PRE-AMERICAN REVOLUTIONAntiquity to 1763

Sea Power & Maritime Affairs

Admin

Quiz? Assignment?

Answer 3 Questions1. Why do navies exist?2. Where did they begin?3. How did they set the pretext for

the US navy?

Today’s ObjectivesLesson 1

Why do navies exist?1. Protect commercial

interests– Anti-piracy

2. Deny competing commercial interests– Rival industries and

states

3. Assist armies during conquest– Transport– Supply – Communications

How did navies begin?

Expansion of economic interests

Protection of sea commerce

Military conquest

Growth of SocietiesEnter Here

Where did navies begin?

Mediterranean States “Age of Galley Warfare”

Crete 2,500-1,200 BC

Phoenicians 2,000 – 300 BC

Greeks 700 – 200 BC

Rome 200 BC – 500 AD

Byzantine Empire 500 – 1450 AD

Turkish Empire 1450 – 1650 AD

AsiaNot

covered in this course

MedFocus of

this course

Sea Power Cycle

Force Composition

Tactics

Strategy

Balance of Naval Power

TechnologyEnter Here

“Age of Galley Warfare”

What was it?1. Longest era of naval warfare2. Rowed ship v. Rowed ship

1. Ship used as a battering ram2. Boarding & fighting3. Projectiles (missiles)

When was it?– Antiquity – 1650 AD

• Battle of Lepanto• “Age of Sail Warfare” replaced it

TechnologyRound Ship

What was it?• “Long Ship”• Fighting vessel in antiquity

Good for fighting? Why?• (A) Fast• (A) Sails & Rowers• (A) Many rowers &

marines• (A) Outfit for battle (ram)• (D) Unstable on rough

seas• (D) Poorly provisioned

What was it?• Commercial vessel in antiquity

Good for fighting? Why? • (D) Slow• (D) Few sailors• (D) No protection• (A) Stable on rough seas• (A) Well provisioned (large hull)

Galley

Trireme

Changed naval strategy and tactics– 150 rowers - 40 marines– Faster (7-8 kts) - More

maneuverable– Ramming & boarding tactics

(grapnels then corvus)

Trireme

Tactics

Line Abreast & Boarding– Use grapnels to tie boats together in a

giant “island”– Board and fight hand-to-hand

Ramming Projectiles

– Arrows– Greek fire– Cannon

Line Abreast

Line Abreast

Line Abreast

Naval infantry used to board and capture enemy galleys.

Ramming

Ramming

Ramming

Rams used to sink or immobilize enemy galleys.

Greek Fire

Ancient Version of a flamethrower– Ignited evaporated oil– Deadly with wooden ships– First Mention: 500 B.C.– More common use by 800 A.D. (Byzantium)

Videos

Age of Galley Battle Ben Hur

Countries and History

Starting with Crete…

Crete 2,500-1,200 BC

Major Commercial Hub

Phoenicians 2,000-300 BC

First Major Naval Empire

Greeks 700-200 BC

First to employ well orchestrated maneuvering and ramming tactics. Replaced the old boarding tactics.

Battle of Salamis 480 BC

Greeks: 500 ships

Pitted Greek Tactics (ramming) vs. Persian Tactics (grapnels/boarding)

Greek technology & tactics defeated Persians. Proved several concepts:

1. Ships are vital for supply

2. Ships are vital for communications

3. Small navies with fast ships and effective tactics can defeat larger navies.

****Gave rise to Greek dominance of the eastern Mediterranean.

Persians: 1,400 Persians ships / 175,000 sailors & marines / 180,000 soldiers

3rd Persian attempt to conquer Greece

Romans 200 BC – 500 AD

Roman Navy v. Carthage Navy 1. Roman advantage is hand-to-hand skill

2. Revert to grapnel, corvus, and boarding tactics

Prove: Old tactics can be effective if appropriately used

Battle of Actium (31 AD)1. Octavius v. Mark Anthony (and Cleopatria)---comparable size fleets

2. Octavias uses fire missiles to burn Anthony’s fleet

3. Decisive victory from creativity

Byzantine Empire 500–1450 AD

West slips into the “Dark Ages,” Byzantine takes over the Med. Dominant power for nearly 1000 years. Challenged by Islam and then Ottoman Empire.

