TABLE OF' CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I . ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF MICROSCOPE OPTICS

LIGHT A.ND TKF: PRINCIPLES OF LENSES Ref l ec t ion of Light Refrac t ion of Light Disperston of Light

LENSES Sphe r i ca l Aberrat ion Chromatic Aberrat ion Image Formation

THE OPTICAL SYSTEM OF THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE Image Formation Magnif icat ion P a r t s of t h e Microscope

Objec t ives Re s o l u t i o n D i f f r a c t i o n Theory o f Re s o l u t i o n Increase of Resolut ion of an Object ive Importance of Numerical Aperture Depth o f Focus Spher ica l and Chromatic Aberrat ion of Object ives Types of Microscope Objec t ives Immersion Object ives Methods of Tes t ing Objec t ives ~ b b e / Tes t P l a t e (The S t a r ~ e s t )

Eyepieces Limit of Magnif icat ion and Resolving Power of t h e The Limit of V i s i b i l i t y

Condensers Concentrat ion of Light by Condensers The Focal Length The Working Distance Oblique I l l umina t ion by Condensers Dark F i e l d I l l umina t ion P ro jec t ion of Images by Condensers Types of Substage Condensers Dark F i e l d with t h e Paraboloid Condenser

Diaphragms Aperture Diaphragms F i e l d Diaphragms

REFERENCES

TABLE OF COWENTS (continued)

CHAPTER 11. ILLLJMINATION

1 ILLUMINATION OF TRANSPARENT OBJECTS

Axial Transmitted Light

i Convergent Transmitted Light

i Oblique Transmitted Light Annular Oblique Illumination

I Dark Field Illumination with Wheel Stop

t Paraboloid or Dark Ground Illuminator

! THE REFRACTIVE INDEX Table of Refractive Indices of Some Important Mounting Media

ILLUMINATION OF OPAQUE OBJECTS Interpretation of Appearances

t Methods of Illumination by Reflected Light Applications of Opaque Illumination

1 Low Power Illuminat ion

i AXIAL ILLUMINATION AND VERTICAL ILLUMINATORS

1 i REFERENCES

CHAPTEH 111. EXAMINATION IN POLARIZED LIGHT

! POLARIZED LIGHT

I OPTICALLY ISOTROPIC AND ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS \

CAUSE OF DOUBLE REFMCTlON Strain Intrinsic Anisotropy

I Form Anisotropy I

L

1 THE MEASUREDENT OF DOUBLE REFRACTION Retardation Sign of the Double Refraction Substage Diaphragm

PLEOCHROI SM

THE POLARIZATION MICROSCOPE

REFERENCES

Page

. - . -- . -.-- .

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

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CHAPTER I V . MICROSCOPIC EQUIPMFNT REQUIRED I N THE PULP AND PAPER MILL

USES OF THE MICROSCOPE

SPECIFICATIONS FOR A GENERAL LABORATORY MICROSCOPE

MICROTOMES

PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC CAMERA

DAYLIGHT FLUORESCENT LAMP

VARIABLE ANGLE SLRFACE ILLUMINATOR

ACCESSORIES

CHAPTER V . MICROMETRY

INTRODUCTION Unit of Microscopic Measurements Accuracy of Linear Microscopic Measurements

MFTHODS OF LINEAR MEASURNNTS Method 1. Visual Estimation Based on a Knowledge of t h e

Magnifying Power of t he Microscope

Method 2 . Measurements Obtained by Means of a Stage Micrometer and a Drawing Camera (camera ~ u c i d a )

Method 3. Measurements Obtained by Direc t Comparison of Objects and the Graduated Mechanical Scale

Method 4. Measurements Obtained by Micrometer Eyepieces Ca l ib ra t ion of Micrometer Eyepiece

Method 5 . P r o j e c t i n g a Scale of Known Value i n t o t h e F ie ld of View by Means of t h e Substage Condenser

Method 6 . Measurement o f Pro jec ted Real Images

Method 7 . Measurements by Means of t h e Graduated Fine Adjustment

Method 8. Vickers - A.E.I. Image-Spli t t ing Measuring Eyepiece

FIBER DIMENSIONS Methods of Making Length and Width Determinations

P repa ra t ion of S l i d e s P r o j e c t i o n Arrangement

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

Measurement of F ibe r Length with a Semiautomatic Recorder Coulter Counter Cross-Sect ional Dimensions of F ibe r s

