reindeer husbandry and barents 2030

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REINDEER HUSBANDRY AND BARENTS 2030

REINDEER HUSBANDRYAND BARENTS 2030IMPACTS OF FUTURE PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT

ON REINDEER HUSBAND

RY IN THE BARENTS REGION

A REPORT PREPARED FOR STATOILHYDRO BY THE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR REINDEER HUSBANDRY

S

venSkaltje


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This work is linked to the ramework o the InternationalPolar Year as part o the International Polar Year (IPY) con-sortium EALT (IPY Project #399): Climate change andreindeer husbandry. This report and implementation o the

recommendations included herein are seen as a urthercontribution to the legacy o the IPY.

Layout: UNEP/GRID-ArendalPrinting: Fagtrykk Id AS, Alta, Norway

Disclaimer I

The contents o this report do not necessarily reect the views orpolicies o UNEP or contributory organisations. The designationsemployed and the presentations do not imply the expression o any

opinion whatsoever on the part o UNEP or contributory organisa-tions concerning the legal status o any country, territory, city orarea or its authority, or concerning the delimitation o its rontiersor boundaries.

Disclaimer II

This report has been commissioned by StatoilHydro ASA and un-

dertaken by the International Centre or Reindeer Husbandry. Sta-toilHydro ASA has commissioned our parallel scenario reports orthe Barents Region on respectively climate change, socio-econom-ic consequences, environmental issues and reindeer husbandry.

The joint project was ini tiated as part o StatoilHydros preparationsor a strategic action plan or uture oil and gas developments in theHigh North. This report represents the views o the authors only anddoes not necessarily reect the position o StatoilHydro ASA.


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REINDEER HUSBANDRY AND BARENTS 2030 3

REINDEER HUSBANDRYAND BARENTS 2030

IMPACTS OF FUTURE PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENTON REINDEER HUSBANDRY IN THE BARENTS REGIONSUMMARYINTRODUCTIONIMPACTS OF INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN ACTIVITYDEVELOPMENT TODAY

VOICES OF HERDERS AND INDIGENOU

S LEADERSREINDEER HUSBANDRY SCENARIOSTHREE QUALITATIVE SCENARIOS FOR THE BARENTS REGIONCONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSREFERENCES AND RESOURCES

APPENDIX

5972224324046555

INGUNN IMS VISTNESNORUT ALTA - LTPHILIP BURGESS INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR REINDEER HUSBANDRYSVEIN DISCH MATHIESEN INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR REINDEER HUSBANDRY

CHRISTIAN NELLEMANN UNEP/GRID-ARENDALANDERS OSKAL INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR REINDEER HUSBANDRYJOHAN MATHIS TURI INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR REINDEER HUSBANDRY


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AnnaDegteva


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New calculations confrm that continued piece-meal development will substantially reduce grazing

grounds in coastal areas, also without additional pe-troleum development. When coupled with extensivepetroleum development as projected in this report,however, an additional 21 000 km2 will be deterio-rated as grazing grounds in the Barents region. This isequivalent to the size o 2/3 o Finnmarks spring andsummer ranges.

Continued loss o grazing land will constrain reindeerhusbandry practices and make the livelihood lesscapable o handling other uture challenges such as

climate change. Herd production will likely decrease,while internal and external conicts will become more

common as the competition or resources increase.Unless a no-net loss o reindeer grazing ranges is im-plemented, continued piecemeal development, main-ly as a result o associated non-petroleum activity,will seriously threaten the entire platorm upon whichreindeer herding is based. Identifcation o alterna-tive ranges, restoration o current ranges, or the de-velopment o mitigation schemes to reduce impacts

o current and new activity will be required in orderto ensure long-term sustainability and the survival oreindeer husbandry.

SUMMARYTHE FUTURE FOR REINDEER HUSBANDRY IN THE BARENTS REGION IS

HIGHLY DEPENDENT ON THE AVAILABILITY OF GRAZING LAND. EXTENSIVEOIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT WILL LIKELY LEAD TO LOSS OF VITAL RANGES,IN PARTICULAR COASTAL SUMMER PASTURES AND CALVING GROUNDS.REINDEER HUSBANDRY AND BARENTS 2030 PRESENTS NEW POTENTIALSCENARIOS FOR REINDEER HUSBANDRY, COMBINING THE GLOBIOMETHODOLOGY FOR MAPPING LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY WITH THE EXTENSIVEOIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT PICTURED IN THE BARLINDHAUG SCENARIOS.


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RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPTIONS:

Short-term

Raise awareness and enhance capacity building bythe urther development o courses in industrial and

indigenous adaptation and mitigation processes in-volving all parties. These courses should integratetraditional knowledge and up-to-date scientifcknowledge on impacts on indigenous peoples andsubsistence livelihoods.Further develop courses in training o indigenouspeoples in environmental and social impact as-sessments and in negotiations concerning indus-

trial development projectsIncrease outreach and inormation capacity o rel-evant publications through translations o docu-ments into Russian and selected major indigenouslanguages or regions particularly exposed to de-velopment.

Mid-term recommendations and options

Support the development o Arctic ethical stand-ards and guidelines applying to industry with regardto involvement o indigenous peoples in industrialdevelopment processesInclude and consider the impacts o industrial de-velopment projects on the ability o indigenouspeoples to adapt to a changing climate

Adopt a no net loss policy with regard to availabilityo grazing ranges, so that losses o grazing land

rom new development is compensated with eitherrestoration, support to adaptation and mitigationmeasures where eective, or increased access toranges elsewhere.

Long-term recommendations and options

Develop an integrated management plan also orthe Barents sea land region involving and balancing

the land changes associated with industrial and in-rastructure development, climate change and thelong-term sustainability o reindeer husbandry.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

SvenSkaltje


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(ToC)


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Figure 1. Circumpolar distribution o reindeer husbandry and reindeer herding peoples



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Reindeer husbandry is a traditional livelihood in Eur-

asia, carried out by more than 20 dierent ethnic in-digenous Arctic peoples in Norway, Sweden, Finland,Russia, Mongolia and China, (e.g. the Smi, Nenets,Komi, Khanti, Dolgan, Nganasan, Yukagir, Even,Evenk, Sakha (Yakut), Chukchi, Koryak, and Chuvan),involving up to 100,000 herders, 2.5 million semi-do-mesticated reindeer, and our million square kilom-eters (Figure 1). Reindeer pastoralism is a traditionallivelihood that represents a model o sustainable ex-ploitation and management o northern terrestrial eco-systems based upon generations o experience ac-cumulated, conserved, developed and adapted to theclimatic and political/economic systems o the north.Reindeer husbandry represents a complex coupledsystem o interchange between humans and animalsin the Arctic. Thereore, any vision o sustainabilitythat is related to the Arctic cannot but take account

o the knowledge and lessons learned by those whopractice reindeer husbandry and related subsistenceactivities in the region.

Reindeer Husbandry and Barents 2030 discussespotential consequences o oil and gas developmentin the Barents Region (northern Fennoscandia andnorth-east Russia), assuming potential uture devel-

opment o several LNG plants, crude oil terminals,and pipeline systems in the area. The basis or theseassumptions is the Barlindhaug 2030 scenarios (Bar-

lindhaug 2005) and how they add to existing scenarios

o development in the region. Upgraded UNEP Globiomaps or reindeer pastures in the Barents region arepresented, including potential loss o grazing landtowards 2030 i coupled with extensive petroleumdevelopment. Three scenarios are described, givingpossible outcomes o varying levels o oil and gas de-velopment and how they will impact the region gen-erally, and reindeer husbandry more specifcally. The

report concludes by recommending a number o spe-cifc actions and mitigation measures o signifcanceor reindeer husbandry regionally.

INTRODUCTION

EllenInga

Turi


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The Barents Region includes the grazing range orover 800,000 semi-domestic reindeer, the tradition-al livestock o the Smi, Komi and Nenets people

(Jernsletten and Klokov, 2002). Both natural and po-litical conditions have ormed this way o lie. Natu-ral conditions decide where grazing conditions aremost avourable at any given time o the year withregards to snow, orage quality and quantity, preda-tors, insects, and climate. Political conditions such asclosing o national borders and regulation o pastureuse have constrained reindeer in other ways, such as

the closing o the Norwegian-Finnish border in 1852which excluded all reindeer on the Finnish side romtheir traditional summer pastures in Norway and vice

versa (Bull et al. 2001). As a result o these varyingconditions, reindeer husbandry is conducted in dier-ent orms throughout the Barents Region. The Smi

people also consist o several more or less distinctgroups with dierent livelihoods including fsheriesand reindeer herding, as well as a wide variety o otheroccupations. The Smi are divided into several dier-ent language groups (Figure 2).

It is important to note that this very same region repre-sents the largest commercially unexploited continuous

ranges in Europe, the greater part o which representsthe home and traditional pastures o the indigenouspeoples that live there (UNEP/EEA 2004).

