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PollutionAn overview

ContentsArticlesOverview 1

Pollution 1Pollutant 10

Types of pollution 13

Air pollution 13Light pollution 29Marine pollution 48Noise pollution 60Radioactive contamination 64Soil contamination 70Ship pollution 76Thermal pollution 81Visual pollution 84Water pollution 86Waste 96

Pollution control 99

Environmental management 99Regulation and monitoring of pollution 105Pollution prevention 108Waste management 109Waste minimisation 115

International treaties 119

Montreal Protocol 119Kyoto Protocol 127CLRTAP 151OSPAR Convention 153Stockholm Convention 155

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 160Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 166

Article LicensesLicense 170

1

Overview

Pollution

The litter problem on the coast of Guyana, 2010

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the naturalenvironment that cause adverse change.[1] Pollution can take the formof chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light.Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreignsubstances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution isoften classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

Ancient cultures

Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution startedfrom the prehistoric times when man created the first fires. According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "sootfound on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associatedwith inadequate ventilation of open fires."[2] The forging of metals appears to be a key turning point in the creationof significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases inpollution associated with Greek, Roman and Chinese metal production,[3] but at that time the pollution wascomparatively less and could be handled by nature.

Official acknowledgementKing Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smokebecame a problem.[][] But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired becauseit could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem inEngland, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of1952. London also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on theThames of 1858, which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward.It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence ofgreat factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented airpollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated humanwaste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Othercities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air Pollution wascreated under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angelesand Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.[]

Pollution 2

Modern awarenessPollution became a popular issue after World War II, due to radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing.Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London, killed at least 4000 people.[4] This prompted some ofthe first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956.Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, whenCongress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act and the National EnvironmentalPolicy Act.[]

Smog Pollution in Taiwan

Severe incidents of pollution helped increase consciousness. PCBdumping in the Hudson River resulted in a ban by the EPA onconsumption of its fish in 1974. Long-term dioxin contamination atLove Canal starting in 1947 became a national news story in 1978 andled to the Superfund legislation of 1980. Legal proceedings in the1990s helped bring to light hexavalent chromium releases inCalifornia—the champions of whose victims became famous. Thepollution of industrial land gave rise to the name brownfield, a termnow common in city planning.

The development of nuclear science introduced radioactivecontamination, which can remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay, named bythe Worldwatch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal site for the Soviet Unionthroughout the 1950s and 1960s. Second place may go to the area of Chelyabinsk U.S.S.R. (see reference below) asthe "Most polluted place on the planet". [citation needed]

Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, sometimes near inhabited areas, especially in the earlierstages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the growth since then in understandingabout the critical threat to human health posed by radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associatedwith nuclear power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested byincidents such as those at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. One legacy ofnuclear testing before most forms were banned has been significantly raised levels of background radiation. [citation

needed]

International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of Brittany in 1978 and theBhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to addressthem needed to engage. The borderless nature of atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication ofpollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. Most recently the term persistent organic pollutant(POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs among others. Though their effectsremain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in variousecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion andbioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.A much more recently discovered problem is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a huge concentration of plastics,chemical sludge and other debris which has been collected into a large area of the Pacific Ocean by the North PacificGyre. This is a less well known pollution problem than the others described above, but nonetheless has multiple andserious consequences such as increasing wildlife mortality, the spread of invasive species and human ingestion oftoxic chemicals. Organizations such as 5 Gyres have researched the pollution and, along with artists like MarinaDeBris, are working toward publicizing the issue.Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given rise toenvironmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek to limit human impact on theenvironment.

Pollution 3

Forms of pollution

The Lachine Canal in Montreal Canada, is polluted.

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with theparticular contaminant relevant to each of them:• Air pollution:- the release of chemicals and particulates into the

atmosphere. Common gaseous pollutants include carbonmonoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) andnitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles.Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxidesand hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or finedust is characterized by their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.

• Light pollution:- includes light trespass, over-illumination andastronomical interference.

• Littering:- the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-madeobjects, unremoved, onto public and private properties.

• Noise pollution:- which encompasses roadway noise, aircraftnoise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.

• Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spillor underground leakage. Among the most significant soilcontaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE,[5]

herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.• Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power

generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in theenvironment.)

• Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use ofwater as coolant in a power plant.

• Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarredlandforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash, municipal solid waste or space debris.

• Water pollution, by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and industrial waste (intentionally or throughspills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated domestic sewage, and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine,from treated sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface waters (includingurban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal andleaching into groundwater; eutrophication and littering.

Pollution 4

PollutantsA pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: itschemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.

Sources and causes

Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds,affecting global temperatures.

Air pollution comes from both natural and human-made(anthropogenic) sources. However, globally human-made pollutantsfrom combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare areincreasingly significant in the air pollution equation.[6]

Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of airpollution.[7][8][9] China, United States, Russia, India[10] Mexico, andJapan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principalstationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired powerplants, oil refineries,[] petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal

activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals productionfactories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practiceswhich include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides[11]

About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year.[12] The United States alone producesabout 250 million metric tons.[13] Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly25% of the world’s CO2,[14] and generate approximately 30% of world’s waste.[15][16] In 2007, China has overtakenthe United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2,[17] while still far behind based on per capita pollution -ranked 78th among the world's nations.[18]

An industrial area, with a power plant, south ofYangzhou's downtown, China

In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists,and policymakers from more than 120 countries, said that humans havebeen the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans haveways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences ofglobal warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change theclimate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occurwithin decades, according to the final report this year from the UN'sIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).[19]

Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinatedhydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium,cadmium–found in rechargeable batteries, and lead–found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries,gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called FatefulHarvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in thecontamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemicalsubstances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuseaccepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject tolittle control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins,commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.[20]

Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution,

Pollution 5

such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases whenaccidents occur.In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing about ninety percent of allunwanted noise worldwide.

Effects

Human health

Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types ofpollution.[21][22][23]

Adverse air quality can kill manyorganisms including humans. Ozonepollution can cause respiratory disease,cardiovascular disease, throatinflammation, chest pain, andcongestion. Water pollution causesapproximately 14,000 deaths per day,mostly due to contamination ofdrinking water by untreated sewage indeveloping countries. An estimated700 million Indians have no access to aproper toilet, and 1,000 Indian childrendie of diarrhea every day.[] Nearly 500million Chinese lack access to safedrinking water.[24] 656,000 people dieprematurely each year in Chinabecause of air pollution. In India, airpollution is believed to cause 527,700 fatalities a year.[25] Studies have estimated that the number of people killedannually in the US could be over 50,000.[26]

Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, andsleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Olderpeople are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are underadditional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to causeneurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.

EnvironmentPollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects of this:• Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass through trophic levels,

becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.• Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans as CO2

becomes dissolved.• The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in many ways.• Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants can contribute debris and

biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical compositions of an environment, often reducing nativespecies competitiveness.

• Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the species composition ofecosystems.

Pollution 6

• Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out photosynthesis and leads to theproduction of tropospheric ozone which damages plants.

• Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in the food web.• Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil.

Environmental health informationThe Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[27] at the United States National Libraryof Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access toresources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations. This web site includes links todatabases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsiblefor the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)[28] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental healthdatabases that are available free of charge on the web.TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps of the UnitedStates to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) ToxicsRelease Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs.

Regulation and monitoringTo protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislationto regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.

Pollution control

A litter trap catches floating waste in the Yarra River,east-central Victoria, Australia

Pollution control is a term used in environmentalmanagement. It means the control of emissions andeffluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control,the waste products from consumption, heating, agriculture,mining, manufacturing, transportation and other humanactivities, whether they accumulate or disperse, willdegrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls,pollution prevention and waste minimization are moredesirable than pollution control. In the field of landdevelopment, low impact development is a similartechnique for the prevention of urban runoff.

Practices

•• recycling•• reusing•• Waste minimisation•• mitigating•• preventing•• compost

Pollution 7

A dust collector in Pristina, Kosovo

Gas nozzle with vapor recovery

A Mobile Pollution Check Vehicle in India.

Pollution control devices

• Dust collection systems•• Baghouses•• Cyclones• Electrostatic precipitators

• Scrubbers•• Baffle spray scrubber•• Cyclonic spray scrubber•• Ejector venturi scrubber•• Mechanically aided scrubber•• Spray tower•• Wet scrubber

•• Sewage treatment• Sedimentation (Primary treatment)• Activated sludge biotreaters (Secondary treatment;

also used for industrial wastewater)• Aerated lagoons• Constructed wetlands (also used for urban runoff)

•• Industrial wastewater treatment• API oil-water separators[][29]

• Biofilters• Dissolved air flotation (DAF)•• Powdered activated carbon treatment•• Ultrafiltration

•• Vapor recovery systems•• Phytoremediation

Perspectives

The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life formswould have been a natural function of their existence. Theattendant consequences on viability and population levelsfell within the sphere of natural selection. These wouldhave included the demise of a population locally orultimately, species extinction. Processes that were untenable would have resulted in a new balance brought about bychanges and adaptations. At the extremes, for any form of life, consideration of pollution is superseded by that ofsurvival.

For humankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and critical consideration, both as an enabler and anadditional source of byproducts. Short of survival, human concerns include the range from quality of life to healthhazards. Since science holds experimental demonstration to be definitive, modern treatment of toxicity orenvironmental harm involves defining a level at which an effect is observable. Common examples of fields wherepractical measurement is crucial include automobile emissions control, industrial exposure (e.g. Occupational Safetyand Health Administration (OSHA) PELs), toxicology (e.g. LD50), and medicine (e.g. medication and radiationdoses).

Pollution 8

"The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum which summarizes a traditional approach to pollution managementwhereby sufficiently diluted pollution is not harmful.[30][] It is well-suited to some other modern, locally scopedapplications such as laboratory safety procedure and hazardous material release emergency management. But itassumes that the dilutant is in virtually unlimited supply for the application or that resulting dilutions are acceptablein all cases.Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale might have had greater merit in earlier centurieswhen physical survival was often the highest imperative, human population and densities were lower, technologieswere simpler and their byproducts more benign. But these are often no longer the case. Furthermore, advances haveenabled measurement of concentrations not possible before. The use of statistical methods in evaluating outcomeshas given currency to the principle of probable harm in cases where assessment is warranted but resorting todeterministic models is impractical or infeasible. In addition, consideration of the environment beyond direct impacton human beings has gained prominence.Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach predominates practices throughout the world. It isthe basis by which to gauge concentrations of effluent for legal release, exceeding which penalties are assessed orrestrictions applied. One such superseding principle is contained in modern hazardous waste laws in developedcountries, as the process of diluting hazardous waste to make it non-hazardous is usually a regulated treatmentprocess.[] Migration from pollution dilution to elimination in many cases can be confronted by challengingeconomical and technological barriers.

Greenhouse gases and global warming

Historical and projected CO2 emissions by country.Source: Energy Information Administration.[31][32]

Carbon dioxide, while vital forphotosynthesis, is sometimes referred to aspollution, because raised levels of the gas inthe atmosphere are affecting the Earth'sclimate. Disruption of the environment canalso highlight the connection between areasof pollution that would normally beclassified separately, such as those of waterand air. Recent studies have investigated thepotential for long-term rising levels ofatmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slightbut critical increases in the acidity of oceanwaters, and the possible effects of this onmarine ecosystems.

Most polluted places in thedeveloping world

The Blacksmith Institute, an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to eliminating life-threateningpollution in the developing world, issues an annual list of some of the world's worst polluted places. In the 2007issues the ten top nominees, already industrialized countries excluded, are located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru,Russia, Ukraine and Zambia.[33]

Pollution 9

References[4] 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ onthisday/ hi/ dates/ stories/ december/ 9/ newsid_4506000/ 4506390.

stm) (BBC News)[5] Concerns about MTBE (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ mtbe/ water. htm#concerns) from U.S. EPA website[6][6] Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972[7] Environmental Performance Report 2001 (http:/ / www. tc. gc. ca/ programs/ environment/ ems/ epr2001/ awareness. htm) (Transport,

Canada website page)[8] State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality (http:/ / www. environment. gov. au/ soe/ 2006/ publications/ drs/ atmosphere/ issue/ 188/ index.

html) (Australian Government website page)[9] Pollution and Society (http:/ / www. umich. edu/ ~gs265/ society/ pollution. htm) Marisa Buchanan and Carl Horwitz, University of Michigan[10] http:/ / cdiac. ornl. gov/ trends/ emis/ tre_tp20. html[11][11] Silent Spring, R Carlson, 1962[12] " Pollution (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761570933_2/ Pollution. html)". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.[13] " Chapter 23 – Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste (http:/ / zoology. muohio. edu/ oris/ cunn06/ cs6_23. htm)"[14] " Revolutionary maps zoom in on greenhouse gas sources (http:/ / news. uns. purdue. edu/ x/ 2008a/ 080407GurneyVulcan. html)". Purdue

University. April 7, 2008.[16] Alarm sounds on US population boom (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ nation/ washington/ articles/ 2006/ 08/ 31/

alarm_sounds_on_us_population_boom/ ). August 31, 2006. The Boston Globe.[17] " China overtakes US as world's biggest emitter (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2007/ jun/ 19/ china. usnews)".