Islam 400-700 AD

1. Rise of Islam

2. Fall of Islam in 732 AD following defeats in Constantinople and Gaul

Vikings 800 – 1050 AD

1. High seas required Broader Ships

2. Broader Ships = Less Draft + Easier Landings for Invasion

Crusades 1095 – 1300 AD

First Naval Cannon

Gunpowder & naval cannon– Imported from China and far east

Introduced in Byzantium in 1260 Limitations:

– Short distance, inaccurate, long reload time, little skill

Purpose: clearing decks prior to boarding

Ottoman Empire 1450 – 1650 AD

Battle of Lepanto 1571 AD

Famous for 2 reasons1. First great galley battle since Actium (31 AD)2. Last battle in the age of galley warfare

Battle1. Ottomans vs. anti-Muslim Holy League2. Coast of western Greece3. Mostly galley ships (oars)3. Line abreast tactics

Famous for 2 reasons1. First great galley battle since Actium (31 AD)2. Last battle in the age of galley warfare

Battle1. Ottomans vs. anti-Muslim Holy League2. Coast of western Greece3. Mostly galley ships (oars)3. Line abreast tactics

Battle of Lepanto 1571 AD

Battle of Lepanto 1571 AD

Outcome 1. Ottomans defeated (fall of empire)

2. Christian countries regained naval supremacy in the Med.3. Age of oar-propelled warships ends4. Rise of the Age of Sail and European conquest.

“Age of Sail Warfare”AD 1571 - 1861

Key Themes

1. Technology, strategy, tactics 2. Rise of Europe

– Renaissance– Colonial expansion

3. Emergence of powerful empires– Portugal, Spain, France, Netherlands, GB– Strong navy was key factor

4. Evolution of British naval dominance

Answer 3 Questions

1. Why did sail-warfare replace galley-warfare?2. How did technology change?3. How did naval tactics change?

Today’s ObjectivesLesson 1

Sea Power Cycle

Force Composition

Tactics

Strategy

Balance of Naval Power

TechnologyEnter Here

Why Age of Sail?

Expansion of economic interests

Protection of sea commerce

Military conquest

Growth of SocietiesEnter Here

Trade in Antiquity

Mostly Mediterranean

Trade in 100 AD

Silk road to the East

Trade in 1000 AD

Robust Trade Network

Trade in 1700 AD

“Oceanic Age” or “Age of Exploration”

Trade on all continents

Why not earlier?

1. Misunderstanding of geography2. Ship design limitations3. Medieval Kings could not afford ocean

exploration or navies– Called on merchants when needed– Broad-beamed, singled-masted ships– Mostly grapneling and brutal battles

What sparked it?

1. Silk & spice route to India– Venetian and Muslims control it

• All trade to east had to go through Middle East

– Question: Is there another route?• Water route?

What sparked it?

1. Silk & spice route to India– Venetian and Muslims control it

• All trade must transit Middle East• Tariffs get expensive

– Question: Another route? Water route?

What sparked it?

1. Silk & spice route to India– Venetian and Muslims control it

• All trade must transit Middle East• Tariffs get expensive

– Question: Another route? Water route?

2. Idea: Is the world Round?– Scholarly belief since antiquity

• Eratosthenes diameter at 21,000 NM (pretty accurate) in 300 B.C.

– Problem: 12,000 miles to India (via sailing west)• No ship could provision for such a long voyage

– Solution: Can we get around Africa?