THE BARENTS REGIONAND ITS INDIGENOUS INHABITANTS

PhilipBurgess

SveinDischMathiesen


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Figure 2. Smi languagegroups in the Barents

Region. Map created

by Johanna Roso and

adapted by Philippe

Rekacewicz or UNEP/

GRID-Arendal 2004.


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In Norway, some 240,000 semi-domestic reindeer are

herded over an area o approximately 146,000 km2,which is equivalent to 40% o the mainland area o thecountry (Reindeer Husbandry Administration 2008).Only Smi people may herd reindeer in Norway, withthe exception o a ew concession areas in southernNorway. Approximately 2900 Smi have reindeer hus-bandry as their primary or part time occupation. Rein-deer husbandry is an exclusive Smi livelihood also in

Sweden, except in the concession area in the Kalix andTorne valleys in Norrbotten. As in Norway, around 3000people are reindeer herders in Sweden, using 40% othe countrys area and owning around 250,000 rein-deer. Finland has around 200,000 semi-domestic rein-deer and 4900 reindeer owners (Paliskuntain Yhdistys2007), and reindeer husbandry is open to all memberso the European Union. The borders between Finland,

Norway and Russia are closed or reindeer migration.The border between Sweden and Norway is open, andreindeer herders in border regions may have regulated

REINDEER HUSBANDRY IN FENNOSCANDIAgrazing grounds on the other side o the border during

parts o the year. In Norway and Sweden, the livelihoodis characterised by relatively long migrations betweenwinter and summer pastures (Figure 3). In Finland,reindeer husbandry may be more stationary, and inthe southern ranges reindeer husbandry is oten com-bined with arming. Many Finnish herding cooperativesare closed by encing. Supplementary winter eeding iscommon in all but the most northerly areas o reindeer

husbandry in Finland.

Meat production is an important source o income orreindeer herding amilies. Meat production varies highlyhowever, due to a number o actors such as variationin climate. Most reindeer herding amilies have severalsources o income and varying levels o subsidies ur-ther complicate the picture. Income rom handicrats

production has been estimated to account or 12% othe additional earnings in West Finnmark, but is neg-ligible in other districts in the Barents Region (Jerns-

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letten and Klokov 2002). Compensation is another

source o income or husbandry units most o whichis or loss o reindeer to predators. Compensation isalso sometimes paid or loss o pastures, and this fg-ure has been controversial in how is has been applied.While compensation is a source o income, it shouldbe noted that e.g. in Norway, only around 20% o theannual claimed losses to predators are paid or by thegovernment (Jernsletten and Klokov 2002). Over 50%

o the expenses in reindeer husbandry are related tomechanical equipment (Reinert 2006). I transportationis included, the costs reach 8090% o the total costs,clearly illustrating that mechanization o the industryhas led to high expenditures. All in all, there is no doubtthat most reindeer husbandry units in Norway have anincome ar below the average income in Norway (Rein-deer Husbandry Administration 2007).

Reindeer and caribou populations can uctuate sub-stantially in numbers in response to orage availability,

Figure 3. The coastal areas o Finnmark include spring,

calving and summer ranges, and are thereore o high

value to reindeer herders. The above graphic representsannual migrations o reindeer between inland and coast-

al ranges in Norway (Vorren, 1962, Tyler et al., 2007).

NEW NORWEGIAN REINDEER HERDING ACT IN 2007

The basic unit within reindeer husbandry in Norwayhas been the husbandry unit, the head o which isusually the concession holder, a model that datesback to 1978. The recently passed Reindeer Actseeks to reestablish the siida as an important man-agement tool or reindeer husbandry. The siida isa community based working group within reindeer

husbandry which orms the central basis o deci-sions made related to grazing grounds. The mem-bers are oten related, and the composition o the

siida may change rom summer to winter. The newlaw has changed the term husbandry unit to sii-da share and also slightly changed the content othis term. By way o illustration, in West Finnmark(24,290 km2), there are 26 pasture districts, 36 sum-mer siidas, 53 winter siidas, 216 siida shares, 1322reindeer owners, and 93,900 reindeer (20062007).

This breaks down to 435 reindeer per siida share, 71reindeer per owner, and 6 reindeer owners per siidashare (Reindeer Husbandry Administration 2008).


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The situation in Russia is quite dierent rom Fennoscan-dia, complicated by the breakup o the Soviet Union andthe ollowing chaos, where the structures regarding landuse, ownership and reindeer husbandry were alteredand partly broke down. This is especially the case or

reindeer husbandry on the Kola Peninsula. The processo collectivization was introduced to the Kola Peninsulain the 1930s, with the establishment o thekolkhoz, thesovkhozand the brigade systems. This was overlaidupon the traditional amily-based reindeer herding sys-tems and ironically meant that continuity was retainedin the system. That said, it is difcult to speak o Smireindeer herding on the Kola Peninsula, as the large im-

migration o Komi at the end o the 19th Century broughta restructuring o the livelihood toward larger herds,which ftted more easily into the coming Soviet reorms.

REINDEER HUSBANDRY ON THE KOLA PENINSULASince the early 1990s, privatization reorms have oc-curred, but in reindeer husbandry, thesovkhoz(statearm) has persisted. The subsidies have not howev-er, and the cost o living has risen dramatically. Thestate has also withdrawn rom production, which has

been a serious handicap in areas without easy ac-cess to markets. An emerging coping strategy hasbeen private reindeer within the collective andthis has become prevalent in reindeer herding on theKola Peninsula in recent years. Post-Soviet herdinghas meant less control o territories and brigades anda composite mixing o herds. It is difcult to give anaccurate picture o the uture o reindeer husbandry

on the Kola Peninsula using scenarios as the indus-try in still in a painul transition (Konstantinov andVladimirova 2002).

predation pressure etc. When herded, however, dra-matic population uctuations should be avoided in or-der to sustain a predictable income or herders and re-tain the production potential o the ranges. The debateon how many reindeer the tundra can support is anold one, as is the question on how much and in whatway the authorities should participate in reindeer herd-ing management and economic support during crisisyears and peak production years. Reindeer numbersgrew substantially in Norway, Sweden and Finland inthe 1970s, reaching a peak around 1990. From 1990to 2000 there was an overall reduction in the numbero reindeer in Norway, Sweden and Finland, but num-

bers have increased again ater 2000. Several actorshave been identifed that inuence herd numbers, in-cluding mechanization o herding practices, supple-mental eeding (especially in Finland), cal harvesting,anti-parasite treatments, market disruptions (suchas the Chernobyl incident), and the tragedy o thecommons theme, in which some researchers state

that that open access grazing encourages overgraz-ing. Open access grazing does not actually exist inreindeer husbandry, but unclear and shiting winterpasture borders have in part lead to internal conictsamong reindeer herders. This may have encouragedkeeping large herds in order to survive in the competi-tion about limited grazing areas.

Paine (1992) and Berg (1997) denied the tragedymodel, suggesting that the real culprit since the 1970shas been governmental reindeer policy, most espe-cially the subsidy system begun in 1976. Their centralconcept is that with these policies, the state has taken

over herder responsibility, leaving herders external tothe central issues o their livelihoods. The engagementprocess between herders and institutions has alsobeen questioned (Joks et al. 2006). These discussionsare closely related with the Smi Land rights questionand the debate on what role the government shouldhave in relation to reindeer husbandry.


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SveinDischMathiesen


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Sve

inDischMathiesen


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Reindeer herding represents a highly extensive ormo land use. For herders the principle issue is gener-ally the securing o pastures in which to graze their

reindeer. Indeed, the progressive and eectively ir-reversible loss o the uncultivated lands which rein-deer use as pasture is probably the single greatestthreat to reindeer husbandry in the Barents Regiontoday. Preservation o rangeland is, correspondingly,perhaps the single greatest priority or sustaining theresilience o reindeer herding conronted by changesin both the natural and the socio-economic environ-

ment (UNEP 2001).

Loss o pastures occurs principally in two ways: (i)through physical destruction and (ii) through a reduc-tion o use o the existing pastures. Reindeer pasturesare physically lost through e.g. the construction obuildings, hydro-electricity acilities, pipelines, roads,and other inrastructure. Research shows, however,

that only a ew percent o the total available pasturesare usually physically lost as a result o even large de-velopment projects (Maki 1992, Nellemann et al. 2003).

O ar greater concern is the reindeers gradual aban-donment o previously high-use areas surroundingdevelopment and human activity (UNEP 2001, 2004,

Schaeer 2003, Vistnes and Nellemann 2008), pos-sibly because areas close to humans are perceivedas being high risk areas (Frid and Dill 2002). A rangeo studies have documented a 5095% reduction inuse o rangeland by reindeer and caribou within a2.5 to 5 km wide zone surrounding cabins, dams,power lines, roads and other inrastructure (Cameronet al. 1992, 1995, Helle and Srkel 1993, Nellemann

and Cameron 1996, 1998, Vistnes and Nellemann2001, Mahoney and Schaeer 2002, Nellemann et al.2000, 2001, 2003, Vistnes et al. 2004, Joly et al. 2006,Schaeer and Mahoney 2007). When avoidance zonesare several km wide, it usually means that a substantialportion o the range receives lower use, and that theanimals will have to crowd into the remaining undis-turbed pastures. Reindeer density is likely to increase

in rangelands away rom disturbance, oten resultingin increased competition over orage with subsequentreduction in growth and production.