Guardian.co.uk. June 19, 2007.[18] " Ranking of the world's countries by 2008 per capita fossil-fuel CO2 emission rates. (http:/ / cdiac. ornl. gov/ trends/ emis/ top2008. cap)".

CDIAC. 2008.[21] World Resources Institute: August 2008 Monthly Update: Air Pollution's Causes, Consequences and Solutions (http:/ / earthtrends. wri. org/

updates/ node/ 325) Submitted by Matt Kallman on Wed, 2008-08-20 18:22. Retrieved on April 17, 2009[22] waterhealthconnection.org Overview of Waterborne Disease Trends (http:/ / www. waterhealthconnection. org/ chapter3. asp) By Patricia L.

Meinhardt, MD, MPH, MA, Author. Retrieved on April 16, 2009[23] Pennsylvania State University > Potential Health Effects of Pesticides. (http:/ / pubs. cas. psu. edu/ FreePubs/ pdfs/ uo198. pdf) by Eric S.

Lorenz. 2007.[24] " As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 08/ 26/ world/ asia/ 26china. html)". The New

York Times. August 26, 2007.[25] Chinese Air Pollution Deadliest in World, Report Says (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 07/ 070709-china-pollution.

html). National Geographic News. July 9, 2007.[31] World Carbon Dioxide Emissions (ftp:/ / ftp. eia. doe. gov/ pub/ oiaf/ 1605/ cdrom/ pdf/ ggrpt/ 057304. pdf) (Table 1, Report

DOE/EIA-0573, 2004, Energy Information Administration)[32] Carbon dioxide emissions chart (http:/ / rainforests. mongabay. com/ 09-carbon_emissions. htm) (graph on Mongabay website page based

on Energy Information Administration's tabulated data)[33] The World's most polluted places, Blacksmith Institute - September 2007 (http:/ / www. blacksmithinstitute. org/ wwpp2007/

finalReport2007. pdf)

External links• OEHHA proposition 65 list (http:/ / www. oehha. ca. gov/ prop65/ prop65_list/ Newlist. html)• National Toxicology Program (http:/ / ntp-server. niehs. nih. gov/ ) – from USA National Institutes of Health.

Reports and studies on how pollutants affect people• TOXNET (http:/ / toxnet. nlm. nih. gov/ ) – NIH databases and reports on toxicology• TOXMAP (http:/ / toxmap. nlm. nih. gov/ ) – Geographic Information System (GIS) that uses maps of the United

States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ToxicsRelease Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs

• EPA.gov (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ superfund/ ) – manages Superfund sites and the pollutants in them (CERCLA).Map the EPA Superfund (http:/ / toxmap. nlm. nih. gov/ toxmap/ main/ index. jsp/ )

• Toxic Release Inventory (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ tri/ ) – tracks how much waste USA companies release into thewater and air. Gives permits for releasing specific quantities of these pollutants each year. Map EPA's ToxicRelease Inventory (http:/ / toxmap. nlm. nih. gov/ toxmap/ main/ index. jsp)

• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ index. html) – Top 20pollutants, how they affect people, what USA industries use them and the products in which they are found

Pollution 10

• Toxicology Tutorials from the National Library of Medicine (http:/ / sis. nlm. nih. gov/ enviro/ toxtutor.html#toxtutor) – resources to review human toxicology.

• Pollution Information from (http:/ / www. whoi. edu/ page. do?pid=12049), Woods Hole OceanographicInstitution

• World's Worst Polluted Places 2007 (http:/ / www. blacksmithinstitute. org/ ten. php), according to theBlacksmith Institute

• The World's Most Polluted Places (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ specials/ 2007/ article/0,28804,1661031_1661028_1661020,00. html) at Time.com (a division of Time Magazine)

• Chelyabinsk: The Most Contaminated Spot on the Planet (http:/ / www. logtv. com/ films/ chelyabinsk/ index.htm) Documentary Film by Slawomir Grünberg (1996)

• Kids' Lower IQ Scores Linked To Prenatal Pollution (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ 2009/ 07/ 20/kids-lower-iq-scores-link_1_n_240541. html) by Lindsey Tanner, The Huffington Post, July 20, 2009

• Nieman Reports | Tracking Toxics When the Data Are Polluted (http:/ / www. nieman. harvard. edu/ reportsitem.aspx?id=100933)

Pollutant

Surface runoff, also called nonpoint sourcepollution, from a farm field in Iowa, United

States during a rain storm. Topsoil as well asfarm fertilizers and other potential pollutants run

off unprotected farm fields when heavy rainsoccur.

A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environmentthat has undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of aresource. A pollutant may cause long- or short-term damage bychanging the growth rate of plant or animal species, or by interferingwith human amenities, comfort, health, or property values. Somepollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in theenvironment in the long term. However the degradation products ofsome pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDEand DDD produced from degradation of DDT.

Different types of pollutants by absorptivecapacity

Stock pollutants

Pollutants that the environment has little or no absorptive capacity are called stock pollutants[1] (e.g. persistentsynthetic chemicals, non-biodegradable plastics, and heavy metals). Stock pollutants accumulate in the environmentover time. The damage they cause increases as more pollutant is emitted, and persists as the pollutant accumulates.Stock pollutants can create a burden for future generations by passing on damage that persists well after the benefitsreceived from incurring that damage have been forgotten.[1]

Pollutant 11

Fund pollutantsFund pollutants are those for which the environment has some absorptive capacity. Fund pollutants do not causedamage to the environment unless the emission rate exceeds the receiving environment's absorptive capacity (e.g.carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants and oceans).[1] Fund pollutants are not destroyed, but rather convertedinto less harmful substances, or diluted/dispersed to non-harmful concentrations.[1]

Notable pollutantsNotable pollutants include the following groups:•• Heavy metals• Persistent organic pollutants POP• Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants EPPP• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons• Volatile organic compounds• Environmental xenobiotics

Zones of influencePollutants can also be defined by their zones of influence, both horizontally and vertically.[1]

Horizontal zoneThe horizontal zone refers to the area that is damaged by a pollutant. Local pollutants cause damage near theemission source. Regional pollutants cause damage further from the emission source.[1]

Vertical zoneThe vertical zone is referred to whether the damage is ground-level or atmospheric. Surface pollutants cause damageby concentrations of the pollutant accumulating near the Earth's surface Global pollutants cause damage byconcentrations in the atmosphere

Regulation

InternationalPollutants can cross international borders and therefore international regulations are needed for their control. TheStockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which entered into force in 2004, is an international legallybinding agreement for the control of persistent organic pollutants. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR)are systems to collect and disseminate information on environmental releases and transfers of toxic chemicals fromindustrial and other facilities.....

European UnionThe European Pollutant Emission Register is a type of PRTR providing access to information on the annualemissions of industrial facilities in the Member States of the European Union, as well as Norway.

United StatesClean Air Act standards. Under the Clean Air Act, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are standards developed for outdoor air quality. The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants are emission standards that are set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which are not covered by the

Pollutant 12

NAAQS.Clean Water Act standards. Under the Clean Water Act, EPA promulgated national standards for municipalsewage treatment plants, also called publicly owned treatment works, in the Secondary Treatment Regulation.[2]

National standards for industrial dischargers are called Effluent guidelines (for existing sources) and New SourcePerformance Standards, and currently cover over 50 industrial categories.[3] In addition, the Act requires states topublish water quality standards for individual water bodies to provide additional protection where the nationalstandards are insufficient.RCRA standards. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the management, transport anddisposal of municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and underground storage tanks.[4]

References[1] Tietenberg, T. (2006). Economics of Pollution Control, Chapter 15 in Environmental and Natural Resource Economics, 7th Edition, Pearson,

Boston.[2] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "Secondary Treatment Regulation." (http:/ / www. access. gpo. gov/ nara/

cfr/ waisidx_07/ 40cfr133_07. html) Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR Part 133.[3] EPA. "Effluent Limitation Guidelines: Industrial Regulations." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ industry. html) Accessed 2010-07-15.[4] U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. P.L. 94-580, et seq. October 21, 1976. Amended by the Hazardous and Solid Waste

Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, November 8, 1984.

13

Types of pollution

Air pollution

Air pollution from a World War II wartimeproduction plant

Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals,particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, ordeath to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, ordamage the natural environment or built environment.

The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that isessential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletiondue to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to humanhealth as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Indoor air pollution (see Airlog) and urban air quality are listed as twoof the World’s Worst Toxic Pollution Problems in the 2008 BlacksmithInstitute World's Worst Polluted Places report.[1]

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Pollutants

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, theemissions from this power plant in New Mexicocontained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2)particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground

level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.

A substance in the air that can beadverse to humans and theenvironment is known as an airpollutant. Pollutants can be in the formof solid particles, liquid droplets, orgases. In addition, they may be naturalor man-made. Pollutants can beclassified as primary or secondary.Usually, primary pollutants are directlyproduced from a process, such as ashfrom a volcanic eruption, the carbonmonoxide gas from a motor vehicleexhaust or sulphur dioxide releasedfrom factories. Secondary pollutantsare not emitted directly. Rather, theyform in the air when primary pollutantsreact or interact. An important exampleof a secondary pollutant is groundlevel ozone — one of the manysecondary pollutants that make upphotochemical smog. Some pollutantsmay be both primary and secondary:that is, they are both emitted directlyand formed from other primarypollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced byhuman activity include:

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• Sulphur oxides (SOx) - especially sulphur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is producedby volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulphur compounds,their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such asNO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact ofthe use of these fuels as power sources.

• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are alsoproduced naturally during thunderstorms by electric discharge. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above orplume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of theseveral nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of themost prominent air pollutants.

• Carbon monoxide (CO)- is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product byincomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbonmonoxide.

• Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often dividedinto the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficientgreenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significantgreenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere,although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene,toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure.1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.

• Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles,are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together.Sources of particulates can be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating fromvolcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as theburning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amountsof aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currentlyaccount for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particlesin the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[2] altered lung function and lung cancer.

• Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles could cause cardiopulmonary disease.[3][4]

• Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds.• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use.• Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is

normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to thenutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, eitherdirectly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.

• Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes• Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes

such as the radioactive decay of radon.

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Pollution in the sky of Athens, Greece.

Secondary pollutants include:• Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and

compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution;the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smogresults from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by amixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide. Modern smog does notusually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissionsthat are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sunto form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primaryemissions to form photochemical smog.

• Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere. It isalso an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer.Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in theatmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largelythe combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.Minor air pollutants include:• A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act

and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive• A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulatesPersistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation throughchemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in theenvironment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in foodchains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas

Sources of air pollution refers to the various locations, activities orfactors which are responsible for the releasing of pollutants into theatmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categorieswhich are:Anthropogenic sources (man-made sources) mostly related toburning different kinds of fuel

• "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants,manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as wellas furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. Indeveloping and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditionalbiomass includes wood, crop waste and dung.[5][6]

• "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound etc.• Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management. Controlled or prescribed

burning is a

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Controlled burning of a field outside ofStatesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring

planting

technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairierestoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part ofboth forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a toolfor foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of somedesirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

• Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and othersolvents

• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane ishighly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air.Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may resultif the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.

• Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketryNatural sources

• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with few or no vegetation• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring,

radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gasfrom natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is thesecond most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires• Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. These VOCs

react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—specifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carboncompounds—to produce a seasonal haze of secondary pollutants.[7]

• Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Emission factors

Industrial air pollution emissions

Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that peopleattempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient airwith an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. Thesefactors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by aunit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting thepollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coalburned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from varioussources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simplyaverages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generallyassumed to be representative of long-term averages.