Cape of Good Hope 1488

**Portuguese were first– King Henry (“the Navigator”)

and King John II were big supporters of sea trade

– Commissioned Dias to try

Bartolomeau Dias– 1487 – 1488– Called: “Cape of Storms”– Later named: “Cape of Good

Hope”– **Long but Possible

Cape of Good Hope 1488Caravel

India 1498

Vasco de Gama2 voyages to India

– 1st: 1/2 crew dies of scurvy– 2nd: Acts of cruelty to Indians

India 1498

Vasco de Gama2 voyages to India

– 1st: 1/2 crew dies of scurvy– 2nd: Acts of cruelty

Americas 1492

Spain was second– Christopher Columbus– Part “fool”

• Said it was only 2,500 miles to India• John II of Portugal: “No”• Venice, Genoa, England: “No”• Elizabeth I of Spain: “OK..whatever”

– First Voyage:• 5 Weeks• Bahamas (“West Indies”)• Returned:

– Hero / Syphilis

– Three more Voyages

Spain was second– Christopher Columbus– Part “fool”

• Said it was only 2,500 miles to India• John II of Portugal: “No”• Venice, Genoa, England: “No”• Elizabeth I of Spain: “OK..whatever”

– First Voyage:• 5 Weeks• Bahamas (“West Indies”)• Returned:

– Hero / Syphilis

– Three more Voyages

Americas 1492

Other Exploration

Treaty: Spain & Portugal– 1512 : Portuguese in China– 1522 : Ferdinand Magellan– Brits, Dutch and French defy agreement

Results– Italian states and Ottoman Empire

diminish in trade significance– Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands and

Britain become preeminent world states.

Colonial Expansion 1400-1900

Competition– Trade– Riches– Colonial land

Needed navy for:– Protection from

pirates– Protection from

other states– Military expansion

Ocean Empires– France– Spain– Portugal– Netherlands

(Dutch)– British

Portugal 1400-1900

Spain 1400-1900

France 1400-1900

Netherlands 1400-1900

Great Britain 1400-1900

Answer 2 Questions

How did technology change in Age of Sail?How did technology change tactics?

Video

Master and Commander

What is different?

Technology Tactics

• Why did it change?• How did it change?

Galley v. SailChanges in ship design?

– Ocean-worthy vessels– Sails / Masts– Hull Design– Guns (broadside)

Changes in tactics?– Longer Guns– “Weather Gauge”– The “Line”– Boarding

Scientific Changes– Compass– Speed estimations– Cartography– Cannon improvement– Artillery improvement

Compass, Speed & Cartography

Compass– Invented in China (247 BC)– Used in navigation by the 11th Century– “Dry Compass” - developed in Europe in the 13th century

Speed– “Log line” – 15th Century– First measurement of Nautical mile

Cartography– Discoveries led to improved cartography– Major updates to Ptolemy's maps– 1529 – Diogo Ribiero – First World Map– Longitude, 1750: John Harrison

Compass, Speed & Cartography

Results

1. New Navigation: Dead reckoning2. More confident navigation3. More ambitious explorers4. Hungry rulers and nations

Ocean-Worthy ShipsGalleys Carracks, Caravels & GalleonsTrireme

Design Changes in 1600s

Forecastles & Aftercastles(Anti-Piracy)

3 or more “square-rigged” masts

Deeper Draft(Stability)

Crows Nests

Fighting Perches

Guns lowered onto broadsides- For stability- Better guns- Multiple levels- Gun ports- Hit low on

waterline & splinter ships

Design Changes in the 1700s

Gun Changes More, bigger, longer-range Advances in metallurgy Rifling cannon (more accurate) New Tactic: “Off Fighting”

– Keep enemy at guns’ distance

Ship Design Changes Speed & Mobility More sail Forecastle & aftercastle reduced

– (Too much weight) Length increased

Culverine

Tactical Changes

“Off-Fighting” over Boarding “Weather Gauge” “The Line”

– Single-file ships– 74-guns or more

Ship-of-the-LineHMS VictoryOldest naval ship still in commissionWhat is oldest commissioned ship afloat?