IMPACTS OF

DEVELOPMENT ANDHUMAN ACTIVITYON REINDEER


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The opening o the Snhvit liquid natural gas (LNG)feld in the Barents Sea provides a textbook exam-ple o how a single industrial project results in a se-ries o associated inrastructure development. In theSnhvit case, proposed locations o new inrastruc-ture and settlements will hinder access to importantreindeer calving grounds on the Mylingen peninsula.

This peninsula also holds historic sacred sites andoering stones, which are seldom mapped or takeninto consideration in development projects. Alter-native locations o new inrastructure could modiynegative impacts on reindeer husbandry and keepthe corridor to the Mylingen peninsula open (Nel-lemann et al. 2002).

CASE STUDY

COASTAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED ECONOMICACTIVITY FROM GAS AND PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT


KVALYAFL

Hammerfest

Melkya

Mylingen Forsl

Rypefjord

Akkar-fjord

N

0 5 km

Current development

KVALYAFL

Hammerfest

Melkya

Mylingen Forsl

Rypefjord

Akkar-fjord

N

0 5 km

Planned development

REINDEER DISTRICT 20 FL / KVALY

The effect of development on reindeer andreindeer grazing grounds (reduced abundance

of females, reduced production).

Settlements and industry

Roads

Power lines, 66-132 kV

Airport

Very high effect

High

Moderate

Low


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Reindeer avoided the areas close to power lines and

the recreational cabin resort during calving, in spiteo absence o people during this season. This was

also true or comparable habitat, terrain, snow and

vegetation. Bulls and yearlings dominated close to

the resort, whereas emales with calves dominated

in the 812 km zone. All reindeer groups, however,

avoided the resort. Resort development is becoming

increasingly popular along the coast, and the devel-

opment will likely grow as a result o increased petro-leum activity (Vistnes and Nellemann 2001).

CASE STUDY 2

REPPARFJORD CABIN RESORT

Possible avoidance behavior o calving semi-domes-

ticated reindeer was investigated near recreationalcabins, roads, and power lines in Repparjord Valley,Northern Norway (Vistnes and Nellemann, 2001). Thedistribution, sex, and general age composition o thereindeer was mapped during the 1998 and 1999 calv-ing seasons (mapping 776 reindeer in 1998 and 678reindeer in 1999) using systematic snowmobile and skisurveys. Mean reindeer density within preerred rugged

terrain and altitudes was 78% lower in the area within4 km rom the tourist resort compared to the area morethan 4 km rom the resort. Mean reindeer density by thepower line corridor without trafc was 73% lower in the

area within 4 km rom the power line compared to areas

more than 4 km rom the power line. Areas within 4 kmrom anthropogenic structures were avoided despitelow levels o human trafc around the resort and a highproportion o preerred rugged terrain. Almost 74% o allavailable orage was located within the avoided 04-kmzones rom the resort or the separate power line. Theresults suggest that cabin resorts and power lines,even in periods with modest human trafc, may result

in substantial reductions in the use o surrounding or-aging areas. Possible increased competition or high-quality orage may aect lactation, body condition,and, hence, reproductive success in the long term.



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Research on impacts o human activity and inrastructuredevelopment on reindeer and caribou (Rangier taran-dus) has periodically been reviewed (Wole et al. 2000,National Research Council 2003, Vistnes and Nellemann2008). Beore the 1980s, most disturbance studies werebehavioral studies o individual animals at local scales,reporting ew and short-term impacts within 02 kmrom human activity, including typically observations oreindeer or caribou bulls on roads and under buildingsduring insect harassment. Around the mid 1980s, ocus

shited to regional-scale landscape studies, reportingthat Rangier, and particular emales with calves ac-counting or over 80% o the herd o semi-domesticatedreindeer, reduced the use o areas within 5 km rom in-rastructure and human activity by 5095%, the extentvarying with type o disturbance, sex, terrain, season,and sensitivity o herds. O 85 studies reviewed, 84% othe regional studies concluded that the impacts o hu-

man activity were signifcant, while only 11% o the localstudies did the same (Vistnes and Nellemann 2008).

Numerous studies across the Arctic have documentedthat the physical barriers and pasture ragmentationresulting rom inrastructure development adverselyaect the distribution and movements o reindeerand caribou (Bradshaw et al. 1997, Nellemann andCameron 1998, Dyer

et al. 2001, Johnson

et al. 2001,

Vistnes et al. 2001, Schaeer and Mahoney 2007), androm the 1990s and onwards, this has also been docu-


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mented through a series o court trials, including romthe Norwegian supreme court.

Additionally to direct loss o land, physical conditiono individuals and hence reproduction and survivalmay also be aected through increased social andnutritional stress and direct disturbance rom trafc,though such eects generally are less severe than theavoidance eects including reduced access and low-ered carrying capacity (Cale et al. 1976; Whitten and

Cameron 1983; Harrington and Veitch 1992; Brad-shaw et al. 1997; 1998; Maier et al. 1998; Wole et al.2000). As shown or a range o wildlie on numerouscontinents (UNEP 2001; Nellemann et al. 2003), rein-deer and caribou may thus be observed occasionallyclose to inrastructure, but most regional studies fndthat the majority o Rangierreduce their use o areaswithin 5 km o development by 5095%. This means

that mitigation measures must include regulation ohuman trafc and development, as well as ensuringthe protection o large areas, in order or reindeer andcaribou to continue to coexist with people. This isparticularly important in a changing world where alsoclimate change and other actors may inuence theirpastures. By reducing Rangierpastures and migrationopportunities, we limit their resilience and capability tocope with other natural and man-made changes (Postand Stenseth 1999; Thomas et al. 2004; Weladji andHoland 2006; Tyler et al. 2007).S

veinD

ischMathiesen


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The Arctic has undergone major changes in develop-ment since 1900. The exploitation o natural resourc-es and the associated inrastructure developmenthas resulted in substantial ragmentation o Arctichabitats. Development rates have been particularlyhigh in the Barents Region, which is now the region

in the Arctic and sub-Arctic with the highest devel-opment pressure. Within the Barents Region, thereare clear dierences in extent o development. Thedevelopment pressure has been particularly highin Southern Smi regions and the coastal regionso Northern Norway and the Gul o Bothnia. Thecoastal belt is virtually unprotected against develop-ment and the majority o national parks and otherprotected areas are located inland. The areas thathave been protected are generally those o low eco-nomic importance.

Development in the Barents Region includes roads,power lines, dams, military and communication acili-ties, recreational cabins, pipelines, orestry and exten-sive logging roads. Since the early 1990s more than800 recreational cabins have been constructed annu-ally in Norwegian reindeer herding areas alone (Lie et al.

2006), resulting in extensive recreational trafc. In themajority o the cases the herders have little inuenceon the development (Lie et al. 2006). Indeed, windmillparks, power lines and roads are currently being devel-oped without any common policy or plans to securetraditional grazing land or Smi reindeer husbandry(UNEP 2001; CAFF, 2002; Jernsletten and Klokov 2002;UNEP and EEA 2004). This will be increasingly impor-tant to get in place as the petroleum reserves o theBarents Sea will accelerate coastal development alongthe Norwegian and Russian coast in coming decades.

DEVELOPMENT

TODAY


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CASE STUDY 3

LOSS OF PASTURESOVER TIME

Road development in Finnmarkhas taken place primarily duringthe past 5060 years, and par-ticularly along the coast (UNEP2001). The Barents Region is cur-rently the region in the circumpo-lar north with the highest devel-opment pressure.

The encroachment o road networks in Finnmark, NorthernNorway, between 1940 and 2000.



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...Even though it can severely disrupt the livelihoods

o reindeer herders, oil and gas development may not be

the worst that can happen to reindeer husbandry: In con-

trast to other alternative sources or energy supply thataect our animals, such as windmills and smaller hydro-

electric power plants, oil and gas development will oten

prove to be very protable. This means that there is at

least a nancial oundation or positive development o

also reindeer herding societies.

There is a saying that the tide lits all boats. The de-

velopment o the Arctic as the new energy region o the

north truly represents a tidal wave or the indigenouspeoples o the north. I believe the tide will lit all boats,

that is to say, all boats that foat. When the wave is com-

ing, it is important to also x the small indigenous boats

not only so that they can ride saely on the food, but

also so that they can settle saely on the shore once the

water ebbs away.