There are 12 compounds in the list of POPs. Dioxins and furans are two of them and are intentionally created bycombustion of organics, like open burning of plastics. The POPs are also endocrine disruptor and can mutate thehuman genes.The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors fora multitude of industrial sources.[8] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and many other countries havepublished similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency.[9][10][11][12]

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Indoor air quality (IAQ)

Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where peopleoften spend the majority of their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, isexuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses.Building materials including carpeting and plywood emitformaldehyde (H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organiccompounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dustand be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use ofair fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood firesin stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of smokeparticulates into the air, inside and out.[13] Indoor pollution fatalitiesmay be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoorswithout proper ventilation.

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning ofcharcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps arebuilt into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emitstetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domesticenvironments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronicinflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure toasbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) andare at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not always stressedin non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. Accordingto the World Health Organisation (WHO) [14], these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and PeritonealMesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated withprolonged exposure to asbestos).Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander,people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furnitureproduce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls andgenerates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, andhouseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulationallows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effectsAir pollution is a significant risk factor for multiple health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease,and lung cancer, according to the WHO. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty inbreathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effectscan result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions andpremature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body'srespiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type ofpollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.[citation needed]

The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Bothindoor and outdoor air pollution have caused approximately 3.3 million deaths worldwide. Children aged less thanfive years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable toindoor and outdoor air pollution.[15]

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The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to airpollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[] "Epidemiological studies suggest thatmore than 500,000 Americans die each year from cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle airpollution. . ."[16] A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumoniarelated deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.[17] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollutionthan to automobile accidents.[18] A 2005 study by the European Commission calculated that air pollution reduces lifeexpectancy by an average of almost nine months across the European Union.[19] Causes of deaths include aggravatedasthma, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.[20] The US EPA estimates that a proposed setof changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewerheart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-relatedhospital admissions each year in the United States.[citation needed]

The US EPA estimates allowing a ground-level ozone concentration of 65 parts per billion, would avert 1,700 to5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with the current 75-ppb standard. The agency projects thestricter standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million casesof missed work or school.[21][22]

The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[23] Leaked industrial vapoursfrom the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 25,000 people outrightand injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when theDecember 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died withinthe following months.[citation needed] An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in theformer USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths.[citation

needed] The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in lateOctober, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.[24]

A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and SanJoaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 yearsearlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual prematuredeaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than2,000 per year.[25][26][27]

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In several humanexperimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vasculardysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[28][29] This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between thepreviously described association between particulates air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity andmortality.

Effects on cardiovascular healthA 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased totalmortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3 increase). PMID 19235364.Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levelsare highest.[30] A 2007 study found that in women air pollution is associated not with hemorrhagic but with ischemicstroke.[31] Air pollution was also found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary strokein a cohort study in 2011.[32] Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction,low-grade inflammation or autonomic nervous system imbalance or other mechanisms. [] []

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Effects on cystic fibrosisA study from around the years of 1999 to 2000, by the University of Washington, showed that patients near andaround particulates air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and decrease in lung function.[33]

Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa orBurkholderia cenocepacia as well as their socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located inthe United States in close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency.Wikipedia:Please clarify During thetime of the study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. Many patients in the study lived in or near largemetropolitan areas in order to be close to medical help. These same patients had higher level of pollutants found intheir system because of more emissions in larger cities. As cystic fibrosis patients already suffer from decreased lungfunction, everyday pollutants such as smoke, emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use ofindoor heating devices could further compromise lung function.[34]

Effects on COPD and asthmaChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[35]

Researches have demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma [36] and COPD[37] from increased exposure totraffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution has been associated with increased hosptializations andmortality from asthma and COPD.[38][39]

A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low reported death rates from chronicbronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlyingtowns, the London subjects exhibited more severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea),reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differenceswere more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so concludedthat air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[40]

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health hazards becomemore apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lungfunction, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[41]

Links to cancerA review of evidence regarding whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007 found soliddata to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of nonaccidentalmortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase.PMID 19235364

Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15% to21% per a 10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3increase). PMID 19235364

The review further noted that living close to busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks of these threeoutcomes (increase in lung cancer deaths, cardiovascular deaths, and overall nonaccidental deaths. PMID 19235364The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality fromcoronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insufficient toprovide solid conclusions.In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areaswith high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.[42]

An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution andother forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.[43]

Air pollution 21

Effects on childrenAround the world, children living in cities with high exposure to air pollutants are at increased risk of developingasthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections. Because children are outdoors more and have higherminute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of air pollution. Risks of low initial birth weight are alsoheightened in such cities.The World Health Organization reports that the greatest concentrations of particulates are found in countries withlow economic world power and high poverty and population growth rates. Examples of these countries includeEgypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia. However even in the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air Actin 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which theconcentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.[44] These dangerous pollutants are known as thecriteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.Protective measures to ensure children's health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where buses nowuse compressed natural gas to help eliminate the "pea-soup" smog.[45]

Health effects in relatively "clean" areasEven in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be significant and costly, sincea large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia LungAssociation showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozoneconcentrations) would produce a $29 million in annual savings in the Metro Vancouver region in 2010.[46] Thisfinding is based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (illness) effects.

Reduction effortsThere are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to reduce airpollution.[47][48] At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructureplanning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land isused efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment.Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing countries havepermissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farmequipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuelefficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, orconversion to electric vehicles).

Control devicesThe following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation devices. They caneither destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.•• Particulate control

• Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)• Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate

collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an inducedelectrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede theflow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the airstream.

• Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust filter, afilter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air cleaners whichutilize disposable filters to remove the dust).

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• Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety ofdevices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the pollutedgas stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing itthrough a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.

• Scrubbers

•• Baffle spray scrubber•• Cyclonic spray scrubber•• Ejector venturi scrubber•• Mechanically aided scrubber•• Spray tower•• Wet scrubber

•• NOx control

•• Low NOx burners• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)• Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)•• NOx scrubbers•• Exhaust gas recirculation• Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

•• VOC abatement

• Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon•• Flares• Thermal oxidizers• Catalytic converters• Biofilters•• Absorption (scrubbing)• Cryogenic condensers•• Vapor recovery systems

• Acid Gas/SO2

control

• Wet scrubbers•• Dry scrubbers•• Flue-gas desulfurization

• Mercury control

•• Sorbent Injection Technology• Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)•• K-Fuel

• Dioxin and furan control

•• Miscellaneous associated equipment

•• Source capturing systems• Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Air pollution 23

Legal regulations

Smog in Cairo

In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first classof standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standardsand E.U. Air Quality Directive [49]) set maximum atmosphericconcentrations for specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enactregulations which are intended to result in attainment of these targetlevels. The second class (such as the North American Air QualityIndex) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is usedto communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. Thescale may or may not distinguish between different pollutants.

CanadaIn Canada air pollution and associated health risks are measured with the The Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI). Itis a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activitylevels during increased levels of air pollution.The Air Quality Health Index or "AQHI" is a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada andEnvironment Canada. However, the AQHI program would not be possible without the commitment and support ofthe provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From air quality monitoring to health risk communication and communityengagement, local partners are responsible for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHIprovides a number from 1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. Occasionally,when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local airquality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and tomorrow and providesassociated health advice.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +

Risk: Low (1-3) Moderate (4-6) High (7-10) Very high (above 10)

As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the indexhas been developed as a continuum: The higher the number, the greater the health risk and need to take precautions.The index describes the level of health risk associated with this number as ‘low’, ‘moderate’, ‘high’ or ‘very high’, andsuggests steps that can be taken to reduce exposure.[50]

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HealthRisk

Air QualityHealth Index

Health Messages

At Risk population General Population

Low 1-3 Enjoy your usual outdoor activities. Ideal air quality for outdoor activities

Moderate 4-6 Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuousactivities outdoors if you are experiencingsymptoms.

No need to modify your usual outdoor activities unless youexperience symptoms such as coughing and throat irritation.

High 7-10 Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors.Children and the elderly should also take it easy.

Consider reducing or rescheduling strenuous activitiesoutdoors if you experience symptoms such as coughing andthroat irritation.

Very high Above 10 Avoid strenuous activities outdoors. Children andthe elderly should also avoid outdoor physicalexertion.

Reduce or reschedule strenuous activities outdoors, especiallyif you experience symptoms such as coughing and throatirritation.

[51]

It is measured based on the observed relationship of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), ground-level Ozone (O3) andparticulates (PM2.5) with mortality from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three of thesepollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existing healthproblems.When developing the AQHI, Health Canada’s original analysis of health effects included five major air pollutants:particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). Thelatter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health effects and were removed from the AQHIformulation.The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, dust, heat or humidity.

GermanyTA Luft is the German air quality regime.

Cities

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002-2004

Air pollution is usually concentrated indensely populated metropolitan areas,especially in developing countries whereenvironmental regulations are relatively laxor nonexistent[citation needed]. However, evenpopulated areas in developed countriesattain unhealthy levels of pollution with LosAngeles and Rome being two goodexamples.[52]

NATA

The National-Scale Air Toxics Assessment (NATA) is EPA's ongoing comprehensive evaluation of air toxics in theU.S. EPA

Air pollution 25

Deaths from air pollution in 2004

developed the NATA as astate-of-the-science screening tool forState/Local/Tribal Agencies to prioritizepollutants, emission sources and locations ofinterest for further study in order to gain abetter understanding of risks. NATAassessments do not incorporate refinedinformation about emission sources, butrather, use general information aboutsources to develop estimates of risks whichare more likely to overestimate impacts thanunderestimate them. NATA provides estimates of the risk of cancer and other serious health effects from breathing(inhaling) air toxics in order to inform both national and more localized efforts to identify and prioritize air toxics,emission source types and locations which are of greatest potential concern in terms of contributing to populationrisk. This in turn helps air pollution experts focus limited analytical resources on areas and or populations where thepotential for health risks are highest. Assessments include estimates of cancer and non-cancer health effects based onchronic exposure from outdoor sources, including assessments of non-cancer health effects for Diesel ParticulateMatter (PM). Assessments provide a snapshot of the outdoor air quality and the risks to human health that wouldresult if air toxic emissions levels remained unchanged.[53]

Most Polluted World Cities by PM[54]

Particulatematter,

μg/m³ (2004)

City

168 Cairo, Egypt

150 Delhi, India

128 Kolkata, India (Calcutta)

125 Tianjin, China

123 Chongqing, China

109 Kanpur, India

109 Lucknow, India

104 Jakarta, Indonesia

101 Shenyang, China

Governing urban air pollution – a regional example (London)In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air quality assessment and management provides a commonstrategy against which member states can "set objectives for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduceharmful effects on human health and the environment . . . and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory".[]

On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled thatunder this directive[] citizens have the right to require national authorities to implement a short term action plan thataims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality limit values.[]

This important case law appears to confirm the role of the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states asregards air pollution control. It places a supranational legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens fromdangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen.

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In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the UK with legal action against the successive breaching ofPM10 limit values.[55] The UK government has identified that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nationupwards of £300 million per year.[]

In March 2011, the City of London remains the only UK region in breach of the EC’s limit values, and has beengiven 3 months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality Directive.[] The City ofLondon has dangerous levels of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per year within the city.[56] Aswell as the threat of EU fines, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping the western congestioncharge zone, which is claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.[57]

In response to these charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, has criticised the current need for European cities tocommunicate with Europe through their nation state’s central government, arguing that in future "A great city likeLondon" should be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the European Commission regardingits air quality action plan.[]

In part, this is an attempt to divert blame away from the Mayor's office, but it can also be interpreted as recognitionthat cities can transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and develop solutions to airpollution using global governance networks, for example through transnational relations. Transnational relationsinclude but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmental organisations [] allowing sub-nationalactors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control as independent actors.Particularly promising at present are global city partnerships.[] These can be built into networks, for example the C40network, of which London is a member. The C40 is a public ‘non-state’ network of the world’s leading cities thataims to curb their greenhouse emissions.[] The C40 has been identified as ‘governance from the middle’ and is analternative to intergovernmental policy.[58] It has the potential to improve urban air quality as participating cities"exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independentlyfrom national government decisions".[] A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits influence toparticipating cities and risks drawing resources away from less powerful city and regional actors.