“Weather Gauge”

Advantage“Weather Gauge”

Disadvantage

Windward Ships

Leeward Ships

Line-of-Battle Tactics

Early Tactics: “Bunching” New Tactics: “Line”

– Uncooperative navy captains

– GB assigns Army Generals to ships to enforce discipline

• “Generals-at-Sea”• Sailing and Fighting

Instructions of 1653

– “Line of Battle”

Line-of-Battle Tactics

Good: Full broadsides

Bad: Small Ships = Weak Links

Standard: 74-guns – “Ship fit to lie in the line”

• Must have at least 74 guns• Named: “Ship-of-the-Line”

– Smaller ships relegated to scouting, attacking and defending commerce, and communication (not the line)

Terms

Establishes ADM ranks– Fleet ADM = Flag ship– RADM Upper Half– RADM Lower Half

“Rating” – term used to classify ships according to the guns it carried.– British system– 1st Rate through 6th Rate

100-120 Guns850 Men

First Rate

Second Rate

90-98 Guns700 men

Third Rate

64-80 Guns500 men

Fourth Rate

50-60 Guns320 men

Fifth Rate

32-44 Guns200 men Frigates USS Constitution

Sixth Rate

20-28 Guns140 men

Other Ships

Types Corvettes Sloops (16-18 guns) Schooners (4-14 guns) Brigs

– 20-90 men

Why so many personnel?

Required Handle sails Handle guns

– 32-pound cannon required 12 men

Firing Rates Average Crew: Once very 2-3 minutes

– Exhaustion Well Trained Crew: Once a minute

– British won because they were the best

Tactical Controversy

“Formalist” vs “Melee “ School: - Formalists advocated “Conterminous” line

Tactical Controversy

“Melee” School: dispense line when favorable

Who Won?

Formalists Battle experience “Melee-ists” were forced into

retirement Permanent Fighting Instructions

– Article 25: must use formalist tactics– Formalist tactics became convention

Pros vs. Cons for Line Tactics

Full broadsides Systematic Predictable

For an ADM, ships in a line were Controllable

Predictable Stalemate

Pros Cons

Pros vs. Cons of Sail Warships

More stable Greater distance More sustainable More firepower Favored advanced

nations– Technologically advanced – Tactically advanced– Sophisticated training

Restricted in maneuvering

Slower Expensive Supply issues Training requirements Communications

difficulties– Semaphore developed

Pros Cons

Pros vs. Cons for Age of Sail

Sustainability Global horizons Profitable Off-Fighting Structure Education & Training

Expensive Slower Less maneuverable Conditions onboard Disease

Pros Cons

**Established sea power as critical to national interests***

Balance of Sea Power

Who ruled the seas?

European Sea Power in 1500s

Super-powers: Spain & France Sub-powers: Portugal,

Netherlands, England

England plays smaller role in European sea power and politics.

What sparked their rapid naval growth?

European Sea Power in 1500s Henry VII breaks with

Catholic church Threat: Spanish & French

invasion Decision: strong navy is

surest guarantee of defense1. Increased coastal defenses2. Strengthened Royal Navy3. Founded Portsmouth Naval Yard4. Invested in naval development

HMS Mary Rose First broadside ship 1st “off-fighting”

– 1545

Led to: Increased competition for sea power Rise of formal navies

Ramifications of Catholic Break

Fuels Catholic-Protestant tensions in Europe

Series of religious wars Spanish Armada (1588) Anglo-Dutch Wars Wars of Succession

European Sea Power 1500s

– Spain & France undisputed superpowers– Henry VII & Elizabeth I– Spanish Armada

1600s– Anglo-Dutch Wars (3)– Wars of British Succession– Other succession wars

1700s– French & Indian War– Seven Years War

1800s

Queen Elizabeth v. Phillip II

Elizabeth I English Queen / 1568-1603 Excommunicated / 1570 Mary Stuart / 1587 Build Navy to propel

eventual invasion Alliance with France

Phillip II Spanish King / 1554-1598 Hated Islam & Protestants Goal: Overthrow Elizabeth I Hired assassins Send Armada to invade