Reindeer husbandry represents a circumpolar model

or management o the barren Arctic areas, areas which

have only recently become interesting or other interests

such as the oil and gas industry. The petroleum age is

just a snapshot in the history o the North. Reindeer hus-

bandry has been an important livelihood or people in

these areas rom time immemorial, and must continue to

exist also ater the oil and gas have been exploited. Tothis end, local capacity building in indigenous reindeer

herding societies is essential.

VOICES OF HERDERS

AND INDIGENOUSLEADERS

JOHAN MATHIS TURIREINDEER HERDER AND SECRETARYGENERAL OF ASSOCIATION OF WORLDREINDEER HERDERS

PhilipBurgess


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It was said that the new development (StatoilHydrosLNG plant in Hammerest) in this area would have positive

eects or the local community and... many people saw

it as a positive development. We reindeer herders were

concerned about how this development would aect our

uture livelihoods - we elt that the promise o positive

eects or the local community put a strong pressure on

us. It became dicult or us to show the impacts that this

development would have on our reindeer herding, and

when compared with the large oil and gas installations,our small industry would seem like a drop in the ocean.

But i we were to look at this rom another angle, the an-

gle that the value o our husbandry is not measured in

dollars but instead connected to the areas that we use...

In this way we could show our strength, that our industry

is based on the access and use o these areas. Because

o this the situation or us reindeer herders grew very di-

cult in terms o showing the consequences or our in-

dustry. We were sort o orgotten in the whole processand our perspectives were not ocussed on. Because the

LNG-plant itsel was not placed directly on reindeer pas-

tures, we were not ully included in the total process o

regulation. And with this start that we got, when we were

not ocussed on, we were continuously lagging behind in

the process, not able to ollow this up properly.

During the process that led up to the decision to initiate

the entire development, there was not enough knowledgeabout the situation, knowledge that we have today. Due

to the development we have seen an unexpected explo-

sion in human activities. We have much more competitionor our pastures now. There has been introduced a lot o

other development projects that will impact our pastures.

When you have this kind o major industrial development

in Hammerest, it makes the area around Hammerest very

attractive or other types o development. Also the society

o Hammerest is rapidly expanding because o the devel-

opment. Now there is talk about several possible projects,

and planning has begun. This includes petroleum devel-

opment, new power lines, windmills, inrastructure devel-opment and roads. These are heavy investments driven

by independent and infuential economic sources, also in

part independent o Statoil. We also see increasing human

activities in our pasture areas in terms o outdoor leisure

activities. It cannot be right that one side gets the benets

o development, while the other only get the negatives.

We had no idea about the scale o the industrial devel-

opment when it started, and nor did people in the towneither. It was impossible to make a picture o it beore it

began and we see it all just now, and only now we see

what it has meant and what it can come to mean to us.

We have to try to adapt to this, as long as we can. But

to do this, also developers, local and national authorities

and mainstream society must be willing to contribute.

Anyway, it is absolutely clear that our pastures are being

reduced. And thereore we need to get in very early as a

participating partner in development projects, as early aspossible, to try to have a reindeer herders voice in the

early planning process.

ASLAK ANTE M. J. SARAHEAD OF FL REINDEER HERDINGDISTRICT WHICH INCLUDES THE CITYOF HAMMERFEST

These quotes are partly based on an outreach activityof the ENSINOR project called Yamal-exchange bring-ing Russian oil and gas stakeholders to Finland andNorway, conducted together with International Centrefor Reindeer Husbandry, and reproduced here withkind permission.

RavdnaBiretMarjaEira


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Our main challenge is preserving pastures. The main

threat in our area is the entry o mining companies, ater

the Finnmark Act came into orce last summer...They say

that they have ound deposits, and that now the question

is no longer i extraction will take place. Extraction will

take place and reindeer husbandry must make room or it.

We see that the ore goes through all our pastures and mi-

gration routes. And we already have scarce pastures here;

there is not enough room or everybody on the winter pas-

tures. I the winter pastures and migration routes are lost,

people will have to quit working with reindeer, as reindeer

husbandry is not possible without winter pastures. Mining

companies have said that they will buy people out, those

who have to leave reindeer husbandry. But none o us who

use the pastures are interested in selling land. We have

said that our pastures are not or sale or any amount o

gold-money. I they are going to use our pastures, which

are already scarce, or 15 years it means that uture genera-

tions will not be socialised in reindeer husbandry and will

not learn the traditional knowledge. This does not only a-

ect reindeer husbandry. It aects everybody in natural hus-

bandries and also tourism; because there will no longer be

any clean nature or people to come to see. It aects those

who pick berries, sh salmon because mines need large

quantities o water in order to be able to extract minerals. It

has been shown that this water will run back to the river, to

Tana river and past Karasjok, polluting salmon rivers. All in

all, the entire society here must change. It will change rom

being a prosperous society based on natural husbandries,

to becoming a mining society. It is not true that there is not

enough room or youth in reindeer husbandry. Youth are

very interested in working with reindeer when they are giv-

en the opportunity. Concerning jobs, the ocus should not

be on the hundred new jobs, but on the threat to hundreds

o jobs in the prosperous Smi industries, such as reindeer

husbandry and other nature-based industries. These tradi-

tional industries need virgin nature in order to survive.

The ormer reindeer herd o MOOS, the reindeer herds

No 5 and No 10 and the reindeer herd which earlier was

bought or Kovdor, have all disappeared. Herd No 9 o our

co-operative is disappearing now. Given that there 15 yearsago were 80,000 reindeer on the Kola Peninsula, nowadays

less than one hal o this amount exists. This number con-

tinues to decrease. Our enterprise is so to speak still without

any protection against this catastrophe. Reindeer are even

shot rom sea-going vessels engaged in illegal hunting,

rom helicopters, snow mobiles and cross-country vehi-

cles. Groups o up to 14 oreign made snow mobiles come

rom the Tersky District, rom Kirovsk and rom Lovozero.They operate during the whole winter and spring period.

They continue even with shooting reindeer in April, when

emale reindeer are preparing themselves to give birth to

their calves. In most cases these activities are monitored by

hunting inspectors who base their own private business on

it. We have noticed that among these hunters are ocials o

the upper echelons o the local and regional arena. Accord-

ing to data rom this years hunting operations these illegal

hunters shot about 1,200 domesticated reindeer belongingto our enterprise this year. The economic damage done to

our co-operative amounts to 5 million roubles.

MRET SRSPIERTANJRGA REINDEER HERDINGDISTRICT, KARASJOK

A. KRASILNIKOVCHAIR OF THE OLENEVOD REINDEER HERDINGENTERPRISE, LOVOZERO, KOLA PENINSULA

This text is taken from an open letter by the entire

Olenevod reindeer herding enterprise to the Gover-nor of the Murmansk region. Reported by NRK SmiRadio October 25, 2007. Original letter available fordownload on the Reindeer Blog: www.reindeerblog.org/2007/10/26/reindeer* (accessed March 17, 2009).

PhilipBurgess


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SERGEI KHARUCHIPRESIDENT OF RUSSIAN ASSOCIATION OFINDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF THE NORTH (RAIPON)

This interview was conducted as part of the EALT-Information workshop held in Yar-Sale, Yamal-Nenets

Autonomous Okrug.

How is (oil and gas) going to infuence the envi-

ronment and traditional economic activities? Here we

choose the golden middle road. It is very easy to declare

each other to be enemies o the State. But there existsalso another and more civilized way. This is the track o

dialogue and co-operation and mutual problem solving

by both the protagonists o traditional economy and the

industrial sector. The rst task is to minimize the impact

on the natural environment as much as possible. The sec-

ond task is that this or that development shall not make

the situation or the other part worse. Last but not least

everything depends on the concrete leadership o an en-

terprise and the indigenous peoples communities. The

key issue is to which extent they show wisdom. This willbe decisive or relations between the workers in the in-

dustrial sector and in the primary sector. Co-operation,

mutual understanding, complementary behaviour and

consultation with each other is the only and the best

way. The alternative is to declare war, but this has never

brought any good to anyone.

LEONID KHUDIPRESIDENT OF THE REINDEER HERDERSUNION OF YAMAL

This interview was conducted as part of the EALT-Information workshop held in Yar-Sale, Yamal-Nenets

Autonomous Okrug.

These types o activities (like oil and gas exploitation)

are non-traditional and have had consequences, some

o them negative ones. This due to the act that reindeer

herders and local populations experiences were not taken

into consideration. I hope that whatever will be done in the

North and in the Arctic, the interests o indigenous peo-

ples will be taken into consideration, and that there will be

as little impact as possible on the reindeer pastures andthe indigenous peoples traditional ways o living. I would

like that oil and gas exploitation would be to the benet

o the peoples in the North. Oil and gas exploitation will

come sooner or later anyway. My hope is that Smi rein-

deer herders will make ull use o the experiences o Rus-

sia and the Russian reindeer herders there, the reindeer

herders rom Yamal included. I say this not by chance.

These are bitter experiences, which we have got by huge

eorts and the loss o many pastures and reindeer which

it will not be possible to get back. That is why I would ap-preciate it very much i Smi reindeer herders would take

into consideration these experiences.