Atmospheric dispersionThe basic technology for analyzing air pollution is through the use of a variety of mathematical models forpredicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are:• Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources.• Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling• Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms• Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog

Air pollution 27

Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion plume as used in manyatmospheric dispersion models.[59]

The point source problem is the bestunderstood, since it involves simplermathematics and has been studied for along period of time, dating back toabout the year 1900. It uses a Gaussiandispersion model for continuousbuoyant pollution plumes to predict theair pollution isopleths, withconsideration given to wind velocity,stack height, emission rate and stabilityclass (a measure of atmosphericturbulence).[59][60] This model hasbeen extensively validated andcalibrated with experimental data forall sorts of atmospheric conditions.

The roadway air dispersion model wasdeveloped starting in the late 1950sand early 1960s in response torequirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and the U.S. Department of Transportation (then known asthe Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especiallyin urban areas. Several research groups were active in this model development, among which were: theEnvironmental Research and Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group inSunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of theESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency tovalidate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating theline source model developed by ESL Inc. Some of the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involvinghighway air pollution, the Arlington, Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening projectthrough East Brunswick, New Jersey.

Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a smallerfraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as widespread as the line source model,which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models weredeveloped primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such asunderstanding smog formation in Los Angeles, California.

References[2] Evidence growing of air pollution’s link to heart disease, death (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20100603014952/ http:/ / www. newsroom.

heart. org/ index. php?s=43& item=1029) // American Heart Association. May 10, 2010[14] http:/ / www. euro. who. int/ __data/ assets/ pdf_file/ 0015/ 123072/ AQG2ndEd_6_2_asbestos. PDF[28] Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 18952612) Andrew J. Lucking,

Magnus Lundback, Nicholas L. Mills, Dana Faratian, Stefan L. Barath, Jamshid Pourazar, Flemming R. Cassee, Kenneth Donaldson, NicholasA. Boon, Juan J. Badimon, Thomas Sandstrom, Anders Blomberg, and David E. Newby

[29] Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 17446340) HåkanTörnqvist, Nicholas L. Mills, Manuel Gonzalez, Mark R. Miller, Simon D. Robinson, Ian L. Megson, William MacNee, Ken Donaldson,Stefan Söderberg, David E. Newby, Thomas Sandström, and Anders Blomberg

[30] Farrah J. Mateen & Robert D. Brook "Air pollution as an emerging global risk factor for stroke" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/21427378) JAMA 2011 Mar 23;305(12):1240-1.

[32] Andersen, Z. J., Kristiansen, L. C., Andersen, K. K., Olsen, T. S., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). Stroke and Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Air Pollution From Nitrogen Dioxide: A Cohort Study (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/

Air pollution 28

22052517). Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation.[36][36] Gehring, U., Wijga, A. H., Brauer, M., Fischer, P., de Jongste, J. C., Kerkhof, M., Brunekreef, B. (2010). Traffic-related air pollution and the

development of asthma and allergies during the first 8 years of life. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. American journal of respiratory andcritical care medicine, 181(6), 596-603.

[37][37] Andersen, Z. J., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel, M., Loft, S., Sorensen, M., Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). Chronic obstructivepulmonary disease and long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution: a cohort study. [Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't]. Americanjournal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 183(4), 455-461.

[38][38] Health effects of outdoor air pollution. Committee of the Environmental and Occupational Health Assembly of the American ThoracicSociety. (1996). [Comparative Study Review]. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 153(1), 3-50.

[39][39] Andersen, Z. J., Bonnelykke, K., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel, M., Loft, S., Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2011). Long-term exposure to airpollution and asthma hospitalisations in older adults: a cohort study. Thorax.

[40][40] Holland WW, Reid DD. The urban factor in chronic bronchitis. Lancet. 1965;I:445-448.[42] Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Andersen, Z. J., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel, M., Sorensen, M., Tjonneland, A. (2011). Lung cancer incidence

and long-term exposure to air pollution from traffic. (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 21227886) [Research Support, Non-U.S.Gov't]. Environmental health perspectives, 119(6), 860-865.

[43] Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Andersen, Z. J., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel, M., Sorensen, M., Tjonneland, A. (2011). Air pollution fromtraffic and cancer incidence: a Danish cohort study. (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 21771295) [Research Support, Non-U.S.Gov't]. Environmental health : a global access science source, 10, 67.

[47] J. C. Fensterstock , J. A. Kurtzweg & G. Ozolins (1971): Reduction of Air Pollution Potential through Environmental Planning, Journal ofthe Air Pollution Control Association, 21:7, 395-399

[48][48] Fensterstock, Ketcham and Walsh, The Relationship of Land Use and Transportation Planning to Air Quality Management, Ed. GeorgeHagevik, May 1972.

[49] http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ environment/ air/ quality/ legislation/ directive. htm[59] www.air-dispersion.com (http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com/ )

External linksAir quality science and general information• International Conference on Urban Air Quality (http:/ / www. urbanairquality. org/ ).• UNEP Urban Issues (http:/ / www. unep. org/ urban_environment/ )• European Commission > Environment > Policies > Air >Air Quality (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ environment/ air/

index. htm).• UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (http:/ / www. unep. org/ pcfv/ )• Database: outdoor air pollution in cities (http:/ / www. who. int/ phe/ health_topics/ outdoorair/ databases/ en/

index. html) from the World Health Organisation• Interactive map of US facilities emitting air pollution (http:/ / www. npr. org/ 2011/ 11/ 07/ 142089991/

poisoned-places-air-pollution-in-your-town)Air quality modelling• Stuff in the Air (http:/ / www. stuffintheair. com/ airqualitymodeling. html) Standard air quality modelling

procedure for industrial sources.• Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling (http:/ / atmosphericdispersion. wikia. com/ ). Addresses the

international community of atmospheric dispersion modellers — primarily researchers, but also users of models.Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their work.

• Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas (http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com/ formulas. html) One ofsix technical articles devoted to air quality and air pollution dispersion modeling.

Effects on human health• Fine particle pollution map 1 (http:/ / www. world-nuclear-news. org/

EE-WHO_warns_on_urban_air_pollution-2809116. html) and fine particle pollution map 2 (http:/ / mrbarlow.wordpress. com/ 2010/ 09/ 27/ nasa-maps-global-air-pollution/ )

• Map showing loss of months in life expectancy due to air pollution (http:/ / www. environment. no/ Topics/Air-pollution/ Local-air-pollution/ )

Air pollution 29

• World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality and health (http:/ / www. who. int/ mediacentre/ factsheets/fs313/ en/ )

• Air Pollution Triggers Blood Clots (http:/ / www. planetark. com/ dailynewsstory. cfm/ newsid/ 44436/ story.htm)

• American Lung Association of New England on air quality (http:/ / www. ownyourair. org/ ).• Dispersion of traffic pollution from street canyons in Edinburgh (http:/ / www. iom-world. org/ pubs/

IOM_TM9609. pdf) by A Searl and D Buchanan. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/96/09• Impact assessment of the mortality effects of longer-term exposure to air pollution: exploring cause-specific

mortality and susceptibility (http:/ / www. iom-world. org/ pubs/ IOM_TM0301. pdf) by BG Miller. Institute ofOccupational Medicine Research Report TM/03/01

• Comparing estimated risks for air pollution with risks for other health effects (http:/ / www. iom-world. org/ pubs/IOM_TM0601. pdf) by BG Miller and JF Hurley. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/06/01

• The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom (http:/ /comeap. org. uk/ documents/ reports/128-the-mortality-effects-of-long-term-exposure-to-particulate-air-pollution-in-the-uk. html), UK Committee onthe Medical Effects of Air Pollution, 2010.

Light pollution

This time exposure photo of New York City at nightshows skyglow, one form of light pollution.

Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminouspollution, is excessive, misdirected, or obtrusive artificial light.Pollution is the adding-of/added light itself, in analogy to addedsound, carbon dioxide, etc. Adverse consequences are multiple;some of them may not be known yet. Scientific definitions thusinclude the following:

• Degradation of photic habitat by artificial light.[]

• Alteration of natural light levels in the outdoor environmentowing to artificial light sources.[]

• Light pollution is the alteration of light levels in the outdoorenvironment (from those present naturally) due to man-madesources of light. Indoor light pollution is such alteration of lightlevels in the indoor environment due to sources of light, which compromises human health.[1]

• Light pollution is the introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of artificial light into the environment.[2]

The first three of the above four scientific definitions describe the state of the environment. The fourth (and newest)one describes the process of polluting by light.Light pollution competes with starlight in the night sky for urban residents, interferes with astronomicalobservatories,[3] and, like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects. Lightpollution can be divided into two main types:[citation needed]

•• Unpleasant light that intrudes on an otherwise natural or low-light setting

Light pollution 30

A comparison of the view of the night sky from a smallrural town (top) and a metropolitan area (bottom).

Light pollution dramatically reduces the visibility ofstars.

•• Excessive light (generally indoors) that leads to discomfort andadverse health effects

Light pollution is a side effect of industrial civilization. Its sourcesinclude building exterior and interior lighting, advertising,commercial properties, offices, factories, streetlights, andilluminated sporting venues. It is most severe in highlyindustrialized, densely populated areas of North America, Europe,and Japan and in major cities in the Middle East and North Africalike Tehran and Cairo, but even relatively small amounts of lightcan be noticed and create problems. Since the early 1980s,[citation

needed] a global dark-sky movement has emerged, with concernedpeople campaigning to reduce the amount of light pollution. TheInternational Dark-Sky Association (IDA) is one non-profitadvocacy group involved in this movement.

Impact on energy usageEnergy conservation advocates contend that light pollution must be addressed by changing the habits of society, sothat lighting is used more efficiently, with less waste and less creation of unwanted or unneeded illumination.Several industry groups also recognize light pollution as an important issue. For example, the Institution of LightingEngineers in the United Kingdom provides its members information about light pollution, the problems it causes,and how to reduce its impact.[4]

Since not everyone is irritated by the same lighting sources, it is common for one person's light "pollution" to belight that is desirable for another. One example of this is found in advertising, when an advertiser wishes forparticular lights to be bright and visible, even though others find them annoying. Other types of light pollution aremore certain. For instance, light that accidentally crosses a property boundary and annoys a neighbor is generallywasted and pollutive light.Disputes are still common when deciding appropriate action, and differences in opinion over what light is consideredreasonable, and who should be responsible, mean that negotiation must sometimes take place between parties. Whereobjective measurement is desired, light levels can be quantified by field measurement or mathematical modeling,with results typically displayed as an isophote map or light contour map. Authorities have also taken a variety ofmeasures for dealing with light pollution, depending on the interests, beliefs and understandings of the societyinvolved. Measures range from doing nothing at all, to implementing strict laws and regulations about how lightsmay be installed and used.

Light pollution 31

Types

An example of a light pollution source, using a broadspectrum metal halide lamp, pointing upward in

Uniqema Gouda, the Netherlands.

Light pollution is a broad term that refers to multiple problems,all of which are caused by inefficient, unappealing, or (arguably)unnecessary use of artificial light. Specific categories of lightpollution include light trespass, over-illumination, glare, lightclutter, and skyglow. A single offending light source often fallsinto more than one of these categories.

Light trespass

Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property,for instance, by shining over a neighbor's fence. A common lighttrespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the window ofone's home from the outside, causing problems such as sleepdeprivation or the blocking of an evening view.

A number of cities in the U.S. have developed standards foroutdoor lighting to protect the rights of their citizens against lighttrespass. To assist them, the International Dark-Sky Associationhas developed a set of model lighting ordinances.[5]

The Dark-Sky Association was started to reduce the light going upinto the sky which reduces visibility of stars, see sky glow below.This is any light which is emitted more than 90° above nadir. By limiting light at this 90° mark they have alsoreduced the light output in the 80–90° range which creates most of the light trespass issues.

U.S. federal agencies may also enforce standards and process complaints within their areas of jurisdiction. Forinstance, in the case of light trespass by white strobe lighting from communication towers in excess of FAAminimum lighting requirements[6] the Federal Communications Commission maintains an Antenna StructureRegistration database[7] information which citizens may use to identify offending structures and provides amechanism for processing citizen inquiries and complaints.[8] The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) has alsoincorporated a credit for reducing the amount of light trespass and sky glow into their environmentally friendlybuilding standard known as LEED.

Light trespass can be reduced by selecting light fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 80° abovethe nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (10%), and semi-cutoff (20%). (These definitionsalso include limits on light emitted above 90° to reduce sky glow.)

Light pollution 32

Over-illumination

An office building is illuminated by high pressuresodium (HPS) lamps shining upward, of whichmuch light goes into the sky and neighboringapartment blocks and causes light pollution.