Method of Calcula t ion Cross-Sectional Dimensions of Pulp F ibe r s

The Number of F ibe r s Per G r a m of Pulp and i t s Rela t ion t o F ibe r Dimensions (18) Determination of ~ K b e r of F ibe r s F ibe r Dimensions of t h e Pulps

I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of F ibe r Dimension Data Fiber Coarseness Standard Techniques f o r Measuring Fiber Bending

Summary of Re s u l t s

SIEVE TESTING

PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION Methods of Determining Grain Size (42) - Prepara t ion of Sample Prepara t ion of S l i d e s Type of Mounts Microscopic Equipment Count and Measurement Magnif icat ion Used and Comparison of F i e l d s Average P a r t i c l e Size

Calculati .on of Average P a r t i c l e Size Green' s Method of Determining P a r t i c l e Size

PREPARATION OF SLIDES OF PIGMENTS AND INERTS The Mult iple Wedge Turpentine Dispersion (46) - The Ci rcu la r Wedge Dammar Dispersion The Duco Household Cement Dispersion (48) The Amy1 Acetate Parlodion Dispersion -9) -

Procedure Eliminat ion of Pigments from a Mount Photographic Method f o r Determining P a r t i c l e S ize

P repa ra t ion of t h e Sample Photography Magnif icat ion Measurements Average Diameter E r ro r s and Mistakes

Hemacytometer Chamber Method ( 50, 51) - - Automatic and Semiautomatic Scanning Devices

Zeiss P a r t i c l e S ize Analyzer ( A f t e r ~ n d t e r ) F ly ing Spot Microscope

REFERENCES

v i i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page -

CHAPTER V I . FIBER MORPHOLOGY

n

CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS F ibe r C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

,----. MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Wood F ibe r s Anatomy of t h e Coniferous Woods Anatomy of Dicotyledonous Woods Nonwoody Vegetable F ibe r s

F r u i t F i b e r s Cotton Kapok Coir

B a s t F i b e r s Trees and Shrubs Kozo M i t sumat a Gampi

Herbaceous Dicotyledon Bast F ibe r s F lax Hemp Sunn Ramie J u t e Hop Vine

Grass F ibe r s Cerea l Straws Sugar Cane Bagasse Cornstalks Bamboo Esparto Sabai

Leaf F ibe r s Abaca, o r Manila F ibe r S i s a l Phormium, o r New. Zealand Flax Pineapple P i t a F l o j a Caroa Maur i t ius F iber

Animal F i b e r s S i l k F ibe r s

Cul t iva ted S i l k Tussah, o r Wild S i l k

Wool Spec ia l ty H a i r F ibe r s Leather F ibe r s

Mineral F ibe r s Asbestos F i b e r s

Man-Made o r A r t i f i c i a l F ibe r s Glass F ibe r s

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Regenerated Cellulose F ibe r s Viscose Rayon Cuprmonium Rayon

Cellulose Es te r Fibers Acetate Rayon

Pro te in Base F ibe r s Casein Soybean Peanut Zein

Polyamide Fibers Polyvinyl Fibers Polyacryl ic Fibers

Orlon Acri lan

Polyes ter F ibe r s Dacron

Polyethylene o r Polythene Fibers

REFERENCES

CHAPTER V I I . THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF THE PLANT CELL WALL

THE WOODY PLANT CELL Terminology Middle Lamella

Maceration Techniques The Primary Wall The Secondary Wall

Outer Layer Central Layer Inner Layer Bordered P i t s React ion Wood

THE COTTON SEED HAIR Primary Wall Winding Layer

OTHER NONWOODY FIBERS Bast F ibers Seed H a i r Monocotyledons

REFERENCES

Page

188 188 189 189 189 190 190 191 192 192 192 193 193 193 194 194 194 194

. . . . . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

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CHAPTER V I I I . FImR ANALYSIS

n

INTRODUCTION - SAMPLING

DISINTEGRATION OF SAMPLE Treatment of Specia l Papers

Tar and Asphalt-Treated Papers Rubber-Treated Papers Viscose-Treated Papers Wet-Strength Papers Pyroxylin-Treated Papers Dewaxing Procedure ( f o r ~ l a s s i n e ) D i s in t eg ra t ion of Parchment Papers Highly Colored Papers