SveinDischMa

thiesen

SveinDischMathiesen

(pictured with Isak Mathis O. Eira)


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The entire region is a horror scenario. And this is

so near in time, in 2030. There will be no time to ad-

just, some will have to leave reindeer herding, or perhaps

reindeer herding will disappear? With this scenario, we

cannot do traditional reindeer herding with the practices

we use today. And we are totally dependent on thosepractices. [] When I travel across Norway and talk with

young reindeer herders, I am oten asked i there is a

uture in this livelihood. With all the threats that we ace,

can we possibly continue doing reindeer husbandry?

There is no economic gain, you cannot expect high sala-

ries. When there is an option to choose high salaries and

a good education, it will be very tempting to quit reindeer

herding, and I can understand that. But we also have

those who believe strongly in this livelihood, and who stillstruggle immensely.

[On the development o the LNG plant in Hammerest] One thing is Statoil, but also other activity ollows. That is

what has happened in Hammerest. For instance, several

Alta-based businesses are now located also in Hammer-

est. Statoil has their own plans that they want to realize.

Im not sure i we can reach Statoil with our message,

because this is a company that has to earn money. But

the message to the authorities who can instruct Statoil is

to save these areas according to their promises. Facing

the scenarios, the choice is: Do we want reindeer herd-

ing to survive or should Statoil earn more money? That is

what these maps tell me.

[On supplementary eeding] Crisis eeding is ok, but not

every year. Preventive eeding in case o crisis is some-thing dierent. With supplementary eeding you lose the

basis or this livelihood. The summer pastures orm the

basis. Reindeer lose weight in winter. Winter pasture is

the bottleneck today. With increased development, this

can change. This is a question o sustainability []

I you take the gas directly rom the sea to the consum-

ers in other parts o the world, it will o course not impact

reindeer herding much. But looking at the map o possi-ble sites to take the petroleum onshore, I see clearly that

this will aect reindeer husbandry.

When you in addition look at the planned 422 kV power

line [] It is said that it should end in Hammerest, but we

know that people are looking into the option o stretch-

ing it urther east. It will probably continue rom Skaidi,

and will then cross all the reindeer herding districts east

o Skaidi. In the meetings with the rst aected reindeer

herding districts in the Balsjord-area, the developers were

very rigid regarding the choice o location; the line will go

NILS HENRIK SARALEADER OF NORWEGIAN REINDEER

HERDERS ASSOCIATION

This interview is based on discussion between Nils

Henrik Sara and Anders Oskal regarding the Barents2030 Globio scenario maps.

AgnarBerg


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here, reindeer husbandry can say whatever they want.

There has been no will to compromise. There was no will

to move parts o the power line, at least not during the

rst meetings, even though the reindeer herders argued

as best as they could about the negative eects which

would be expected. At the same time, it was said romthe beginning that (the power line company) would try to

adjust the construction work according to reindeer herd-

ing interests. In the end, the attitude was completely di-

erent, and economy became a big issue this alternative

was least expensive, and there was no longer talk about

other interests and to adjust the location o the power line

according to other business interests. The power line in-

terests were most important, and all other parties should

adjust to them, the developers. I Statoil should run a simi-lar line it will be a hopeless situation i they have no ad-

justment margins in their plans. But consultations are not

over yet, so there is still a chance that they will turn in the

last minute. Perhaps that is their tactic to be rigid in the

rst round, and to be more compromising in the end.

Wind power is also a problem. For instance, on Fosen, the

developers have taken over the entire district with their

power plants. This can happen also in Northern Troms,

i the plans are not changed in the last minute. Perhaps

reindeer can habituate to wind mills in the uture we

dont know. Anyway, we will go through a period o tran-

sition which will be dicult. And the inrastructure that

ollows the wind power plants will remain. Wind power

occupies areas that have not been attractive to devel-

opment earlier, such as high-altitude areas, areas con-

sidered non-productive by most people, but being veryimportant to reindeer husbandry during parts o the year.

I saw this on Nordkyn, where particularly good spring and

all pastures were developed.

On March 17, 2009, NVE1 announced an overview o thewind power and related development projects that arecurrently on the table and there are 260 projects in theSmi area alone. Sara responded in the media:

I had never thought that there were so many power

projects underway in areas within reindeer husbandry [...]

For us, it only means one thing, namely, less pasture or

reindeer. Loss o pastures is the biggest challenge rein-

deer husbandry is acing.2

1. Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) issubordinated to the Ministry o Petroleum and Energy and is re-

sponsible or administering Norways water and energy resources.2. Reindrita sjokkert over krat-planer, NRK Smi Radio. www.nrk.no/kanal/nrk_sami_radio/1.6528336 (accessed March 17, 2009).

SveinD

ischMathiesen

SveinD

ischMathiesen


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HILL-MARTA SOLBERGCHAIR OF THE STANDING COMMITTEE OFPARLIAMENTARIANS OF THE ARCTIC REGION

Excerpt of speech held at the Arctic Council Meetingin Salekhard 2526 October 2006.

We parliamentarians strongly believe the impact o

climate change to be a matter o urgency. The climatechange already has a strong impact on the living con-

ditions o the Arctic indigenous peoples. And i the ice

disappears or large parts o the year, we will see an

explosion in human activities in the Arctic. We need to

nd ways to regulate this activity and keep ahead o the

development. In recent years we have seen and experi-

enced in many countries a strong and increasing interest

in the Arctic region. This interest is due, not least, to the

expected substantial quantity o energy resources and

other natural resources in the Arctic. However, the cli-

mate change in the region and its projected wider impact

has also contributed to this ocus.

[] We, as politicians and people o the North, have a re-

sponsibility to turn this increasing interest into something

positive or the people living in the Arctic. Together we

can send a strong Arctic message about the opportuni-

ties and challenges in the region. Together we must ace

our common challenges, and secure a sustainable basis

or uture generations o Arctic peoples to build on.

SveinD

ischMathiesen

S


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REINDEER HUSBANDRY

SCENARIOSIN THIS SECTION, WE PRESENT TWO EXISTING SCENARIO MODELS FOR THEBARENTS REGION, NAMELY THE BARLINDHAUG SCENARIOS AND THE GLOBIOMETHODOLOGY, AND COMBINE THE TWO TO CREATE UPDATED SCENARIOS,

WHICH WE ANALYZE FROM A REINDEER HUSBANDRY PERSPECTIVE. WEALSO DISCUSS CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS FOR THE REGION.

The Barlindhaug report (Barlindhaug 2005) arguesthat the Barents Sea is about to become a new petro-leum region both in Norway and globally, with petro-leum exploration and production gradually expandingrom the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea. A similarprocess will take place in Russian waters, beginningwith the Shtokman gas feld. The report draws on ex-perience rom the Snhvit and Ormen Lange projects

to calculate and predict total investment costs andemployment eects. The uture is divided into threeperiods; 20062012, 20122020 and ater 2020. Foreach phase, major new activities and developmentsare indicated.

In the period 20062012, the report predicts that theSnhvit LNG train 1 and 2 will be put into operation,the Goliat oil feld and new oil felds in the Petchora

Sea will be developed and exploration activity will in-crease. Development will start at Shtokman, and the

THE BARLINDHAUG SCENARIOS

Baltic Sea pipeline between Vyborg and Greiswaldwill be completed (Figure 4a).

In the period 20122020, Snhvit LNG train 1 and 2will be operated, maintained and modifed, and train3 will be planned. Shtokman LNG 1 and Goliat willalso be in production. Plans are made or an exten-sion o the Western Arctic Pipeline rom Mid-Norway

to Eastern Finnmark, Shtokman LNG 2 and construc-tion o an eastern pipeline to the pipeline in the BalticSea. A number o gas processing plants will be builtalong the Norwegian coast rom Eastern Finnmarkto Vesterlen. Some o the plants will also have oilterminals and processing acilities (Figure 4b). Ater2020, all planned projects will be in operation, includ-ing activity in the disputed area between Norway andRussia and the Eastern Barents Sea, and petroleum

activity will expand into the northern part o the Bar-ents Sea (Figure 4c).

Fi 4 Th B li dh i i d


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Figure 4ac. The Barlindhaug scenarios o increased

petroleum development in Northern Scandinavia and

the Barents Sea (Barlindhaug 2005).

As pointed out by Arbo et al. (2007), the Barlindhaugreport is clearly written rom a Norwegian point o view.It takes or granted that large areas will be opened orexploration, that new recoverable felds will be discov-ered, that oil and gas prices will stay high enough todrill or petroleum under Arctic conditions, that Russianauthorities will consider a Norwegian pipeline systemas useable, and that the Barents Region will remain a

politically stable area with close cooperation betweenNorway and Russia. Arbo et al. concludes that the re-port is a vision and a contribution to an ongoing debate,with both limitations and substance. Herein, we usethe Barlindhaug scenarios in combination with UNEPsGLOBIO scenarios to illustrate several possible uturesseen rom the perspective o reindeer husbandry. Ourscenarios cannot claim to be more scientifc or neutralthan the Barlindhaug scenarios, but unlike Barlindhaug

we open up or several possible outcomes dependingon varying uture conditions (Arbo et al. 2007).