Over-illumination is the excessive use of light. Specifically withinthe United States, over-illumination is responsible for approximatelytwo million barrels of oil per day in energy wasted.[citation needed]

This is based upon U.S. consumption of equivalent of 18.8 millionbarrels per day (2,990,000 m3/d) of petroleum.[9] It is further notedin the same U.S. Department of Energy source that over 30% of allenergy is consumed by commercial, industrial and residentialsectors. Energy audits of existing buildings demonstrate that thelighting component of residential, commercial and industrial usesconsumes about 20–40% of those land uses, variable with region andland use. (Residential use lighting consumes only 10–30% of theenergy bill while commercial buildings major use is lighting.[10])Thus lighting energy accounts for about four or five million barrelsof oil (equivalent) per day. Again energy audit data demonstratesthat about 30–60% of energy consumed in lighting is unneeded or gratuitous.[11]

An alternative calculation starts with the fact that commercial building lighting consumes in excess of 81.68terawatts (1999 data) of electricity,[12] according to the U.S. DOE. Thus commercial lighting alone consumes aboutfour to five million barrels per day (equivalent) of petroleum, in line with the alternate rationale above to estimateU.S. lighting energy consumption.Over-illumination stems from several factors:• Not using timers, occupancy sensors or other controls to extinguish lighting when not needed;•• Improper design, especially of workplace spaces, by specifying higher levels of light than needed for a given task;• Incorrect choice of fixtures or light bulbs, which do not direct light into areas as needed;•• Improper selection of hardware to utilize more energy than needed to accomplish the lighting task;•• Incomplete training of building managers and occupants to use lighting systems efficiently;• Inadequate lighting maintenance resulting in increased stray light and energy costs;• "Daylight lighting" demanded by citizens to reduce crime or by shop owners to attract customers;[13]

•• Substitution of old mercury lamps with more efficient sodium or metal halide lamps using the same electricalpower; and

•• Indirect lighting techniques, such as lighting a vertical wall to bounce photons on the ground.Most of these issues can be readily corrected with available, inexpensive technology, and with resolution oflandlord/tenant practices that create barriers to rapid correction of these matters. Most importantly public awarenesswould need to improve for industrialized countries to realize the large payoff in reducing over-illumination.

GlareGlare can be categorized into different types. One such classification is described in a book by Bob Mizon,coordinator for the British Astronomical Association's Campaign for Dark Skies.[14] According to this classification:• Blinding glare describes effects such as that caused by staring into the Sun. It is completely blinding and leaves

temporary or permanent vision deficiencies.• Disability glare describes effects such as being blinded by oncoming car lights, or light scattering in fog or in the

eye, reducing contrast, as well as reflections from print and other dark areas that render them bright, withsignificant reduction in sight capabilities.

• Discomfort glare does not typically cause a dangerous situation in itself, though it is annoying and irritating atbest. It can potentially cause fatigue if experienced over extended periods.

Light pollution 33

According to Mario Motta, president of the Massachusetts Medical Society, "... glare from bad lighting is apublic-health hazard—especially the older you become. Glare light scattering in the eye causes loss of contrast andleads to unsafe driving conditions, much like the glare on a dirty windshield from low-angle sunlight or the highbeams from an oncoming car."[] In essence bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads can partially blinddrivers or pedestrians and contribute to accidents.The blinding effect is caused in large part by reduced contrast due to light scattering in the eye by excessivebrightness, or to reflection of light from dark areas in the field of vision, with luminance similar to the backgroundluminance. This kind of glare is a particular instance of disability glare, called veiling glare. (This is not the same asloss of accommodation of night vision which is caused by the direct effect of the light itself on the eye.)

Light clutter

Las Vegas displays excessive groupings of colorfullights. This is a classic example of light clutter.

Light clutter refers to excessive groupings of lights. Groupings oflights may generate confusion, distract from obstacles (includingthose that they may be intended to illuminate), and potentiallycause accidents. Clutter is particularly noticeable on roads wherethe street lights are badly designed, or where brightly litadvertising surrounds the roadways. Depending on the motives ofthe person or organization that installed the lights, their placementand design can even be intended to distract drivers, and cancontribute to accidents.Clutter may also present a hazard in the aviation environment ifaviation safety lighting must compete for pilot attention withnon-relevant lighting.[15] For instance, runway lighting may beconfused with an array of suburban commercial lighting and aircraft collision avoidance lights may be confused withground lights.

Skyglow

Mexico City at night, with a brightly illuminated sky

Skyglow refers to the glow effect that can be seen over populatedareas. It is the combination of all light reflected from what it hasilluminated escaping up into the sky and from all of the badlydirected light in that area that also escapes into the sky, beingscattered (redirected) by the atmosphere back toward the ground.This scattering is very strongly related to the wavelength of thelight when the air is very clear (with very little aerosols). Rayleighscattering dominates in such clear air, making the sky appear bluein the daytime. When there is significant aerosol (typical of mostmodern polluted conditions), the scattered light has lessdependence on wavelength, making a whiter daytime sky.

Light pollution 34

In pristine areas, clouds appear black and blot out the stars. In urban areas, cloudsstrongly enhance skyglow.

Because of this Rayleigh effect, and becauseof the eye's increased sensitivity to white orblue-rich light sources when adapted to verylow light levels (see Purkinje effect), whiteor blue-rich light contributes significantlymore to sky-glow than an equal amount ofyellow light. Sky glow is of particularirritation to astronomers, because it reducescontrast in the night sky to the extent whereit may even become impossible to see any but the brightest stars.

The Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, originally published in Sky & Telescope magazine,[16][17] is sometimes used (by groupslike the U.S. National Park Service[18]) to quantify skyglow and general sky clarity. The nine-class scale rates thedarkness of the night sky and the visibility of its phenomena, such as the gegenschein and the zodiacal light (easilymasked by skyglow), providing a detailed description of each level on the scale (with Class 1 being the best).Light is particularly problematic for amateur astronomers, whose ability to observe the night sky from their propertyis likely to be inhibited by any stray light from nearby. Most major optical astronomical observatories are surroundedby zones of strictly enforced restrictions on light emissions.Direct skyglow is reduced by selecting lighting fixtures which limit the amount of light emitted more than 90° abovethe nadir. The IESNA definitions include full cutoff (0%), cutoff (2.5%), and semi-cutoff (5%). Indirect skyglowproduced by reflections from vertical and horizontal surfaces is harder to manage; the only effective method forpreventing it is by minimizing over-illumination. But it has to be taken into account that, according to late 2010publications, Italian regions using full cut off lighting only does not increase skyglow.[19] Anyway light reflectedupwards by dark surfaces such as roads or building can be considered as minor, so debate about contribution ofindirect skyglow will last long.Skyglow is made considerably worse when clouds are present.[20] While this has no effect on astronomicalobservations (which are not possible at visible wavelengths under cloud cover), it is very important in the context ofecological light pollution. Since cloudy nights can be up to ten times brighter than clear nights, any organisms thatare affected by sky glow (e.g. zooplankton and fish that visually prey on them) are much more likely to have theirordinary behavior disturbed on cloudy nights.

Light pollution 35

Measurement and global effects

False colors show various intensities of radiation, bothdirect and indirect, from artificial light sources that

reach space

Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complexprocedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even inthe absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from theMoon. This is caused by two main sources: airglow and scatteredlight.

At high altitudes, primarily above the mesosphere, there is enoughUV radiation from the sun of very short wavelength that ionizationoccurs. When these ions collide with electrically neutral particlesthey recombine and emit photons in the process, causing airglow.The degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constantemission of radiation even during the night when the upperatmosphere is in the Earth's shadow. Lower in the atmosphere allof the solar photons with energies above the ionization potential ofN2 and O2 have already been absorbed by the higher layers andthus no appreciable ionization occurs.

Apart from emitting light, the sky also scatters incoming light,primarily from distant stars and the Milky Way, but also the zodiacal light, sunlight that is reflected andbackscattered from interplanetary dust particles.

The amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite variable (depending, amongst other things on sunspot activity andthe Solar cycle) but given optimal conditions the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude/squarearcsecond. If a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to about 18 magnitude/sq. arcsecond depending onlocal atmospheric transparency, 40 times brighter than the darkest sky. In densely populated areas a sky brightness of17 magnitude/sq. arcsecond is not uncommon, or as much as 100 times brighter than is natural.To precisely measure how bright the sky gets, night time satellite imagery of the earth is used as raw input for thenumber and intensity of light sources. These are put into a physical model[21] of scattering due to air molecules andaerosoles to calculate cumulative sky brightness. Maps that show the enhanced sky brightness have been preparedfor the entire world.[22]

Inspection of the area surrounding Madrid reveals that the effects of light pollution caused by a single largeconglomeration can be felt up to 100 km (62 mi) away from the center.[citation needed] Global effects of light pollutionare also made obvious. The entire area consisting of southern England, Netherlands, Belgium, west Germany, andnorthern France have a sky brightness of at least 2 to 4 times above normal (see above right). The only places incontinental Europe where the sky can attain its natural darkness is in northern Scandinavia and in islands far from thecontinent.In North America the situation is comparable. There is a significant problem with light pollution ranging from theCanadian Maritime Provinces to the American Southwest.[citation needed]

Light pollution in Hong Kong was declared the 'worst on the planet' in March 2013.[23]

Light pollution 36

A composite satellite image of Earth at night in 1994–95

Consequences

Energy waste

Christmas lights in California.

Lighting is responsible for one-fourth of all electricityconsumption worldwide,[citation needed] and case studies haveshown that several forms of over-illumination constitute energywastage, including non-beneficial upward direction of night-timelighting. In 2007, Terna, the company responsible for managingelectricity flow in Italy, reported a saving of 645.2 million kWh inelectricity consumption during the daylight saving period fromApril to October. It attributes this saving to the delayed need forartificial lighting during the evenings.[24]Wikipedia:Verifiability

In Australia,... public lighting is the single largest source of localgovernment's greenhouse gas emissions, typically accounting for 30 to 50% of their emissions. There are 1.94million public lights — one for every 10 Australians — that annually cost A$210 million, use 1,035 GWh ofelectricity and are responsible for 1.15 million tonnes of CO2 emissions.Current public lighting in Australia, particularly for minor roads and streets, uses large amounts of energy andfinancial resources, while often failing to provide high quality lighting. There are many ways to improvelighting quality while reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions as well as lowering costs.[]

Light pollution 37

Effects on animal and human health and psychology

Light pollution in the skiing resort Kastelruth in SouthTyrol.

Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the humanbody suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may becaused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and somelighting design textbooks[25] use human health as an explicitcriterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects ofover-illumination or improper spectral composition of light mayinclude: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medicallydefined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase inanxiety.[26][27][28][] Likewise, animal models have been studieddemonstrating unavoidable light to produce adverse effect onmood and anxiety.[] For those who need to be awake at night, lightat night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.[29]

In 2007, "shift work that involves circadian disruption" was listed as a probable carcinogen by the World HealthOrganization's International Agency for Research on Cancer. (IARC Press release No. 180).[30][31] Multiple studieshave documented a correlation between night shift work and the increased incidence of breast and prostatecancer.[32][33][34][35][36][37]

A more recent discussion (2009), written by Professor Steven Lockley, Harvard Medical School, can be found in theCfDS handbook "Blinded by the Light?".[38] Chapter 4, "Human health implications of light pollution" states that "...light intrusion, even if dim, is likely to have measurable effects on sleep disruption and melatonin suppression. Evenif these effects are relatively small from night to night, continuous chronic circadian, sleep and hormonal disruptionmay have longer-term health risks". The New York Academy of Sciences hosted a meeting in 2009 on CircadianDisruption and Cancer.[39] Forty Danish female shift workers in 2009 were awarded compensation for breast cancer"caused" by shift work made possible by light at night – the most common cause of light pollution.[citation needed] Redlight suppresses melatonin the least.[]

In June 2009, the American Medical Association developed a policy in support of control of light pollution. Newsabout the decision emphasized glare as a public health hazard leading to unsafe driving conditions. Especially in theelderly, glare produces loss of contrast, obscuring night vision.[]