John Hawkins

Merchant & Slave Trader Elizabeth I appoints him

Chief Sea Commander of England

Two Influences:– Successful Pirate– Accelerated development

of ships with guns

Francis Drake

Most famous “Privateer” Golden Hind raided

Spanish ships across world

Returned with fortune Knighted on his own

ship Pivotal leader in English

Navy

Francis Drake

Most famous “Privateer” Golden Hind raided

Spanish ships across world

Returned with fortune Knighted on his own ship Pivotal leader in Navy

Spanish Armada

1588

Cause

European Politics1. Dynastic wars2. British privateers3. Spanish ship seizures4. Execution of Mary, Queen

of Scots5. Spanish assassination

attempts on Elizabeth I

CatholicOld

130 Ships 27,000 menLonger Guns“Grapple &

Board”

ProtestantNew

197 Ships16,000 men

ManeuverableOff-Fight*Drake

*More Experience*Weather Gauge

*Resupply

Outcome

Storm devastates Spanish Fleet – Began Spanish decline

England became formidable sea power Proved effectiveness of guns

**Anglo-Spanish conflict ended with James I (Catholic) restored to throne (1603)

Anglo-Dutch Wars

Three Wars1652-1684

Cause

James I replaced Elizabeth I Peace with Spain Abandoned Holland Bad blood

Holland & England natural competitors– East & West Indies– America– Navigation Act of 1651 – (Oliver Cromwell)

Competition erupts in war

• Cromwell• Reinvents Navy• Generals at Sea• Formal Doctrine• Fighting

Instructions of 1653

Anglo-Dutch Wars 1652-1684

English trounce Dutch twice

Prove merit of “the line” and formal tactics

Blockade Holland into submission

1st War

• Formal vs. Melee Tactics

• Dutch again submit

• Charles II ports and dismisses Navy

• Dutch counter-attack

English make terms:– No Navigation

Act– West Indies for

England– New

Amsterdam & Hudson Valley

2nd War

3rd War• Joint Anglo-French

attack• Dutch flood country• Two indecisive

battles at sea• French Navy

“weak”• Angry England

makes peace with Dutch

• Mary to WilliamEngland’s Benefit:

- Dutch are tired- Take over trade

3rd War

1. Testing ground for melee vs. formal tactics.

2. England defeats the Dutch (twice)3. Dutch relinquish some naval strength and

commerce. England fills the vacuum.

Outcome

England is second “Kid On Block” (France)– Big Fleet– Experienced Fleet– Formal tactics– Formal training

*** Nothing could stop them! Except…

War of English Succession

English Civil War1689-1697

Cause

James II Angry Parliament “William and Mary” of Holland “Bloodless Revolution” James flees to France

Result English & Dutch navies strong

and united James works with Louis XIV to

get back crown Anglo-French Conflict

Forces at Play

French Advantage Largest fleet in

world

French Disadvantage Brest & Toulon Large border Large Army / Land

Battle

English/Dutch Advantage• Experience• Unified Fleet

English/Dutch Disadvantage• Smaller than combined

French fleet

Forces at Play

French Advantage Largest fleet in

world

French Disadvantage Brest & Toulon Large boarder Large Army / Land

Battle

English/Dutch Advantage• Experience• Unified Fleet

English/Dutch Disadvantage• Smaller than combined

French fleet

BattlesBeachy Head (1690) English/Dutch

“melee” French double-over

and defeat

Score: Formalists: +1 Melee: 0

Barfleur (1692) French “melee” Stretch out English/Dutch

break line and win

Score: Formalists: +2 Melee: 0

Outcome

Indecisive France on verge of bankruptcy

– Gives up on fleet in favor of Army Louis XIV recognizes William and Mary

as rules of England

Impact on Tactics: Formalism becomes dogma

Wars of Succession

Spanish Succession (1703-1713)Peace (1713-1740)

Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

War of Spanish Succession 1703-1713

Spain Weak : English/Dutch take Gibraltar– Battle of Malaga: Indecisive “formalist” tactics– ADM Rooke : “Permanent Fighting Instructions”– Prevents unification of French Fleets