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Scenario development involving changes in natural con-ditions, biodiversity and alternation o habitat has under-gone a rapid development in the past 10 years, such asthrough UNEP and afliated programs like the Millen-nium Ecosystem Assessment, GLOBIO and the IPCC(IPCC 2007, UNEP 2003, 2007). Global and regionalprograms now usually involve at least our dierent sce-

narios or each timeline (www.globio.ino, UNEP 2003).Hence, we present a range o scenarios all linked to the

GLOBIO SCENARIOSBarlindhaug scenarios to provide a broader range opossible outcomes o the development schemes. This isparticularly important as a number o variables, includ-ing government policies and municipality policies, maygreatly mitigate or change the impacts on reindeer hus-bandry o the current projected development schemes.The geographical areas covered are the reindeer pas-

tures rom Nordland County, Norway, to Jugorskij Polu-ostrov and Novaya Zemlya in north-west Russia.

GLOBIO SCENARIO MODEL

The GLOBIO2-model is being developed or and to-gether with UNEP (United Nations Environment Pro-gramme) to help assess and map the environmental

impact o human development (UNEP 2007). Themodel has been used by a broad range o regionaland global scenarios by several UN-programmes,including UNESCO, UNDP and UNEP. GLOBIOcompiles scientifc knowledge on global environ-mental change into a ormat that is compatible withthe needs o policymaking. The model incorporatesbuer zones o probability o reduced abundance owildlie around inrastructure eatures, such as roads,human settlements, industrial development, etc. By

using distance zones with varying degree o impactscaused by inrastructure, it is possible to predict theapproximate area o impact zones in the uture by

simple regression analyses using dierent alterna-tives o growth. GLOBIO is thus primarily a tool orcommunicating and visualizing environmental chang-es in such a way that it can be used in sustainabledevelopment planning and international agreementson protection o biodiversity and natural habitats. Fordetailed methodology, please see appendix 3 andwww.globio.ino. The scenarios without additionalpetroleum development (assumption a) are based onthe policy frst scenarios in UNEP (2003).

e


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GLOBIO scenarios show that currently approxi-mately 25% o the grazing land in Northern Norwayis strongly disturbed by development, including 35%o the coastal area and the most productive calvinggrounds and summer ranges (UNEP/EEA 2004). Thisfgure has been estimated to increase to as much as78% by 2050 i no changes are made in national or

regional policies.

Up to 1% o the summer grazing grounds used tradi-tionally by Smi reindeer herders along the coast oNorthern Norway is lost every year, which is equiva-lent to the grazing land used by one nomadic amily insummer (Jernsletten and Klokov 2002, UNEP 2004).

Development pressure has been considerably lowerin Russia. Although northwest Russia suers romhigh local-point pollution, development has beenconcentrated, leaving more habitat undisturbed(www.globio.ino).

For this report, selected hotspots or oil and gas de-velopment were identifed using the Barlindhaug sce-narios and ed into the GLOBIO models. Alteration

and reduced use o pastures could then be comparedusing two dierent assumptions;

Inrastructure development in the Barents regionwill continue at the current growth rate towards2030, without additional or increased growth dueto petroleum development

A range o oil and gas hotspots along the Norwegianand Russian coast, including LNG plants, process-

ing plants and pipeline systems, will be developedby 2030 as assumed in the Barlindhaug report

Both scenarios predict that continued development willsubstantially reduce grazing grounds in coastal areasused or summer ranges and calving grounds. Lookingat coastal areas in the entire Barents Region includingareas with no or little development on northern Kolaand Novaya Zemlya, around 15% o the area is heavilyimpacted by human development. This fgure is esti-mated to increase to 25% in 2030 given the currentgrowth rate (assumption a). Assuming increased petro-leum development according to the Barlindhaug sce-narios (assumption b), 30% o the coastal areas will behighly impacted by human development in 2030. Morespecifcally, assumption b will lead to deterioration oan additional 21 000 km2 o reindeer grazing grounds,

compared to assumption a. This is equivalent to thesize o 2/3 o Finnmarks summer ranges.

BARLINDHAUG AND GLOBIO SCENARIOS COMBINEDa)

b)

SvenSkaltje


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Figure 5ac. Development scenarios or the Bar-ents Region, assuming extensive petroleum devel-

opment towards 2030. In 2000, 15% o the region

was signicantly disturbed as grazing land or rein-

deer. This gure will increase to 30% in 2030 with

petroleum development including several LNG

plants, processing plants, and pipeline systems

in operation. Development pressures are highest

on the coast and aect signicantly larger areas inFennoscandia than in Russia, where development

is more concentrated.

20212030

20122020


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Figure 6ab. Development scenarios or the Bar-ents Region, assuming varying levels o petroleum

development towards 2030. In 2000, 15% o the

region was signicantly disturbed as grazing land

or reindeer. With continued inrastructure de-

velopment using current growth rates, this gure

will increase to 25% by 2030 (gure 6a), or with

30% assuming increased petroleum development

(gure 6b). Scenario b) means that an additional21 000 km2 will be signicantly reduced in value as

reindeer grazing grounds compared to scenario a).

2030

2030


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Figure 7. Projected climate change will create changes in snow ablation patterns, vegetation patterns and

reeze-thaw cycles, which in turn will strongly infuence seasonal pastures by reindeer. Extreme weather condi-

tions will, in turn, require herders to move animals more requently, and the accessibility to undisturbed land will

become even more essential in the coming decades. The coastal ranges, and particularly the lowland areas, arecurrently under the greatest threat rom continued piecemeal development (ACIA 2004).

Inner Finnmark comprises the part o Norway in which

the local eects o climate change are likely to be mostpronounced (ACIA 2004). Models predict that the meantemperature and precipitation in inner Finnmark mayincrease by as much as 0.7C or 10% per decade dur-ing the next 3050 years. Most scenarios predict thattemperatures will continue to rise both in summer and

CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOSwinter. In addition, more severe storms and winds are

expected, as well as increased precipitation. For rein-deer grazing conditions, this will lead to more unstablewinters in continental areas, with a urther increasedrequency o reeze-thaw cycles and subsequent icingo pastures. Summer pastures may change rom opento shrub-vegetated land. Growing seasons will become


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Figure 8. Climate-induced changes to arctic tundra are projected to cause vegetation zones to shit signicantly

northward, reducing the area o tundra and the traditional orage or these herds. Freeze-thaw cycles and reez-

ing rain are also projected to increase. These changes will have signicant implications or the ability o reindeer

populations to nd suitable grazing conditions and accessibility to undeveloped areas will become critical or theability o herders to adapt to a changing climate (ACIA, 2004; Tyler et al., 2006)

longer and plant production increase. Temperatures

will likely become more avorable or parasites and dis-eases (Post and Stenseth 1999, Cornelissen et al. 2001,Kumpula and Colpaert 2003, Gautestad et al. 2005, Ce-brian et al. 2008, Helle and Kojola 2008, Moen 2008).Reindeer herders continuously adapt to new changes,ranging rom socio-economic to climatic changes.

Their resilience, vulnerability and ability to adapt is

strongly inuenced by the extent to which they canmove reindeer reely across the landscape as condi-tions change. Encroachment o their ranges, such asby inrastructure development, is thereore a key ac-tor in their ability to adapt (UNEP, 2001; UNEP/EEA,2004; Tyler et al., 2006).

THREE QUALITATIVE


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Moderate oil prices and limited success in explora-

tion means that the initial Klondike atmosphere in

the aftermath of Snhvit has evaporated. Gazprom

focuses on Yamal, and Statoil focuses more on

energy sources abroad. Exploration in Russia and

Northern Norway continues at a moderate rate.

On the reindeer husbandry ront, although the worstears o heavy oil and gas development have not mate-rialised, the continued piecemeal development o landhas urther eroded reindeer pastures. This has takenplace especially in coastal calving and summer areas.

The promised gains o the new Reindeer HusbandryAct have not materialised as expected and herders

have split over whether the new system is an improve-ment or not. The majority o herders state that tinker-ing with the system will not address the real underlyingcauses that are impacting the sustainability o reindeerhusbandry, namely the lack o an integrated manage-ment regime that takes account o development in itsentirety and how the total sum o development roads,inrastructure, installations, military activities, leisurecabins, reight haulage etc impact on land use. Herdersalso complain that there are no revenue sharing agree-ments in place or the resources that are being exploit-ed. There has been intense mining activity in Finnmarksince 2010, and the weaknesses o the Finnmark Act

have been sorely exposed, leading to disillusionmentamong reindeer herders and their amilies.