PREPARATION OF SLIDES Aluminum S tea ra t e Solut ion

P repa ra t ion Appl ica t ion

Permanent S l i d e s Unbleached F i b e r s Bleached F i b e r s

STAINING

IODINE STAINS Potassium Iodide- Iodine S t a i n Potassium Iodide- Iodine-Sulfuric Acid Herzberg S t a i n Sutermeis te r S t a i n Graff "A" S t a i n ( ~ o d i f i e d Sutermeis te r s t a i n ) Jenke S t a i n Alexander S t a i n Se l l ege r S t a i n F e r r i c Chloride-Ferricyanide-Calcium N i t r a t e S ta in Other Chloride S ta ins Graf f ' s Observations Graff "C" S t a i n Graff "F" S t a i n Wilson S t a i n

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATIONS Q u a l i t a t i v e Determination Quan t i t a t ive Determination

WEIGHT FACTORS Report P rec i s ion

GRADING OF FIBER ANALYSTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued) Page

Q u a l i t a t i v e Analysis Grading Quan t i t a t ive Analysis Grading

SUMMARY 245

REFERENCES 246

CHAPTER I X . MISCELLANEOUS STAINS AND REAGENTS 249

GROUNDWOOD REAGENTS Ani l ine S u l f a t e ( 1 ) Phloroglucinol and Hydrochloric Acid ( 2 ) - p-Ni t roani l ine ( 3) - Hydrochloric ~ c i d - A l c o h o l S t a i n ( 4 ) Ammonium Chloride-Alcohol S t a i n (q) - Congo Blue and Cotton Brown ( 5 )

S u b s t i t u t e s f o r Congo ~ lue -and Cotton Brown S u l f a n i l i c Acid ( 6 ) D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Softwood and Hardwood Groundwood

Methylene Blue (7) - Maule Reaction

D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Unbleached and Bleached Groundwood Stannous Chloride (9 ) Lofton-Merri t t stain (10) -

DYES FOR FIBER DIFFERENTIATION Behren' s D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Unbleached and Bleached S u l f i t e (11)

Klernm' s ~ i z e r e n t i a t i o n Between Unbleached S u l f a t e and Bleached Sulf i t e (12)

Schwalbe ' s if f e r e n n a t i o n of Sulf i t e and S u l f a t e F ibe r s (13) Shaffer ' s D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Bleached S u l f a t e and ~ u l E t e Cyanine Reagent (15 ) No11 ' s Color if f G e n t i a t i o n s Bright ' s S t a i n Cooking o r B leachab i l i t y S t a i n

Standardized Procedure Cor re l a t ions

Bleach S t a i n Standard Method

Lofton-Merri t t S t a i n Wisbar' s Modif icat ion Graf f ' s S t a i n

Klemm' s Method (29) Green and ~ o r s t o r ~ t a i n Du Pont S ta ins Simons' S t a i n (32) - Karminazurol Chlorazol Black E (34) - NSSC S t a i n s Cold Soda S t a i n

TABLE OF CONTENTS ( ~ o n t inued) Page

SPECIAL STAINS AND REAGENTS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF NONWOODY FIBERS Se lec t ive S t a i n s

Picrocarmine K (40) - Neocarmine W, B, and MS (41) Colotex B (43) Texchrome (a) ~ h i r l a s t a i n 7 4 5 )

D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Animal and Vegetable F ibe r s Liebermann' s Method (46) - Millon ' s Reagent P i c r i c Acid Reagent Test f o r Wool (47)

Determination of ~ z t o n , Linen, and Wood F ibe r s (48) - D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Cotton and Linen (49) -

Chrysophenin and Safranin Cochineal Tincture Copper S u l f a t e

D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f Cotton, Flax, and Hemp (50) D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of Cotton, Flax, Hemp, and J u t e (51) D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Unbleached and Bleached ~ z t o n (46) - D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of Bast F ibe r S t ruc tu res (49) - D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Flax and Hemp

