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Good discussion on FridayMay discuss the other two chapter this

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Post War America and the Indian

WWII changed the world, America and life and expectations for Native Americans

Colonies around the world began to break down

Communities and countries around the world began to demand and take, a path, to Self-Determination

For some white politicians WWII had taught them “new” ideas with regard to Native Americans

Having seen Native American soldiers fight with, and function effectively within, the Armed forces

In non-segregated units

This “New” IdeaThey believed that Indians deserved

to share equally in the benefits of citizenship

Could be drawn fully into the economic, social, and cultural fabric of America

Can anyone say assimilation?

By moving in this way Native Americans could

be removed from rural ghettos No awareness of the

Navajo Code Talkers Genuinely wanted to help Others had the same

ideas But not the same

motivations

Collier was tied to FDR New deal policies came

to be seen as communist

Collier’s protection of native land was damaging to business

Therefore dangerous to America Remember Joe

McCarthy

Conservative politicians wanted toTrim federal budgetSee America as a single identity

Both these aims were turned to Native America

With disastrous resultsThe aim was to redefine the relationshipPhase out tribal governmentTerminate the relationship between the

federal government and Native America

Brief video overview on issues of land and sovereignty

Termination

We heard in the video that tribal sovereignty had never been taken away

Yet for a period of time in the 20th Century and for a few groups that is exactly what occurred

After Colliers' resignation

replaced by William Brophy and John Nicholls

good men but unable to rebuff the attacks on the role of the BIA

1950 Pres. Truman appointed Dillon S. Myer

Myer had managed relocation of Japanese to camps

Believed that Japanese-Americans and others should and could be assimilated

Why?To reduce racial tensionTurned focus to Native Americans to

achieve this goalLaunched a political counter-offensive

Native American cultures an OxymoronHe argued that Native Americans had no

“legitimate cultures”Government had no business in

encouraging native languages, arts, literature, and government.

End cultural pluralismDeemphasized day schools near

reservationsEnlarged boarding school process

When Eisenhower assumed presidency in 1952 Myer knew he would not be reappointed

But didn’t want to lose influence and power Volunteered support and guidance to new commissioner

Glenn Emmons

One of Myer first acts of help was to compose a letter to congress

Proposal suggested TerminationPolicy was already doing the rounds in the

halls of powerThey main playersEmmons

Former banker from New MexicoArthur V. Watkins of Utah

Chair of Senate Committee on Indian AffairsAbolish tax free status of reservations

Conservative republicans chaired Committee of Indian Affairs in both houses

Pushed through termination bill as a “valuable and salutary Congressional measure”

August 1st 1953 Congress unanimously passed House Concurrent Resolution 108

Concurrent Resolution 108 Congress wanted Indians to be “subject to the same laws and entitled to the same

privileges and responsibilities” As other Americans, listed nations in

That were prepared to have federal services withdrawn

California New York Wisconsin Oregon Montana

Kansas Nebraska Florida Texas

Resolution 108 was not lawBut it guided Indian policy and Two weeks later congress passedPublic Law 280 (PL 280)Placed lands in Minnesota, Wisconsin,

California, Nebraska and Oregon under Criminal and civil legislation of the statesPresident Eisenhower signed it into Law

notingCongress had not included a provision ‘asking for native consent’

PL 280 reminiscent of laws in 1830s Georgia1850s California

Ignored policies under Collier Congressmen knew that Indians would oppose

terminationThis is why they didn’t consult

1954 House and Senate passed laws Terminating federal relationships with particular tribes Ending tribal governments and constitution Effectively forced Native Americans to be subjects of

the state in which they lived

US had got out of the ‘Indian Business’Ordered states and counties to take over Indians could either sell land and resources and offer per

capita payments or transfer title to a trustee Individual Indians given title to land so

they could sell themCan anyone say allotment?

Many Native Americans found out about PL 280 long after the fact.