Disruption of ecosystemsWhen artificial light affects organisms and ecosystems it is called ecological light pollution. While light at night canbe beneficial, neutral, or damaging for individual species, its presence invariably disturbs ecosystems. For example,some species of spiders avoid lit areas, while other species are happy to build their spider web directly on a lamppost. Since lamp posts attract many flying insects, the spiders that don't mind light gain an advantage over the spidersthat avoid it. This is a simple example of the way in which species frequencies and food webs can be disturbed bythe introduction of light at night.Light pollution poses a serious threat in particular to nocturnal wildlife, having negative impacts on plant and animalphysiology. It can confuse animal navigation, alter competitive interactions, change predator-prey relations, andcause physiological harm.[] The rhythm of life is orchestrated by the natural diurnal patterns of light and dark, sodisruption to these patterns impacts the ecological dynamics.[40]

Studies suggest that light pollution around lakes prevents zooplankton, such as Daphnia, from eating surface algae, helping cause algal blooms that can kill off the lakes' plants and lower water quality.[41] Light pollution may also affect ecosystems in other ways. For example, lepidopterists and entomologists have documented that nighttime light may interfere with the ability of moths and other nocturnal insects to navigate.[42] Night-blooming flowers that depend on moths for pollination may be affected by night lighting, as there is no replacement pollinator that would

Light pollution 38

not be affected by the artificial light. This can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce, andchange an area's longterm ecology.A 2009 study[] also suggests deleterious impacts on animals and ecosystems because of perturbation of polarizedlight or artificial polarisation of light (even during the day, because direction of natural polarization of sun light andits reflexion is a source of information for a lot of animals). This form of pollution is named polarized light pollution(PLP). Unnatural polarized light sources can trigger maladaptive behaviors in polarization-sensitive taxa and alterecological interactions.[]

Lights on tall structures can disorient migrating birds. Estimates by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the numberof birds killed after being attracted to tall towers range from 4 to 5 million per year to an order of magnitudehigher.[43] The Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) works with building owners in Toronto, Canada and othercities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods.Similar disorientation has also been noted for bird species migrating close to offshore production and drillingfacilities. Studies carried out by Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij b.v. (NAM) and Shell have led to developmentand trial of new lighting technologies in the North Sea. In early 2007, the lights were installed on the Shellproduction platform L15. The experiment proved a great success since the number of birds circling the platformdeclined by 50 to 90%.[44]

Sea turtle hatchlings emerging from nests on beaches are another casualty of light pollution. It is a commonmisconception that hatchling sea turtles are attracted to the moon. Rather, they find the ocean by moving away fromthe dark silhouette of dunes and their vegetation, a behavior with which artificial lights interfere.[45] The breedingactivity and reproductive phenology of toads, however, are cued by moonlight.[46] Juvenile seabirds may also bedisoriented by lights as they leave their nests and fly out to sea.[47] Amphibians and reptiles are also affected by lightpollution. Introduced light sources during normally dark periods can disrupt levels of melatonin production.Melatonin is a hormone that regulates photoperiodic physiology and behaviour. Some species of frogs andsalamanders utilize a light-dependent "compass" to orient their migratory behaviour to breeding sites. Introducedlight can also cause developmental irregularities, such as retinal damage, reduced sperm production, and geneticmutation.[][48][49][50][51][52]

In September 2009, the 9th European Dark-Sky Symposium in Armagh, Northern Ireland had a session on theenvironmental effects of light at night (LAN). It dealt with bats, turtles, the "hidden" harms of LAN, and many othertopics.[53] The environmental effects of LAN were mentioned as early as 1897, in a Los Angeles Times article—thetext of which can be obtained from Dr. Travis Longcore of the Urban Wildlands Group, California. The following isan excerpt from that article, called "Electricity and English songbirds":

An English journal has become alarmed at the relation of electricity to songbirds, which it maintains is closerthan that of cats and fodder crops. How many of us, it asks, foresee that electricity may extirpate thesongbird?...With the exception of the finches, all the English songbirds may be said to be insectivorous, andtheir diet consists chiefly of vast numbers of very small insects which they collect from the grass and herbsbefore the dew is dry. As the electric light is finding its way for street illumination into the country parts ofEngland, these poor winged atoms are slain by thousands at each light every warm summer evening....The fearis expressed, that when England is lighted from one end to the other with electricity the song birds will die outfrom the failure of their food supply.[54]

Light pollution 39

Effect on astronomy

The constellation Orion, imaged at left from darkskies, and at right from within the Provo/Orem,

Utah metropolitan area.

Astronomy, both amateur and professional, is very sensitive to lightpollution. The night sky viewed from a city bears no resemblance towhat can be seen from dark skies.[55] Skyglow (the scattering of lightin the atmosphere) reduces the contrast between stars and galaxies andthe sky itself, making it much harder to see fainter objects. This is onefactor that has caused newer telescopes to be built in increasinglyremote areas. Some astronomers use narrow-band "nebula filters"which only allow specific wavelengths of light commonly seen innebulae, or broad-band "light pollution filters" which are designed toreduce (but not eliminate) the effects of light pollution by filtering outspectral lines commonly emitted by sodium- and mercury-vapor lamps,thus enhancing contrast and improving the view of dim objects such asgalaxies and nebulae.[56] Unfortunately these light pollution reduction (LPR) filters are not a cure for light pollution.LPR filters reduce the brightness of the object under study and this limits the use of higher magnifications. LPRfilters work by blocking light of certain wavelengths, which alters the color of the object, often creating apronounced green cast. Furthermore, LPR filters only work on certain object types (mainly emission nebulae) andare of little use on galaxies and stars. No filter can match the effectiveness of a dark sky for visual or photographicpurposes. Due to their low surface brightness, the visibility of diffuse sky objects such as nebulae and galaxies isaffected by light pollution more than are stars. Most such objects are rendered invisible in heavily light polluted skiesaround major cities. A simple method for estimating the darkness of a location is to look for the Milky Way, whichfrom truly dark skies appears bright enough to cast a shadow.[57]

Outskirts of the Atacama Desert, far from thelight-polluted cities of northern Chile, the skies

are pitch-black after sunset.[58]

In addition to skyglow, light trespass can impact observations whenartificial light directly enters the tube of the telescope and is reflectedfrom non-optical surfaces until it eventually reaches the eyepiece. Thisdirect form of light pollution causes a glow across the field of viewwhich reduces contrast. Light trespass also makes it hard for a visualobserver to become sufficiently dark adapted. The usual measures toreduce this glare, if reducing the light directly is not an option, includeflocking the telescope tube and accessories to reduce reflection, andputting a light shield (also usable as a dew shield) on the telescope toreduce light entering from angles other than those near the target.Under these conditions, some astronomers prefer to observe under a

black cloth to ensure maximum dark adaptation. In one Italian regional lighting code this effect of stray light isdefined as "optical pollution"[citation needed], due to the fact that there is a direct path from the light source to the"optic" – the observer's eye or telescope.

Light pollution 40

Increase in atmospheric pollutionA study presented at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco found that light pollution destroysnitrate radicals thus preventing the normal night time reduction of atmospheric smog produced by fumes emittedfrom cars and factories.[59][60] The study was presented by Harald Stark from the National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration.

Reduction of natural sky polarization

Light pollution is mostly unpolarized, and itsaddition to moonlight results in a decreased

polarization signal.

In the night, the polarization of the moonlit sky is very stronglyreduced in the presence of urban light pollution, because scatteredurban light is not strongly polarized.[61] Polarized moonlight can't beseen by humans, but is believed to be used by many animals fornavigation.

Reduction

This kind of LED droplight could reduceunnecessary light pollution in building interiors

Reducing light pollution implies many things, such as reducing skyglow, reducing glare, reducing light trespass, and reducing clutter. Themethod for best reducing light pollution, therefore, depends on exactlywhat the problem is in any given instance. Possible solutions include:•• Utilizing light sources of minimum intensity necessary to

accomplish the light's purpose.•• Turning lights off using a timer or occupancy sensor or manually

when not needed.•• Improving lighting fixtures, so that they direct their light more

accurately towards where it is needed, and with less side effects.• Adjusting the type of lights used, so that the light waves emitted are

those that are less likely to cause severe light pollution problems.Mercury, metal halide and above all first generation of blue-lightLED road luminaires are much more pollutant than sodium lamps:Earth atmosphere scatters and transmits blue light better than yellowor red light. It is a common experience observing "glare" and "fog"around and below LED road luminaires as soon as air humidityincreases, while orange sodium lamp luminaires are less prone to show this phenomenon.

•• Evaluating existing lighting plans, and re-designing some or all of the plans depending on whether existing lightis actually needed.

Light pollution 41

Improving lighting fixtures

A flat-lens cobra luminaire, which is a full-cutofffixture, is very effective in reducing light

pollution. It ensures that light is only directedbelow the horizontal, which means less light is

wasted through directing it outwards andupwards.

This drop-lens cobra luminaire allows light toescape sideways and upwards, where it may

cause problems.

The use of full cutoff lighting fixtures, as much as possible, isadvocated by most campaigners for the reduction of light pollution. Itis also commonly recommended that lights be spaced appropriately formaximum efficiency, and that number of luminaires being used as wellas the wattage of each luminaire match the needs of the particularapplication (based on local lighting design standards).

Full cutoff fixtures first became available in 1959 with the introductionof General Electric's M100 fixture.[]

A full cutoff fixture, when correctly installed, reduces the chance forlight to escape above the plane of the horizontal. Light released abovethe horizontal may sometimes be lighting an intended target, but oftenserves no purpose. When it enters into the atmosphere, lightcontributes to sky glow. Some governments and organizations are nowconsidering, or have already implemented, full cutoff fixtures in streetlamps and stadium lighting.The use of full cutoff fixtures help to reduce sky glow by preventinglight from escaping above the horizontal. Full cutoff typically reducesthe visibility of the lamp and reflector within a luminaire, so the effectsof glare are also reduced. Campaigners also commonly argue that fullcutoff fixtures are more efficient than other fixtures, since light thatwould otherwise have escaped into the atmosphere may instead bedirected towards the ground. However, full cutoff fixtures may alsotrap more light in the fixture than other types of luminaires,corresponding to lower luminaire efficiency, suggesting a re-design ofsome luminaires may be necessary.The use of full cutoff fixtures can allow for lower wattage lamps to beused in the fixtures, producing the same or sometimes a better effect,due to being more carefully controlled. In every lighting system, some sky glow also results from light reflectedfrom the ground. This reflection can be reduced, however, by being careful to use only the lowest wattage necessaryfor the lamp, and setting spacing between lights appropriately.[62] Assuring luminaire setback is greater than 90°from highly reflective surfaces also diminishes reflectance.

A common criticism of full cutoff lighting fixtures is that they are sometimes not as aesthetically pleasing to look at.This is most likely because historically there has not been a large market specifically for full cutoff fixtures, andbecause people typically like to see the source of illumination. Due to the specificity with their direction of light, fullcutoff fixtures sometimes also require expertise to install for maximum effect.The effectiveness of using full cutoff roadway lights to combat light pollution has also been called into question. According to design investigations, luminaires with full cutoff distributions (as opposed to cutoff or semi cutoff, compared here [63]) have to be closer together to meet the same light level, uniformity and glare requirements specified by the IESNA. These simulations optimized the height and spacing of the lights while constraining the overall design to meet the IESNA requirements, and then compared total uplight and energy consumption of different luminaire designs and powers. Cutoff designs performed better than full cutoff designs, and semi-cutoff performed better than either cutoff or full cutoff. This indicates that, in roadway installations, over-illumination or poor uniformity produced by full cutoff fixtures may be more detrimental than direct uplight created by fewer cutoff or semi-cutoff fixtures. Therefore, the overall performance of existing systems could be improved more by reducing

Light pollution 42

the number of luminaires than by switching to full cutoff designs.

The majority of Italian regions require "zeroupward light", which usually implies use of

overall full cut-off lamps for new luminaires, butviolations are common.

However, using the definition of "light pollution" from some Italianregional bills (i.e., "every irradiance of artificial light outsidecompetence areas and particularly upward the sky") only full cutoffdesign prevents light pollution. The Italian Lombardy region, whereonly full cutoff design is allowed (Lombardy act no. 17/2000,promoted by Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the nightsky), in 2007 had the lowest per capita energy consumption for publiclighting in Italy. The same legislation also imposes a minimumdistance between street lamps of about four times their height, so fullcut off street lamps are the best solution to reduce both light pollutionand electrical power usage.