Cross Sec t ions (52) Cuprammonium s o l Z i o n ( - 53) Cyanine (54) Moisture T e s t (55) Potassium ~ i c h r o m a t e ( - 56)

D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of Ju t e , Phormium, and Hemp (57) Dis t inc t ion Between Mitsumata and Gampi (58) - D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Manila and S i s a l

The Swett Test (59) The Amoa Test (m -

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF DAMAGED COTTON AND WOOL Damaged Cotton Hai rs (61) -

Congo Red Test Normal and Mildewed Cotton F ibe r s (62) - Detect ion of Damaged Wool (64) -

Chlorine Water (65) Indigo Carmine (9) Potassium ~ ~ d r o x z e (46) Standardized Method (z) -

STAINS FOR SIZING AND COATING MATERIALS I N PAPER Rosin Sizing

Raspai l Test Potassium Permanganate (68) -

Glue Sizing Tannin Tes t Biuret Test G r a f f ' s Method Iodine Test (69) -

Casein Siz ing Adamkiewicz Test

x i i i

FIBERS

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont inued)

Mi l lon ' s Reagent Ge la t in S iz ing Latex S iz ing Starch S iz ing

Starch Retent ion S tarch and Dextr in D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n (67, 72, 73, 127) - - - -

Resins and P l a s t i c s Wet-Strength Resins polyvinyl ! ~ c o h o l (81) -

Dyestuffs S t a i n s f o r F i l l e r s and Pigments

TAPPI Suggested Method (83, 84) - - Beckh' s Method (85) Kollmann' s ~ e t h o r ( 8 6 ) -

STAINS AND REAGENTS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES Microscope Examination of Pulps f o r Resin

Sudan I V Orange R Alkannin

Mycelium Reagents D i f f e r e n t i a l S t a i n f o r Lignin and Cel lu lose

Ethanolamine-Silver N i t r a t e Reagent (93) - Hydriodic Acid (94) Benzidine Hydrocmoride (95) -

Oxycellulose Reagent s Methylene Blue (96) Diamine Pure ~ l u T ( 4 6 ) S i l v e r Th iosu l f a t e S t a i n (97) S i l v e r Hydroxide S t a i n ( 9 7 7 Cor re l a t ion with Other p T p Fac to r s

Mercerizat ion Reagents S u l f u r i c Acid-Formaldehyde Test (98) - Cuprammonium Solu t ion ( 5 3) - Hfibner ' s Reagent (99) Benzopurpurin 4~ (100) Methylene ~ l u e - p o t a s s i u m Iodide- Iodine (101) -

Specia l Tes t s Bleaching Reagents D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Genuine and I m i t a t i o n Parchment D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Pas ted Cartons and Index B r i s t o l s (103) D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Between Pas ted and Unpasted Boards (104)

-

Watermark I d e n t i f i c a t i o n (105) -

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Waxes ( l o r - I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of P r i n t i n g

Page

REFERENCES

xiv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

CHAPTER X. SPECK COUNT AND SPECK ANALYSIS

SPECKS I N PULP Laboratory Control Method (1)

Measurement s and ~ n a l ~ s i . 2 Report

M i l l Control Method (1) - The Light Box Sampling I l l umina t ion Counting Measurements and Analysis Report

SPECK COUNTS I N PAPER ( 2 ) - Sampling Counting Measurements and Analysis Report

SPECK ANALYSIS The Systematic I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Spots and Specks i n Paper ( 6 ) . -

Table XXXV Chart f o r Speck Analysis ( 7 ) . - Table XXXVI

S o l u b i l i t y Tes t s Chemical Tes t s

Determination of Meta l l i c Specks i n Photographic and E l e c t r i c a l Papers

SUMMARY Group I . Algae, Bacter ia , Slime, e t c .

Foam o r Froth Spots Green Algae I ron Eac te r i a Mycelium Filaments Slime Resinous I r o n Specks

Group 11. Animal F ibers , Wool, and S i l k Group 111. Bark and Knotwood Group I V . Bleach Scale, Concrete, Lime, e t c . Group V . Button Specks and Seal ing Wax Group V I . Casein, Glue, Rosin, and Starch Group V I I . Hurds, Shives, e t c .