SCENARIO : CONTINUED PIECEMEAL DEVELOPMENT

THREE QUALITATIVE

SCENARIOS FOR THEBARENTS REGIONIN THIS CHAPTER WE WILL PRESENT THREE SCENARIOS FOR REINDEERHUSBANDRY IN THE BARENTS REGION, BASED ON THE OUTCOME OF THEGLOBIO/BARLINDHAUG SCENARIOS ABOVE COMBINED WITH INTERVIEWS

WITH REINDEER HERDERS AND INDIGENOUS LEADERS. IT IS IMPORTANT

TO NOTE THAT SCENARIOS ARE NOT PREDICTIONS. INSTEAD, THEY AREILLUSTRATIONS OF POSSIBLE OUTCOMES IN A WORLD WHERE EVERYTHINGIS OPEN AND UNCERTAIN, BUT WHERE SOME OUTCOMES ARE MOREDESIRABLE THAN OTHERS, AND WHERE OUTCOMES CAN AND MUST BECONSTRUCTED OR CREATED IN SOME WAY. SCENARIOS CAN HELP USTHINK MORE ACCURATELY ABOUT WHAT WILL COME NEXT, AND HELPPREPARE FOR IT (SCHWARTZ 997, ARBOET AL. 2007).


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Predation continues to be a problem or reindeer hus-bandry, partly because o a ailure by reindeer hus-bandry to eectively communicate this as a problemissue to the broader population. Ironically, with re-duced pastures, predation actually increases as pred-ators have easier access to herds.

Reindeer husbandry on the Kola Peninsula is in urtherdisarray, as repeated eorts to restructure the liveli-hood ail, generally due to the as yet unresolved ten-sions between private reindeer ownership and collec-tive structures. The industry continues to suer rom alack o investment and is not seen as a priority by theregional administration in Murmansk. Small projectsare initiated aimed at developing an export market,and supplying the large Murmansk market with rein-deer meat, but these initiatives are under-capitalisedand not clearly planned. Smi are alling out o reindeerhusbandry and young herders are not being recruited.

Industry plays a disengaged role, preerring to workthrough established governmental channels andavoiding the more difcult route o engaging with in-

digenous communities. As a result, capacity buildingin Smi communities is stalled. Industry responds that

it is not the role o the oil and gas industry to give hand-outs and that they do not wish to be wreaking ethnicdivisions in the north. Reindeer Husbandry and Smipoliticians accuse oil and gas majors o abdicatingtheir responsibilities and complain o a lack o lead-ership in regional and national politics. Management

systems have not undergone any major revisions andthe recognition o traditional knowledge systems arenot taken seriously except in small academic circles.

The modest steps taken in structural adjustments, thelack o engagement rom the petroleum sector, andthe lack o revenue sharing agreements all have aslow and imperceptible degradation o the ability oherders to adapt to the predicted climate uctuation.Several hard winters have covered winter pastures indeep snow and hard ice layers. The inherent exibilityo reindeer husbandry has urther been constrainedby loss o pastures and by a rigid management struc-ture and the resulting impacts on herd numbers aresevere. Ironically this is interpreted by mainstream so-ciety as a proo that herders no longer have the toolsor the knowledge to adapt to the challenges o cli-

mate change in the 21st century, and calls are madeor even more intervention into the industry.

AndersOskal

AndersOskal

SCENARIO 2:


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By 2020, oil prices have reached a stable level

of 160 dollars a barrel and a strong market has

meant a heavy investment in the energy sector.

Public opinion has swung away from mitigation in

favour of maintaining low energy prices at home,

and CO2 reduction ambitions have dwindled. This

was facilitated by the fact that the dire climatic

warnings in 200710 failed to materialise with the

speed that had been predicted. As a result, the

regulatory environment has loosened up and de-

velopment has accelerated.

Despite the best eorts o the Smi Parliament andlegal experts, no revenue sharing agreements havebeen made between the indigenous inhabitants andthe energy sector. Many parts o the Barents regionare declared incompatible with aboriginal land useand remaining herds are turned wild. As it happens,

major pipeline development on the peninsula has se-verely disrupted traditional migrations and land use.

For Smi reindeer herders in Finnmark, the dense patterno industrial development surrounding LNG plants on thecoast has meant a dramatic reduction in pastures. Instal-lation buer zones are created, and local ofcials fnallysucceeded in removing reindeer herds rom the Ham-merest region, claiming that the reindeer and disputeswere a public nuisance and restraining development.

A substantial increase in the population centres o thenew LNG plants has pulled many people out o theInner Finnmark region, as local opportunities in tra-ditional livelihoods are reduced and the Smi Parlia-ment is no longer seen as an eective voice, leadingto an intensifcation o community ractiousness in the

Smi area. The newcomers to the region, increasinglyrom all over the world, use their new ound wealth

FREE MARKET

Svein

DischMathiesen

to purchase holiday homes, ATVs and snowmobiles,and several new leisure complexes and skiing resorts

tem, large one time payments were oered to herders toquit the livelihood, an oer that was accepted by many


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are developed in the high mountains on the coasto Troms and central Kola, urther reducing summerpastures. Newcomers have little or no idea that theyare playing a part in the destruction o aboriginal land

usage and livelihoods, and there are no attempts bygovernment or business to educate employees aboutthe history or culture o the region they now inhabit.

Municipal ofcials in several municipalities activelyseek to construct cabins and leisure acilities on mi-gration routes. Despite several high profle court casesthat are won by reindeer husbandry units, the installa-

tions remain and the disturbance has been consider-able. Municipal and regional ofcials stress the impor-tance o maintaining a business riendly environmentand that a ew hundred reindeer herders cannot holdup progress. Some municipalities compete with eachother or oil and gas installations to ensure that theyget a share o the tax revenues that go along with thenew developments. In return, promises are made and

county and regional development plans are adjustedto make them more development riendly.

Ater some initial alse starts, and a series o negativearticles in the national and local media regarding thenumber o reindeer in West Finnmark, the ReindeerHerding Law was rescinded and control o reindeer hus-bandry reverted to a new section o the Ministry o Agri-culture, urther eroding reindeer herders autonomy. TheNorwegian Food and Drug Administration welcomed themove, stating that it was essential or market confdencethat meat production be controlled in a vertical and in-tegrated system in order to maintain consumer conf-dence. The Ministry preaced the move by calling or abalanced approach in the competing visions o knowl-edge that seemed to exist in reindeer husbandry, andthat rational decision making based on science was

essential. In the wake o a tainted meat scandal rom areindeer carcass that passed through the monopoly sys-

herders. The Ministry has invested in reindeer researchinstitutions in southern Norway at the cost o similarinstitutions in the North, and the division between theresearch community and Smi communities is growing.

As pastures and migration routes are urther eroded, acloser examination o the Finnish herding system is pro-posed and taxes on supplemental eeds are eliminatedin an eort to make the industry more sedentary.

With a alling student population The Smi UniversityCollege is renamed the College or Smi Language andocuses on producing teachers o the Smi language.

It also conducts some sporadic teaching o Smi asa 2nd language or newcomers as part o a grant re-ceived rom a charitable oundation in Germany.

The predicted increase in demand or reindeer prod-ucts ails to materialise. The reasons are complex, butthe monopoly held by the meat market in Norway ap-pears to be a actor, and this is worsened by the e-

ect o several small scale accidents on the coast atLNG plants and teething problems with a new pipelinetechnology that exposes herds to carcinogenic POPsand heavy metals. Articles in several major newspa-pers entitled Santas Dirty Secret result in a collapsein the market in Europe and scare Norwegian con-sumers, tarnishing the reputation o reindeer meat. Asa result, meats prices stay low, earnings or herdersare depressed and ination diminishes real income,while transportation costs continue to rise.

Relations between mainstream society and Smi rein-deer husbandry deteriorate urther. The internal ro-bustness o Smi societies is urther weakened as thedivision between reindeer herding and non-reindeerherding societies is intensifed. Reindeer husbandryhas or the frst time in its history a problem with re-

cruitment into the industry as younger amily mem-bers see no uture in the livelihood.

SCENARIO 3: A COMMON SUSTAINABLE FUTURE


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When it is clear that there will be intense petro-

leum activity in the Barents Region, a series of an-

nual multi-stakeholder workshops and community

meetings are held to inform residents and indige-

nous peoples about the possible impacts that this

activity will bring and to discuss future strategies

for community engagement. There is broad politi-

cal and local support for this approach when it be-

comes clear that the impacts both negative and

positive are far above any previous megaproject

in the North.

A key stone o the new strategy created by industryis a revenue sharing agreement developed in coop-eration with the Smi Parliament in Norway, which,thanks to a stable source o unding in place, emergesas a real political powerhouse in the North. The Parlia-ment also expands to include delegates rom Finland,Sweden and Russia and a permanent working group

on reindeer husbandry emerges as a key platorm orreindeer herders.

