. 6466