Battle of Minorca– Strengthens English hold of Straight of

Gibraltar– Blockade of Toulon fleet allows conquest in

Americas

Peace 1713-1740

Wars of succession are another testing ground for tactics

Outcome– England establishes “Permanent Fighting

Instructions”—mandating Formalism• ADM Byng executed during Seven Years War

for failure to fulfill execute “Permanent Fighting Instructions”

– “Melee-ists” forced out of service

War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748

ADM Thomas Mathews (Melee) v. Richard Lestock (Formalist)

Mathew’s fleet severely damaged Lestock arrested for not aiding Lestock ultimately acquitted, Mathews dismissed

from service Article 25 : “Chase”

Outcome: “Line” is King ADM Byng sat on Courts Martial

Seven Years War

“French & Indian War”1756-1763

*** First True World War ***

Theaters of War America Europe Mediterranean

• East Indies• West Indies• Africa

Major Players

British Prussians American Colonies Portugese

Grand Coalition French Austrians Russians Spain Sweden French Frontiersmen Native Americans

Bottom Line: It was a world war

Cause : Land Disputes

Land west of Appalachia Silesia

British v. French Austria v. Prussia

War in the Americas : 1754

Start of War– Ohio Valley– Colonel George Washington– Fort Necessity

Escalation– Gen Edward Braddock– Surrender of major forces at

Great Meadows– Need for immediate

reinforcement

War in Europe

Battle for Minorca French amphibious operation Take back Minorca & Gibraltar British dispatch ADM Byng Ensuing battle devolved in

confusion

Results French win Byng executed for failing to

follow formalist tactics British losing in America and

Med

William Pitt “the Elder”

British Secretary of State for War Big Goal:

– Expand British Empire

Naval Visionary:1. Subsidized Prussian armies2. Use fleet to:

a. Raid enemy coastsb. Blockade enemy fleetsc. Convoy & support to overseas

colonies

Raid Enemy Coasts

“Conjunct Operations” Raid & Withdraw Destroyed costal garrisons Destroyed privateers Draw soldiers away from

front lines

Blockade Enemy Fleets

French made plans to invade England Needed to combine fleets

Problem: Brits blockaded Gibraltar

Result:1. Battle of Lagos2. Battle of Quiberon Bay

• In both cases: Outnumbered French Fleet driven onto shoals and destroyed.

• Fuels Mahan’s beliefs in concentrated fleets

Battle of Lagos 1759

British Ships-of-Line called into port

French seized opportunity 12 Ships-of-Line tried to

escape under cover of darkness

British Frigates see them 15 British Ships-of-Line

chase Run them into Lagos Bay French ships destroyed or

run aground

Battle of Quiberon Bay 1759

Similar Story French driven into bay Run up on shoals Jettison guns Still destroyed on shoals and in river

Convoy & Support to Colonies

British Navy in America– Blockade St. Laurence by taking Louisburg– Take Quebec

• Joint Army/Navy operation

– Sea control chokes off French forces

Battle of Quebec 1759

Navy-Army Cooperation– Amphibious Ops

Three directions

Result Artery blocked Conquest of Canada

Other OperationsWest Indies Brits had nearly

unfettered control of seas

Took islands at will and profited from resources– More amphibious ops

Pirated gold ships headed for Spain

Ceded back at conclusion

Africa / Asia Brits took several

French colonies around the western coast

Took French colonies in India and Spanish colony of Philippines

Peace of Paris 1763

Prussia on verge of collapse when: Russia withdrew Sweden withdrew France & Austria sued for peace

Major Outcome Truce, not treaty England gave back much England gained more: Canada, Mississippi,

Florida, number of smaller posts

*** High-Water Mark of English Seapower ***

Stage is set for American Revolution

Technology Sailing ships with guns, Ship-of-the-line, Frigates, long guns, carronades

Strategy Guerre de escadre, guerre de course, blockades, raids, etc.

Tactics Off-fighting, formalist “line-of-battle,” weather gauge

Sea Power (1) England; (2) France; (3) Spanish; (4) Dutch;

International Politics(England) v. (France & Spain)

America still highly contested.

National Politics British turn to internal affairs.

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