The Parliament is not the only recipient o oil and gaslargesse, as the Smi University emerges as a worldclass indigenous institution with specifc expertise inenvironmental impact assessment and indigenouspeoples. Indigenous students, many o whom arerom reindeer husbandry communities in Russia, at-tend the Universitys cutting edge courses developedrom within the indigenous academy. One o the moreinnovative positions developed at the University, part-ly unded by the energy sector, is a PhD programme inBoazolihkku (Reindeer Luck).

The reinvigorated college plays a key role in develop-ing expertise within Smi societies and reindeer hus-

bandry, as scores o reindeer herders attend speciallydesigned courses in GIS, herd management tech-

niques, traditional knowledge workshops specifcallydesigned with the nomadic structure o reindeer hus-bandry in mind, engaging a wide range o Smi elders

as teachers, along with newly skilled Smi teachers.

An integrated network o protected areas is developedin tandem with reindeer husbandry. Critical migrationroutes and calving grounds are declared o limits ordevelopment this process is acilitated by the inte-grated land use management regime that has beendeveloped as an outgrowth o the Finnmark Act. This

is also a recognition o Norways responsibilities underILO 169 and the spirit o the UN Declaration on theRights o Indigenous Peoples. In act, under Kyoto 2,this very protection o reindeer husbandry areas gen-erates signifcant carbon credits or the Norwegianstate whose payments under Kyoto 2 are substantial.

Sustainable reindeer husbandry ounded on tradi-

tional knowledge and science orms part o the back-bone o a new optimism in the North. New modelso co-productions o knowledge are developed andreindeer herders are no longer seen as standing in theway o progress, but rather as partners in the processo building a sustainable industry and as caretakerso the regions cultural and biophysical diversity. In-teresting changes to herd structure occur in some othe larger districts, encouraged in part by sympatheticchanges in reindeer husbandry legislation and thesubsidy system. This was not universally popular, buta healthy debate about herd structure and sustainabil-ity has become a regular part o the internal debateswithin reindeer husbandry.

The meat market monopoly is loosened up and somebusiness savvy herders are orging ahead with innova-

tive products, independent supply chains and a brandthat plays on the organic nature o reindeer meat as


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consumers ear surrounding GMOs and mass produc-tion ood methods increase in Europe. Reindeer meatis seen and marketed as a healthy and clean proteinalternative. Prices are high and there is a strong em-phasis on quality, value added products and the de-velopment o speciality markets.

Still, there are still many challenges a consumer-leddemand or green energy has resulted in a wind millsconstruction boom on the coast o Troms, Finnmark

and the Kola Peninsula, severely impacting calvinggrounds. Signifcant sections o mainstream soci-

ety are unhappy with the new power and inuenceo Smi society in general and reindeer husbandryin particular, and several political parties pander tothese insecurities. However, conict resolution tech-niques and widespread education projects partlyunded by revenue sharing arrangements havehelped mitigate the more extreme orms o misin-ormation rom all partners. Training in negotiations,EIA work, and particularly investments in researchand innovative ways o restoring pastures disturbed

by development has helped secure land suitable orreindeer herding.

SveinDischMathie

sen

CONCLUSIONS AND


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Petroleum development scenarios or the BarentsRegion assume a higher development pressure inthe region than what earlier scenarios have project-

ed (UNEP/EEA, 2004). Extensive petroleum activityin addition to continued piecemeal development willlikely seriously impact the ability o reindeer herdingto adapt to climate change and will urther limit the ac-cess to spring, calving and summer ranges (Vistnes etal. 2008a). As these ranges are vital to reindeer herd-ing, a lack o policy to protect these ranges may haveserious consequences or the ability o herding to per-

sist at the extent and in the orm known today. Whileprotected areas mainly are located in inland areas, thecoastal zone, which is the area under the highest his-toric and projected development rate, remains gener-ally unprotected. The piecemeal development will:

Reduce the amount o available grazing landReduce herd production (e.g. slaughter weights, calproduction), thereby reducing the income and possi-

bility or herders to continue with reindeer husbandryIncrease internal competition among herders andexternal competition with mainstream societyReduce the quality o lie or herders, their amiliesand indigenous societies as a whole as the impactso uneven development impact on community resil-ience and gender roles in a negative mannerDecrease the ability o reindeer to cope with extreme

winter conditions due to loss o summer ranges andthus less growth and weight gain in summer

These worst-case scenarios represent mainly the re-sult o projected climate change, projected develop-ment, and beyond all, a continuation o the current

lack o policies on securing the traditional grazingranges (UNEP/EEA, 2004). More sustainable alter-natives may be developed identiying opportunitieso mitigation, conict resolution and regional poli-cies. However, such pathways would have to be de-veloped as part o an integrated program involvingboth herders, their communities, the indigenous sci-entifc community, resource managers, policymak-

ers and industry.Considerable eort needs to be directed towardsreducing the vulnerability o reindeer husbandry tothe eects o climate change. Only in this way canreindeer husbandry continue to develop conidentlyas an ecologically and economically robust orm oland use. Research needs to be directed towardsenhancing the ability o the reindeer husbandry to

adapt to the challenges ahead. These challengesinclude not only the putative eects o climatechange but also loss o pastures (both physicallyand as a result o reduced use), the eects o pre-dation and the management o product develop-ment and marketing.

The limits o the adaptive capacity o reindeer hus-

bandry must be defned, documented and exploredtogether with the potential role o herders traditional

CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONSIMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT ONREINDEER HUSBANDRY

1)2)

3)

4)

5)

egteva


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understanding o, and techniques or, reducing theirvulnerability towards the eects o climate change. Todate, the ofcial reindeer husbandry managements

principal tool has been regulating the number oreindeer and reindeer herders. A continuous loss oreindeer pastures has and will lead to a situation inwhich there will always be too many reindeer andherders in an area. Movement beyond this negativeocus requires liting the general level o competencelocally and within central management through re-search and training. This will also involve a paradigmshit in terms o the perception o and importance at-

tached to reindeer herders traditional knowledge, aknowledge with embedded key adaptive strategiesthat will enable reindeer husbandry participate moreeectively in support or strong, healthy indigenouscommunities in the study region. Reindeer herdershave experience with adapting to sudden changes inclimate or political conditions, and understanding thisability to adapt is important or a uture sustainable

development o the circumpolar regions. Further-more, it will be vital to communicate this adaptability

to oil and gas developers, the mainstream societiesand national authorities.

It will thereore become important to document theelders knowledge, in this case particularly in rela-tion to climate, local weather, pasture loss and theresponses o herders and herders institutions to vari-ation in these parameters (Ferguson et al. 1998, Usher2000, Kendrick et al. 2005). As the older generationdecreases, the sum o non-written knowledge storedin peoples memories and, thus, remaining in the Smisociety, is also declining. This knowledge is eectively

irreplaceable. We believe that valuing both traditionaland scientifc knowledge and, hence, integrating herd-ers experience and competence within the scientifcmethod, will enable us to contribute towards reducingthe vulnerability o reindeer husbandry to the eectso coming changes (Kitti et al. 2006). Local eects owarming o the global climate during the next 30 to 50years are likely to be pronounced over reindeer pas-

tures in the north. We should use the best methodsand practices available to meet these challenges.

AnnaDe

Burgess


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PhilipB

INDIGENOUS INFLUENCE ON DEVELOPMENT


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In spite o the ILO-convention 169 on the rights oindigenous peoples and the UN Declaration on theRights o Indigenous Peoples, the indigenous peo-

ples o the Barents Region have had little inuenceon land rights and piecemeal development. One othe main problems is the sectored management ograzing land, where one ministry is in charge o in-rastructure, another o hydropower development, athird o orestry, etc. This management regime haslet no room or an overall policy to secure at leasta minimum o grazing land or reindeer herding. De-

velopment plans are oten supported by economicpowerul interests, which are difcult to withstandor small, amily-based occupancies like reindeerherding.

On the county level, a recent investigation by the O-fce o the Auditor General o Norway ound that rein-deer herders some possibilities to inuence or modiy

general municipality plans (Riksrevisjonen 2004), al-though most plans end up as a compromise betweendevelopers and other interests. In the case o rec-

reational cabins, only 12% o the municipality plansrestricted new construction o cabins ater protestsrom reindeer husbandry interests (Lie et al. 2006).

However, the largest challenge or reindeer husband-ry is the vast number o separate development casesthat are raised in addition to the general county plans,which are time and resource demanding and leavelittle room to concentrate on the overall grazing landsituation. Reindeer herders have ewer possibilities toinuence the outcome o such separate cases thanthe general county plan process. Illustrating this, 400

new cabins are allowed built in Norwegian reindeergrazing areas each year as separate developmentcases, in addition to general municipality plans. Only7% o these are stopped as a result o protests romreindeer husbandry interests (Lie et al. 2006). Also, in86% o the separate cases o development on theirlands, they are not inormed by the county o the fnaldecision in the cases, making it difcult to raise a fnal

legal objection. Hence, in real lie, the herders haveonly a marginal inuence on

reindeer husbandry and barents 2030

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