Hurds Esparto Scale

Group V I I I . Cinders, Coal, and Soot Group I X . Dyes and Pigments, e t c . Group X . F ibers and F ibe r Knots

Asbestos Beard F ibe r s Broke Spots, F ibe r Knots, and Pulp Shiners

Group X I . F i l l e r s and Loadings

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Group X I I . Glass, Quar tz , Sand, T i l e , e t c . Group X I I I . Grease, O i l , and Wax Group X I V . Inks, L ips t i ck , and P a i n t

L ips t i ck Pa in t P r i n t e r ' s Ink

Group XV. Inorganic S a l t s and Oxides F e r r i c Chloride Manganese Dioxide

Group X V I . I ron and Rust Group XVII. Nonferrous Metals Group XVIII. Minera ls : Asbestos, Glass ~ i b e r s , and Mica Group X I X . P i t c h Group XX. P l a s t i c s and Synthet ic F ibers Group XXI . Rubber Specks Group XXII. Seeds and Seed Hairs

REFERENCES

CHAPTER X I . MICROSECTIONING

THE MICROTOME Hand Microtome

Hardy Microtome Mechanical Microtome

THE MICROTOME KNIFE Sharpening t h e Knife

Hand Sharpening Machine Sharpening

P o s i t i o n of t h e Knife

SECTIONING OF WOOD Se lec t ion of Mater ia l Softening and Other Treatments

Steaming Method T r i e thylene Glycol Glycerin and Alcohol Hydrofluoric Acid Peroxide and Acet ic Acid Embedding

Sect ioning Sta in ing

Saf ranin and Fas t Green (22) Hematoxylin and Saf r a n i n v2) -

Mounting Canada Balsam Mounts Glycerin J e l l y Mounts

Sec t ioning of Plywood and Improved Woods

SECTIONING OF FIBERS Hand Techniques

TABLE OF CONTENTS ( ~ o n t inued)

Page

P l a t e Method (1, 2, l g A , 49-51) Cork Method (2; 17~~49-51, 3) - - -- - Hardy Microtome Method (3, 50-51, 58) -- -

Rapid Methods f o r ~ e c h a n i c a i Sect ioning

? / A , 49-51) 1,49-51,Z) - - --

Hardy ~ i c r o t b m e Method (3, 50-51, - - 58) t i o n i n g

P a r a f f i n Candle 3 39 Collodion 3 39 Collodion and P a r a f f i n 339 Cross Sec t ioning of Pulp F i b e r s (IPC Collodion ~ e t h o d ) 3 39 Cross Sect ioning of Pulp F i b e r s (IPC Methacrylate ~ e t h o d ) 340

Deta i led Embedding f o r Mechanical Sect ioning 341 P a r a f f i n Embedding Method 341 Collodion Embedding Method ( 2 , 11, lgC, 20, 40-44, 49, 54, 58, 68) 344 - - - - - - - - - - Double Embedding i n Collodion and P a r a f f i n 346 Ge la t in Embedding Synthe t ic Resin Embedding

SECTIONING OF PAPER Cross Sect ioning of Paper

Freehand Methods Hardy Microtome Jung Hand Microtome Sandwich Methods Cork Method (77)

Cork sec t ion ing of Waxed Paper (77) - P a r a f f i n Method (77)

Sect ioning of E l l b o a r d (78) Gum Arabic-Paraf f in Method (79) Collodion-Paraf f i n Method ( 7 9 - Collodion-Cork Method (77) Methacrylate Methods (8z - 83) Epoxy Resin Method ( 7 2 7 - Polyethylene Method Freez ing Method

P a r a l l e l Sect ioning of Paper Oblique Sect ioning

REFERENCES 3 56

CHAPTER X I 1 . PHOTOMICROGRAPHY 361

P FUNDAMENTALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Films and P l a t e s Color Film

n Gamma

Defects of Negatives F i l t e r s (3 )

r\ Light %lancing F i l t e r s

Color Compensating F i l t e r s

x v i i

. . . .. - . .