Surprised and uprooted in one dayOthers however recognized the dangerSeveral tribal council passed resolutions

opposing itNational Congress of American Indians

(NCAI)Organized in 1944

Mobilized against Termination in 1953

Termination An attempt to “desegregate Indian

communities and integrate Indians into the rest of society”

also intended as “the ultimate destruction

of tribal cultures and native life-styles”

Donald L. Fixico Creek, Seminole,

Shawnee Sac and Fox

Many Native Americans found out about PL 280 long after the fact.

Surprised and uprooted in one dayOthers however recognized the dangerSeveral tribal council passed resolutions

opposing itNational Congress of American Indians

(NCAI)Organized in 1944

Mobilized against Termination in 1953

Lead figure in the National Congress of American Indian (NCAI) and their opposition to PL 280

Joseph GarryFormer Marine and Chair of Coeur d’Alene

tribe

NCAI argument was that:Only Native Americans, not

congress, could end tribal-government relationship

As with many issues Native American ironic black humor appeared in the condemnation of termination

Earl Old Person Blackfeet elder

Native translation for Termination: wipe out, kill off

Planning your future under the threat of termination like cooking

“a meal in your tipi when someone is standing outside trying to burn the tipi down”

Another strong campaigner Lucy Covington

Colville Confederated tribe

Some members waivered towards terminating Covington took the lead “Lucy Covington single-handily stopped the

Coalvilles from terminating” Tribal member

With help of Commissioner of Indian Affairs Philleo Nash

She successfully fought Washington Senator Henry Jackson

Prevented termination in 1966

Not the result for all tribesFinally congress terminated 109

tribes3 % of federally recognized tribesTogether owned 3.2% of native lands1958 “rancheria bill” part of the

attack on California where 41 reservations were terminatedMost from any single state

Two of most well known acts of termination era

1954 Klamath Termination ActAnd1961 Menominee Termination

ActBut before we get to these two

cases

New documentary series

1958 congress authorized sale of forests to private companies

1,659 Klamaths (77%) voted to terminate

Received one time payment of $43,000

To pay for this government agents sold 717,000 acres

Remaining 474 Klamath (23%) voted to retain tribal status had 145,000 acres

Klamath Termination

1954 act passedAllowed natives on Klamath reservation toA) remain with the tribe and placing unsold

part of reservation into trustB) sever relationship with tribe and federal

governmentThose who severed received share of

tribal assets

Klamath identified for termination due to

Rich timber resourcesRelative prosperity$2 million gross annual income from

sale of tribal timberLeader for termination was Wade

Crawford a tribal member – lived of the reservation

1974 these people voted to terminatePer capita payment $173,000

Despite this all Klamath continued to identify as Indians

1975 readopted tribal constitutionKlamath Tribe of Oregon

Asserted water, hunting and fishing rights as provided in treaty

Lobbied congress to restore tribal status1978 congress recognized the Klamath

and restored federal status

Friday Termination cont. and discussion

Menominee Termination1961 act passed

First proposed 19541953 Menominee had been seeking

distribution of earlier settlementSenator Watkins of Utah

Supporter of terminationAdded amendment to paymentTermination precondition to paymentLed to confusion on reservation

Menominee voted unanimously for termination

Of 3,254 members of the tribe on 200 actually voted

Most Menominee refused to vote to show opposition to even discussing or recognizing termination as a policy

1961 created Menominee Enterprises Inc

To operate their lumber mills and lands

Termination proved to be disastrousHad to close tribal hospitalTuberculosis, had been on decline, rose again1965 1/3 of tribe were positive for the disease infant mortality 200% above national averageAnd children who survived no longer

recognized as Indian tribal rolls had been closed in 1954 with

termination

Unemployment on reservation rose to 25%

Forcing tribe to sell land to non natives along lakes and in prime hunting grounds

1970 formedDetermination of Rights and Unity

for Menominee Shareholders (DRUMS)

Led by Ada DeerDecember 22 1973 President Nixon

signed the Menominee Restoration Act

This act effectively ended Termination eraFederal government neitherA) Got out of Indian business1953 – 1973 BIA grew in budget and staffB) Saved moneyFederal government spent vast sums onWelfare, public health, and Social SecurityNative Americans did not enter melting potBut helped ignite a new activism among

Native Americans