Sociology 105Sociology 105

Chapter 11

Marriage & Family

Introduction

• Cultural factors play a major role in how marriage is defined and how it functions

• How we define the family has implications for policy– A standard definition is “a universal human

institution in a small kinship-structured group with the key function of nurturant socialization of the newborn

• 3 theories help us understand the family better

FunctionalismFunctionalism

Sexual RegulationSexual Regulation

FourFunctions

ofFamilies

FourFunctions

ofFamilies

SocializationSocialization

Economic SupportEconomic Support

Psychological & Emotional Support

Psychological & Emotional Support

Percentage of Married Women in theU.S. Labor Force, 1890-1992

Year

Pe

rce

nt

5

10

20

30

40

50

1900 1940 1950 1960 1970 19801910 1920 19301910 1990 1992

60

Conflict/Feminist Perspective

• Women dominated by men in the home– Men do less housework then women

• Women are expected to put in a “second shift”

• Men do about 10 hours per week, women about 20 hours– But women still do about 80% of the female dominated jobs

– Question: Why do women accept this unequal participation? Fader (1985) says:

• They often criticize their husband's work (he doesn't fold the laundry correctly)

• “Women expect men to read their mind”

• Many mothers won’t relinquish their role as the primary parent

Symbolic Interactionism

• Focus on how a person interprets their situation– Men do less housework when: (1) they are laid off,

and (2) they make less than their wife. Why….?• A man feels his masculinity is threatened. He views himself

as having failed in his role as primary provider

• Avoiding housework allows him to reclaim his masculinity and retain “dignity”

The Family: Weaker or Stronger Today?• Question: is the family weaker or stronger today

than in the past? Why?

• Stark points out how families were structured in traditional European families. – Female-headed households were common– Children viewed as “little adults” & often neglected

• Babies who died were discarded in garbage pits and gutters

• Often left home by age 10

– Strained relations between husband and wife

• Opinion polls in the 1950's showed that 20% reported their marriages as "unhappy." and another 20% reported only "medium happiness."

Marriage, Children, & Happiness• Married people are, on the average, happier & healthier• During the 60's researchers noted that mothers often

developed the "empty nest" syndrome• During the 70's however, they found that a U‑shaped

curve existed between a couple's marital happiness and the parental responsibilities– Couples reported happiness before children were

born, happiness plummets when children are born, and then happiness goes up when they leave.

Choosing a Mate• Question: What effect has modernization had on

marriage?– Marriages shifted from arranged and/or based on

economic alliances to individual choice based on love and romance

• Question: What are you looking for in a mate?

• Social factors play a huge role in who you choose:– Age (women, on average, marry a man 2 years older than

herself)

– Education

– Social class

– Race (94% choose someone of their own race)

– Religion

• Thus, we tend to marry people who are like us, a phenomenon social scientists call “homogamy”

• Question: Why is this?

• Because of spatial nearness (networks): we tend to meet & fall in love with people we meet at:– church

– work

– school

Facts About Divorce & Extramarital Affairs

• Most people who get divorced report that the marriage ceased to provide emotional satisfaction

• The divorce rate is higher today than ever before, but:– People are less likely to remain in marriages today than in

the past• Divorce laws are much less restrictive

• Women have gained more economic independence from men

• So who is at risk? What are some of the factors that contribute to divorce?

Factors Affecting DivorceFactors Affecting Divorce

Age at MarriageAge at Marriage

Parental DivorceParental Divorce

Premarital ChildbearingPremarital Childbearing

EducationEducation

Cohabitation Before Marriage

Cohabitation Before Marriage

Bad BehaviorBad Behavior

SixFactors

Affectingthe Likelihood

of Divorce

Gender and Extramarital Sex

MenMen

YesYes

NoNo

24%24%

76%76%

WomenWomen

14%14%

86%86%

TotalTotal

19%19%

81%81%

100%100% 100%100% 100%100%

Percentage of Men and Women Reporting Extramarital AffairsPercentage of Men and Women Reporting Extramarital Affairs

How to Build a Successful Marriage

• Happily married couples typically cite three reasons for an enduring and happy marriage– Their spouse is their best friend– They see marriage as a long term commitment and

thus attempt to avoid serious conflict– They try to spend as much time together as possible

SOC 105

Chapter 12

Religion

Questions

• Why do Religions emerge & develop?

• Why do people join Religions?

Introduction

• Rodney Stark defines religion as:– “socially organized patterns of belief and

practices that concern ultimate meaning and assume the existence of the supernatural”

• Nobody knows when humans first acquired religion

• All known societies have some type of religion

• Religion has influenced societies in enormous ways

Religion in the United StatesReligion in the United States

Other 6%

None 5%

Jewish 2%

Mormon 1%

Protestant 59%Catholic 27%

Source: Gallup Poll 1994.

Functionalist Perspective

• Religion has 3 important functions:

1. Providing meaning and purpose to life

2. Promoting social cohesion and a sense of belonging

3. Providing social control and support for the government

• Religion can be dysfunctional too….