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

CAMERAS I n t e g r a l Lens Camera Fixed Length Camera Ad jus table Bellows Camera

V e r t i c a l Camera Horizontal Camera

OPTICAL ALIGNMENT AND ILLUMINATION I l luminat ion

Centering t h e Filament Image t o t h e Mirror Focusing t h e Br igh t f i e ld Condenser Centering t h e Br igh t f i e ld Condenser

Glare

GENERAL PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC PROCEDURE Low Power Medium Power Magnification Cleanliness Vibrat ion Procedure with Ver t i ca l Camera Procedure with Horizontal Camera Focusing t h e Camera Image Exposure Common Fau l t s i n Photomicrography

PHOTOMICROGRAPHY OF FI BROUS MATERIALS Fibers Wood Sections Paper

Format ion Surface S t ruc tu re Paper Sections

SPECIAL PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC PROCESSES Darkf i e l d Metal Shadowing Polar ized Light Ul t r av io le t Microscopy Fluorescence Microscopy In f ra red Microscopy Phase Contrast Microscopy In ter ference Microscopy ~ i n d Photomicrography Color Photomicrography Stereoscopic Photomicrography

F ibe r Substances Anaglyph s

REFERENCES

INDEX

x v i i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

SECTIONING OF FIE33RS Hand Techniques

P l a t e Method (1, 2, l g A , 49-51) Cork. Method (25 1 g ~ , 3 - 5 1 , 5) - - -- Hardy Microtome Method (3, 5 c 51, 58) - - -

Rapid Methods f o r ~ e c h a n i c a i Sect ioning P a r a f f i n Candle Collodion Collodion and P a r a f f i n Cross Sect ioning of Pulp F ibe r s (IPC Collodion ~ e t h o d ) Cross Sect ioning of Pulp F i b e r s (IPC Methacrylate ~ e t h o d )

Deta i led Embedding f o r Mechanical Sect ioning P a r a f f i n Embedding Method Collodion h b e d d i n g Method (2 , 11, lgC, 20, 40-44, 49, 54, 58, 68) - - - - - - - - - - Double Embedding i n Collodion and P a r a f f i n Ge la t in Bnbedding Synthet ic Resin Embedding

SECTIONING OF PAPER Cross Sec t ion i rg of Paper

Freehand Methods Hardy Microtome Jung Hand Microtome Sandwich Methods Cork Method (77)

Cork ~ e c t i G i n g of Waxed Paper (77) - P a r a f f i n Method (77)

Sect ioning of E l l b o a r d (78) Gum Arabic-Paraff in Method (3) Collodion-Paraff in Method ( 7 g - Collodion-Cork Method ( 77) Methacrylate Methods (8z 83) - Epoxy Resin Method ( 7 2 7 - Polyethylene Method Freezing Method

P a r a l l e l Sect ioning of Paper Oblique Sect ioning

CHAPTER X I 1 . PHOTOMICROGRAPHY 361

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY Films and P l a t e s

Color Film Gamma Defects of Negatives F i l t e r s (3 )

Light -kLancing F i l t e r s Color Compensating F i l t e r s

TABLE OF CONTmS (continued)

CAMERAS I n t e g r a l Lens Camera Fixed Length Camera Adjustable Bellows Camera

Ver t i ca l Camera Horizontal Camera

OPTICAL ALIGNMENT AND ILLUMINATION Illurninat ion

Centering t h e Filament Image t o t h e Mirror Focusing the Br ightf ie ld Condenser Centering the Br ightf ie ld Condenser

Glare

GENERAL PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC PROCEDURE Low. Power Medium Power Magnification Cleanliness Vibration Procedure with Ver t i ca l Camera Procedure with Horizontal Camera Focusing the Camera Image Expo sure Common Fau l t s i n Photomicrography

PHOTOMICROGRAPHY OF FIBROUS MATERIALS Fibers Wood Sections Paper

Formation Surface St ructure Paper Sections

SPECIAL PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC PROCESSES Darkf i e l d Metd Shadowing Polarized Light Ul t rav io le t Microscopy Fluorescence Microscopy Infrared Microscopy Phase Contrast Microscopy Inter ference Microscopy ~ i n 6 Photomicrography Color Photomicrography Stereoscopic Photomicrography

Fiber Substances Anaglyph s

REFERENCES

INDEX

Page

x v i i i