The Crusades

Taliban(Muslims) vs. Buddhists

• A 175-foot Buddhist monument, believed to be the world's largest standing Buddha was destroyed by Taliban Muslims in Afganistan.

Conflict Perspective• According to Karl

Marx, religion is the "opiate of the people"

• Max Weber argued that religion could be a catalyst to produce social change

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Religion serves as a reference group to help people define themselves

• Women’s versions of a certain religion usually differ from men’s versions

Secularization

• “The process by which particular religious organizations become more worldly and offer a less vivid and less active conception of the supernatural”

The Secularization Thesis (The Old Paradigm)

• Suggests that as society becomes more industrial and technological, religion is replaced by science

The Evidence?

• In the 1960s & 70s many social scientists predicted that religion would be replaced by science – They noticed that the largest established

denominations were losing members

Market Shares of Mainline per 1,000 Church Members, 1940-1985

Denomination 1940 1960 1985 Percentage loss or gain

United Methodists

124.7 93.0 64.3 -48%

Presbyterian, U.S.A.

41.7 36.4 21.3 -49%

Episcopal 30.9 28.6 19.2 -38%

Christian (Disciples)

25.7 15.7 7.8 -70%

United Church of Christ

26.5 19.6 11.8 -56%

• Yet, these scientists neglected to look at other non-mainline denominations

Market Shares of Evangelicals per 1,000 Church Members, 1940-1985

Denomination 1940 1960 1985 Percentage loss or gain

Southern Baptists

76.7 85.0 101.3 +32%

Assemblies of God

3.1 4.4 14.6 +371%

Church of the Nazarene

2.6 2.7 3.7 +42%

Church of God (Cleveland, TN)

1.0

1.5 3.6 +260%

Has Religion Been Displaced by Science?

• Seems to be the case in Europe, but not in the U.S.– Churches receive more money than any

other charity– Over 90% say they believe in God– Around 57% say they pray on a regular

basis– Around 70% report that religion is “very

important” in their lives– Church membership has increased over the

years, not decreased

Rates of Church Affiliation, U.S., 1776-1995Rates of Church Affiliation, U.S., 1776-1995

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1776 1850 1890 1916 1952 19951860 1870 1906 1926 1980

Pe

rce

nt

of

Ch

urc

h M

em

be

rsh

ip

Year

An Alternate View (The New Paradigm)

• Others suggested that secularization leads to religious revival and/or innovation– Religion will not be replaced by science

Why Does Religion Remain Relevant In The U.S. ?

1. Cultural Compatibility– Early churches emphasized self-

government and voluntary affiliation• Fits well with cultural values about

freedom of choice and individual initiative

2. Social Identity– Churches help those who move

around find a sense of community

3. Disestablishment & Competition (Finke, Stark & Bainbridge)– Separation of church and state ensures that

no one religion or denomination is funded by the government

• Thus, religious monopolies are prevented due to competition

– This wasn’t the case in many European countries

• This creates an environment that encourages competition between churches

– Churches have to adapt to meet the needs and wants of “the marketplace”

» a.k.a. “a religious economy”

The Geography of NRMs

• NRM’S typically arise in those areas where sects and churches have failed to satisfy the religious market

• What are NRMs?– “The beginning phase of an entirely

new religion”• Differs from a sect in that sects attempt

to purify or return to elements of an established religion

• Research has shown that NRMs are more successful in areas where “secularization” has occurred– The unchurched belt in the Western

U.S.

Church Membership Rates Per 1,000

Values:

588.37 To 747.3  

547.63 To 587.84  

460.98 To 546.46

405.98 To 453.63  

313.11 To 399.18

Studying Group Solidarity: Solomon Asch

Group 1X

Group 2ABC

Group 1

X

Group 2

A

B

C

Group 1X

Group 2ABC

Response Rates

Why Do People Join NRMS?: Studying Religious

Conversion• The brainwashing thesis– Based on psychology– Members are thought to be:

• Young• Lacking strong social attachments• From lower socioeconomic classes• Uneducated• Weak minded and thus highly suggestible

• The social network thesis – Based on sociology – John Lofland & Rodney Stark studied

religious conversion to the Unification Church

Research Findings

• Empirical research suggests the following generalizations– Those who are deeply committed to a faith do not go out and

join another faith• Seekership precedes many conversions but….

– Converts don’t have to have a favorable opinion of the NRM before they join, and they don’t initially agree with the NRM’s ideology

• Conversion is an act of conformity

– Recruitment and conversion to NRMs happens primarily through pre-existing social networks with family and friends

– Strong ties to others in the NRM are important for recruitment

– Sustained intensive interaction is also important for retention• Members who are heavily involved have fewer and weaker ties to

non-members

Conclusions

– Conversion Is A Matter Of Conformity

– Secularization contributes to the emergence of religious revivals and NRMs