Adjusting types of light sourcesSeveral different types of light sources exist, each having different properties that affect their appropriateness forcertain tasks, particularly efficiency and spectral power distribution. It is often the case that inappropriate lightsources have been selected for a task, either due to ignorance or because more sophisticated light sources wereunavailable at the time of installation. Therefore, badly chosen light sources often contribute unnecessarily to lightpollution and energy waste. By re-assessing and changing the light sources used, it is often possible to reduce energyuse and pollutive effects while simultaneously greatly improving efficiency and visibility.Some types of light sources are listed in order of energy efficiency in the table below.

Type of light source Color Luminouseffectiveness

(in lumens per watt)

LED street light usually white 150+ *[citation needed][64]

Low Pressure Sodium (LPS/SOX) yellow/amber 80–200

High Pressure Sodium (HPS/SON) pink/amber-white 90–130

Metal Halide bluish-white/white 60–120

Mercury-Vapour blue-greenish white 13–48

Incandescent yellow/white 8–25

•• LED gives off a light closer to that of sunlight and requires less light than a traditional off-white fixture like LPSfor humans to see.

Many astronomers request that nearby communities use low pressure sodium lights as much as possible, because theprincipal wavelength emitted is comparably easy to work around or in rare cases filter out.[65] The low cost ofoperating sodium lights is another feature. In 1980, for example, San Jose, California, replaced all street lamps withlow pressure sodium lamps, whose light is easier for nearby Lick Observatory to filter out. Similar programs are nowin place in Arizona and Hawaii.Disadvantages of low pressure sodium lighting are that fixtures must usually be larger than competing fixtures, and that color cannot be distinguished, due to its emitting principally a single wavelength of light (see security lighting). Due to the substantial size of the lamp, particularly in higher wattages such as 135 W and 180 W, control of light emissions from low pressure sodium luminaires is more difficult. For applications requiring more precise direction

Light pollution 43

of light (such as narrow roadways) the native lamp efficacy advantage of this lamp type is decreased and may beentirely lost compared to high pressure sodium lamps. Allegations that this also leads to higher amounts of lightpollution from luminaires running these lamps arise principally because of older luminaires with poor shielding, stillwidely in use in the UK and in some other locations. Modern low-pressure sodium fixtures with better optics and fullshielding, and the decreased skyglow impacts of yellow light preserve the luminous efficacy advantage oflow-pressure sodium and result in most cases is less energy consumption and less visible light pollution.Unfortunately, due to continued lack of accurate information,[66] many lighting professionals continue to disparagelow-pressure sodium, contributing to its decreased acceptance and specification in lighting standards and thereforeits use. Another disadvantage of low-pressure sodium lamps is that some people find the characteristic yellow lightvery displeasing aesthetically.Because of the scatter of light by the atmosphere, different sources produce dramatically different amounts ofskyglow from the same amount of light sent into the atmosphere.

Re-designing lighting plansIn some cases, evaluation of existing plans has determined that more efficient lighting plans are possible. Forinstance, light pollution can be reduced by turning off unneeded outdoor lights, and only lighting stadiums whenthere are people inside. Timers are especially valuable for this purpose. One of the world's first coordinatedlegislative efforts to reduce the adverse effect of this pollution on the environment began in Flagstaff, Arizona, in theU.S. There, over three decades of ordinance development has taken place, with the full support of the population,[67]

often with government support,[68] with community advocates,[69] and with the help of major local observatories,[70]

including the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station. Each component helps to educate, protect andenforce the imperatives to intelligently reduce detrimental light pollution.One example of a lighting plan assessment can be seen in a report originally commissioned by the Office of theDeputy Prime Minister in the United Kingdom, and now available through the Department for Communities andLocal Government.[71] The report details a plan to be implemented throughout the UK, for designing lightingschemes in the countryside, with a particular focus on preserving the environment.In another example, the city of Calgary has recently replaced most residential street lights with models that arecomparably energy efficient.[72] The motivation is primarily operation cost and environmental conservation. Thecosts of installation are expected to be regained through energy savings within six to seven years.The Swiss Agency for Energy Efficiency (SAFE) uses a concept that promises to be of great use in the diagnosis anddesign of road lighting, "consommation électrique spécifique (CES)", which can be translated into English as"specific electric power consumption (SEC)".[73] Thus, based on observed lighting levels in a wide range of Swisstowns, SAFE has defined target values for electric power consumption per metre for roads of various categories.Thus, SAFE currently recommends an SEC of 2 to 3 watts per meter for roads of less than 10 metre width (4 to 6watts per metre for wider roads). Such a measure provides an easily applicable environmental protection constrainton conventional "norms", which usually are based on the recommendations of lighting manufacturing interests, whomay not take into account environmental criteria. In view of ongoing progress in lighting technology, target SECvalues will need to be periodically revised downwards.

Light pollution 44

Crossroad in Alessandria, Italy: luminaires with mercury lamps are inthe background, LED street lights in the middle, luminaires with high

pressure sodium lamps are in the foreground.

A newer method for predicting and measuring variousaspects of light pollution was described in the journalLighting Research Technology (September 2008).Scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's LightingResearch Center have developed a comprehensivemethod called Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance(OSP), which allows users to quantify, and thusoptimize, the performance of existing and plannedlighting designs and applications to minimize excessiveor obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property.OSP can be used by lighting engineers immediately,particularly for the investigation of glow and trespass(glare analyses are more complex to perform andcurrent commercial software does not readily allow

them), and can help users compare several lighting design alternatives for the same site.[74]

In the effort to reduce light pollution, researchers have developed a "Unified System of Photometry," which is a wayto measure how much or what kind of street lighting is needed. The Unified System of Photometry allows lightfixtures to be designed to reduce energy use while maintaining or improving perceptions of visibility, safety, andsecurity.[75] There was a need to create a new system of light measurement at night because the biological way inwhich the eye’s rods and cones process light is different in nighttime conditions versus daytime conditions. Usingthis new system of photometry, results from recent studies have indicated that replacing traditional, yellowish,high-pressure sodium (HPS) lights with "cool" white light sources, such as induction, fluorescent, ceramic metalhalide, or LEDs can actually reduce the amount of electric power used for lighting while maintaining or improvingvisibility in nighttime conditions.[76]

The International Commission on Illumination, also known as the CIE from its French title, la CommissionInternationale de l'Eclairage, will soon be releasing its own form of unified photometry for outdoor lighting.

References[1] Hollan, J: What is light pollution, and how do we quantify it? (http:/ / amper. ped. muni. cz/ light/ lp_what_is. pdf). Darksky2008 conference

paper, Vienna, August 2008. Updated April 2009.[2] Marín, C. and Orlando, G. (eds.): Starlight Reserves and World Heritage (http:/ / www. starlight2007. net/ pdf/ FinalReportFuerteventuraSL.

pdf). Starlight Initiative, IAC and the UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Fuerteventura, Spain, June 2009.[4] Light Nuisance (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070212032719/ http:/ / www. ile. org. uk/ index. php?page=pollution). Institution of Light

Engineers[5] International Dark-Sky Association (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081122040258/ http:/ / www. darksky. org/ programs/

model-lighting-ordinance. php)[10] Irby Circuit – Energy Savings (http:/ / www. irby. com/ IrbyCircuit/ Vol1No2/ energysavings. htm). Irby.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[11] Lumina Technologies, Santa Rosa, California, Survey of 156 California commercial buildings energy use, August, 1996[12] Energy Information Administration — Commercial Energy Consumption Survey (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ cbecs/ contents. html).

Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[13][13] Over-illumination can be a design choice, not a fault. In both cases target achievement is questionable.[14][14] "Light Pollution: Responses and Remedies" By Bob Mizon. ISBN 1-85233-497-5 (Springer, 2001)[15] Chapter 2. Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070101164556/ http:/ / www. faa. gov/

ATpubs/ AIM/ chap2toc. htm). faa.gov[22] The World Atlas of the Artificial Night Sky Brightness (http:/ / www. lightpollution. it/ worldatlas/ pages/ fig1. htm). Lightpollution.it.

Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[23] South China Morning Post (http:/ / www. scmp. com/ news/ hong-kong/ article/ 1194996/ light-pollution-hong-kong-worst-planet).

2013-20-3. Retrieved 2013-6-4[24] Press release (http:/ / www. terna. it/ default/ Home_en/ AZIENDA_en/ sala_stampa_en/ comunicati_en/ tutti_comunicati_stampa_en/ tabid/

312/ Default. aspx), Terna, October 26, 2007.

Light pollution 45

[25] Gary Steffy, Architectural Lighting Design, John Wiley and Sons (2001) ISBN 0-471-38638-3[26] Susan L. Burks, Managing your Migraine, Humana Press, New Jersey (1994) ISBN 0-89603-277-9[27] Cambridge Handbook of Psychology, Health and Medicine, edited by Andrew Baum, Robert West, John Weinman, Stanton Newman, Chris

McManus, Cambridge University Press (1997) ISBN 0-521-43686-9[28] L. Pijnenburg, M. Camps and G. Jongmans-Liedekerken, Looking closer at assimilation lighting, Venlo, GGD, Noord-Limburg (1991)[40][40] )[53] Video (http:/ / www. ustream. tv/ recorded/ 2181927). Ustream.tv. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[55] National Geographic, November 2008 (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2008/ 11/ light-pollution/ klinkenborg-text).

Ngm.nationalgeographic.com (2002-10-17). Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[56] www.astronexus.com, Use of light pollution filters in astronomy (http:/ / www. astronexus. com/ node/ 4). Astronexus.com. Retrieved on

2011-12-03.[57] NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day, 2010 August 23 (http:/ / apod. nasa. gov/ apod/ ap100823. html). Apod.nasa.gov. Retrieved on

2011-12-03.[62] NYSERDA How-to Guide to Effective Energy-Efficient Street Lighting for Planners and Engineers. (http:/ / www. rpi. edu/ dept/ lrc/

nystreet/ ) NYSERDA-Planners (October 2002). New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.[64][64] Stan Walerczyk CLEP Peinciple of Lighting Wizards LED_vs_Induction_Streetlights.pdf[66] For example, see section 4.10 What Types of Lamps Are Used in Outdoor Lighting? in the IDA (http:/ / www. darksky. org) Outdoor

Lighting Code Handbook (http:/ / data. nextrionet. com/ site/ idsa/ Lighting Code Handbook. pdf)[67] Flagstaff Dark Skies Coalition (http:/ / www. flagstaffdarkskies. org). Flagstaffdarkskies.org (2011-10-24). Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[68] Coconino County Lighting and General Codes (http:/ / www. coconino. az. gov/ comdev. aspx?id=144& terms=lighting). Coconino.az.gov

(2008-01-07). Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[69] Arizona IDA presentation on Lighting issues (PowerPoint) (http:/ / docs. darksky. org/ AGM/ 2009/ Luginbuhl. ppt). None. Retrieved on

2011-12-03.[70] Lowell Observatory (http:/ / www. lowell. edu/ ). Lowell.edu. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.[71] Department for Communities and Local Government, United Kingdom.[72] The City of Calgary: Envirosmart Streetlight Retrofit Program (http:/ / www. calgary. ca/ Transportation/ Roads/ Pages/ Traffic/

Traffic-signals-and-streetlights/ Envirosmart-streetlight-retrofit/ EnviroSmart-streetlight-retrofit. aspx). calgary.ca[74] Lighting Research Center Develops Framework for Assessing Light Pollution (http:/ / newswise. com/ articles/ view/ 544092/ ) Newswise,

Retrieved on September 8, 2008.

External linksRelated organizations• International Dark-Sky Association (http:/ / www. darksky. org/ )

• Links and Web Resources (http:/ / darksky. org/ links/ links. html)• Austria: Verein Kuffner Sternwarte (http:/ / kuffner-sternwarte. at/ ) ( How many stars? (http:/ / sternhell. at/ ))

• NPS Night Sky Team of Air Resources Division. "Explore Air: Natural Lightscapes" (http:/ / www. nature. nps.gov/ air/ lightscapes/ index. cfm). Explore Nature. National Park Service.

• Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's Lighting Research Center (http:/ / www. lrc. rpi. edu)• Campaign for Dark Skies (http:/ / www. britastro. org/ dark-skies/ ) (UK)• New England Light Pollution Advisory Group (http:/ / nelpag. harvee. org)• SELENE (http:/ / selene-ny. org/ ) (New York)• Citizens for Responsible Lighting (http:/ / www. crlaction. org) (based on a distributed discussion group)• Virginia Outdoor Lighting Taskforce (http:/ / www. volt. org)• Italian site of Cielobuio-coordination for the protection of the night sky (http:/ / www. cielobuio. org)• Spanish Cel Fosc (http:/ / www. celfosc. org/ indice. html)• Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) (http:/ / www. flap. org) (Toronto)• Starlight: a common heritage. (http:/ / www. starlight2007. net/ )• Sydney Outdoor Lighting Improvement Society (http:/ / www. solis. org. au)• Illinois Coalition for Responsible Outdoor Lighting (http:/ / www. illinoislighting. org) (U.S.A.)Research• Light at Night - Human Health References (http:/ / www. trianglealumni. org/ mcrol/ References-With_Abstracts.

pdf)

Light pollution 46

• Indexed list of peer reviewed light pollution research papers (http:/ / userpage. fu-berlin. de/ ~kyba/ literature.html)

• Need-Less (http:/ / www. need-less. org. uk/ ) – Interactive simulations that demonstrate the effects of lightpollution

• "Lighting and Astronomy: Light Pollution" (http:/ / www. darkskiesawareness. org/ files/ PTarticle_Lighting&Astronomy. pdf)

• Article "What is Light Pollution" (http:/ / www. savethenight. eu/ What is. html)• "The Disappearance of Darkness" History of Light Pollution (http:/ / www. everythingintheuniverse. com/ node/

45)• Verlust der Nacht - Loss of the Night (http:/ / www. verlustdernacht. de/ about-us. html) – Interdisciplinary light

pollution research project in Germany• Verlust der Nacht - Citizen science app (https:/ / play. google. com/ store/ apps/ details?id=com. cosalux.

welovestars) – Open source android application to measure light pollution• Technical slide show "Lamp Spectrum and Light Pollution: The Other Side of Light Pollution" (http:/ / www.

cormusa. org/ uploads/ Lamp_Spectrum_and_Light_Pollution. pdf)• MAG Dark Skies Outdoor Lighting Codes and Issues (http:/ / www. mag. maricopa. gov/ pdf/ cms. resource/

DSSG_2009-04-07_Outdoor-Lighting-Lighting-Codes35271. pdf)• Link to the MAG Lighting Code handbook (http:/ / www. mag. maricopa. gov/ detail. cms?item=9926)• Mail Tribune Article "Seeing Stars: The fight against light pollution" (http:/ / www. mailtribune. com/ apps/ pbcs.

dll/ article?AID=/ 20080208/ LIFE/ 802080321)• European Light pollution – technical articles (http:/ / www. lightpollution. it/ cinzano/ en/ index. html)• U.S. National Parks technical article "Modeling Light Pollution from Population Data" (http:/ / www.

georgewright. org/ 184albers. pdf)• Dark Skies Coalition (http:/ / www. flagstaffdarkskies. org/ )• Northern Arizona Lighting Ordinances with technical lighting Guides "Section 17.0: Purpose and Intent" (http:/ /

www. coconino. az. gov/ uploadedFiles/ Community_Development/ Section17. pdf)• The Challenge article "Is Light Pollution Killing Our Birds" (http:/ / www. lightpollution. org. uk/ )• The Discover article relating light pollution to insects, birds, and breast cancer (http:/ / www. discover. com/

issues/ jul-03/ features/ featlights/ ) (requires paid registration)• Ecology of the night symposium (http:/ / www. muskokaheritage. org/ ecology-night/ index. asp) (2003

conference)• "Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting" (http:/ / www. urbanwildlands. org/ conference. html)

(2002 conference, by the Urban Wildlands Group)• Light pollution and the protection of the night environment (http:/ / www. inquinamentoluminoso. it/ istil/ venice/

index. html), UNESCO, IDA Regional Meeting, 360 pages,(2002) English — Italian. Proceedings are available asa downloadable PDF.

• Sherbrooke College Light pollution research activities (http:/ / cegepsherbrooke. qc. ca/ ~aubema/ index. php/Prof/ Recherches)

• Examples of the good, bad and ugly lighting (http:/ / www. fraserf. id. au/ astronomy/ martin-lewicki/ lpgallry.htm)

• "Blinded by the Light?", CfDS 2009, Various authors discussing the "hidden" environmental harm, the humanhealth harm, the money waste, lighting failing to prevent crime and even astronomy. (http:/ / www. britastro. org/dark-skies/ handbook. html)

• Outdoor Lighting: Visual Efficacy – Recommendations on how to design energy-efficient outdoor lighting whilereducing light pollution. (http:/ / www. lrc. rpi. edu/ programs/ solidstate/ assist/ pdf/ AR-VisualEfficacy-Jan2009.pdf) Alliance for Solid State Lighting. Volume 6, Issue 2: Outdoor Lighting: Visual Efficacy

Collections of links

Light pollution 47

• Light Pollution (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Issues/ Environment/ Light_Pollution/ ) at the Open DirectoryProject

• Interactive Map of City Lights at Academo.org (http:/ / academo. org/ demos/ night-time-satellite-imagery/ )• Dark Skies Awareness (http:/ / www. darkskiesawareness. org/ ) – An IYA2009 Cornerstone Project• Computer Modelling using Walker's Law (http:/ / www. cool. id. au/ astronomy/ Light_Pollution/

Germany_2010_Walkers_Law_Model. jpg)• BAA CfDS Yahoo discussion group (http:/ / tech. groups. yahoo. com/ group/ cfds/ )• Dark Sky Importance gallery (http:/ / www. twanight. org/ newTWAN/ gallery. asp?Gallery=Dark Skies

Importance& page=1) at The World at Night (http:/ / www. twanight. org/ ) (TWAN)• Owen, David (August 20, 2007). "The Dark Side" (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ reporting/ 2007/ 08/ 20/

070820fa_fact_owen?currentPage=all). The New Yorker. Condé Nast Publications.• Klinkenborg, Verlyn (November 2008). "Our Vanishing Night" (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2008/ 11/

light-pollution/ klinkenborg-text. html). National Geographic. National Geographic Society.• Dobrzynski, Judith H. (March 3, 2009). "Reclaiming the Night Sky" (http:/ / www. judithdobrzynski. com/ 4677/

reclaiming-the-night-sky). The New Republic.• "Light Pollution" (http:/ / www. assa. org. au/ lightpollution). Adelaide, South Australia: Astronomical Society of

South Australia.• Turn Out the Lights! (http:/ / harcourtscience. com/ newsbreak/ night_sky. html)• The Alliance for Lighting Information (http:/ / www. resodance. com/ ali/ home. html) (ALI) contains information

about light, lighting, and related topics.• Sample Lighting Ordinance (http:/ / en. wikiversity. org/ wiki/ Lighting_ordinance)• The City Dark (http:/ / www. thecitydark. com/ ) is a feature-length documentary on light pollution, directed by

Ian Cheney, that is being released in 2011.

Marine pollution 48

Marine pollution

While marine pollution can be obvious, as with the marine debrisshown above, it is often the pollutants that cannot be seen that

cause most harm.

Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentiallyharmful, effects result from the entry into the ocean ofchemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural andresidential waste, noise, or the spread of invasiveorganisms. Most sources of marine pollution are landbased. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sourcessuch as agricultural runoff and wind blown debris anddust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refersto contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is aprimary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, inwhich excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus,stimulate algal growth.

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particleswhich are then taken up by plankton and benthosanimals, most of which are either deposit or filterfeeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upwardwithin ocean food chains. Many particles combinechemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen,causing estuaries to become anoxic.

When pesticides are incorporated into the marineecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marinefood webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides cancause mutations, as well as diseases, which can beharmful to humans as well as the entire food web.

Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine foodwebs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress growth inmarine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxinscan be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.

History

Parties to the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marine pollution

Although marine pollution has a longhistory, significant international lawsto counter it were only enacted in thetwentieth century. Marine pollutionwas a concern during several UnitedNations Conferences on the Law of theSea beginning in the 1950s. Mostscientists believed that the oceans wereso vast that they had unlimited abilityto dilute, and thus render pollution,harmless.

Marine pollution 49

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts ofthe United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the Britishreprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the French Commissariat à l'EnergieAtomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became a worldwide figure inthe campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international headlines after the 1967 crash ofthe oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California.Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations Conference on the HumanEnvironment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the Convention on the Prevention of MarinePollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The LondonConvention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be banned (black)or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on theblack list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate wastedischarged as liquids from pipelines.[1]

Pathways of pollution

Septic river.

There are many different ways to categorize, and examine the inputs ofpollution into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generallythere are three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: directdischarge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain,and pollutants that are released from the atmosphere.One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. Theevaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance isrestored by rain over the continents entering rivers and then beingreturned to the sea. The Hudson in New York State and the Raritan inNew Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of StatenIsland, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton

(copepods) in the open ocean. The highest concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of theserivers but 70 miles south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few days beforetoxins are taken up by the plankton[2].

Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when there is asingle, identifiable, and localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrialwaste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollutionoccurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agriculturalrunoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.

Marine pollution 50

Direct discharge

Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto River.

Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage andindustrial waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous andtoxic wastes.

Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marinepollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in riversflowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course ofthe mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrialpollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development ofcoral polyps.[3] Mining has a poor environmental track record. Forexample, according to the United States Environmental ProtectionAgency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over40% of watersheds in the western continental US.[4] Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.

Land runoffSurface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the construction of roads, buildings, ports,channels, and harbours, can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. Thisnutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas; known as algal blooms,which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen.Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75percent of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads anddriveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.[5]

Ship pollution

A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side.

Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills canhave devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult toclean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.[6]

Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports,waterways and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionallydischarge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulationprohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that container ships loseover 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms).[7]

Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, andwater from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasivespecies.[8]

Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source ofunwanted exotic marine life. The invasive freshwater zebra mussels,native to the Black, Caspian and Azov seas, were probably transportedto the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.[9]

Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasivespecies causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, aspecies of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world. It was first introduced in

Marine pollution 51

1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship’s ballast water. The population of the jellyfishshot up exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. “The anchovy catch fellfrom 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horsemackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993.”[8] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton,including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on theecosystem.Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new geneticmaterial, alter underwater seascapes and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. Invasive species areresponsible for about $138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.[]

Atmospheric pollution

Graph linking atmospheric dust to various coraldeaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida[10]

Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Windblown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward fromlandfills and other areas. Dust from the Sahara moving around thesouthern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbeanand Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and movesnorthward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributedto a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts acrossKorea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands.[11]

Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought inAfrica. There is a large variability in dust transport to the Caribbeanand Florida from year to year;[12] however, the flux is greater duringpositive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation.[13] The USGS links dust events to a decline in the health of coralreefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[14]

Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[15] and raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These risinglevels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans.[16] This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fishdistributions,[17] with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the communities that depend onthem. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of climate change.[18]

Deep sea miningDeep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the ocean floor. Ocean mining sitesare usually around large areas of polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 -3,700 meters below the ocean’s surface.[19] The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain precious metals such assilver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc.[20][21] The deposits are mined using either hydraulic pumps orbucket systems that take ore to the surface to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep sea mining raisesquestions about environmental damages to the surrounding areasBecause deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full scale mining operations areunknown. However, experts are certain that removal of parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthiclayer, increased toxicity of the water column and sediment plumes from tailings.[20] Removing parts of the sea floordisturbs the habitat of benthic organisms, possibly, depending on the type of mining and location, causing permanentdisturbances.[19] Aside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills and corrosion would alter the miningarea’s chemical makeup.Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes.[19] Near bottom plumes occur

Marine pollution 52

when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, orcloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms.[22] Surface plumes cause amore serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vastareas.[19][23] The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of thearea.[19][23]

Types of pollution

Acidification

Island with fringing reef in the Maldives. Coralreefs are dying around the world.[24]

The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbondioxide from the atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbondioxide are increasing, the oceans are becoming more acidic.[][] Thepotential consequences of ocean acidification are not fully understood,but there are concerns that structures made of calcium carbonate maybecome vulnerable to dissolution, affecting corals and the ability ofshellfish to form shells.[25]

Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the globalcarbon cycle and have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxideemitted by human activities between 2000 and 2007 and about half theanthropogenic CO2 released since the start of the industrial revolution.

Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will graduallyget weaker,[26] giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco[27] and Manado[28] Declarations.

A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008 found that large amounts of relativelyacidified water are upwelling to within four miles of the Pacific continental shelf area of North America. This area isa critical zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper dealt only with areas from Vancouver tonorthern California, other continental shelf areas may be experiencing similar effects.[]

A related issue is the methane clathrate reservoirs found under sediments on the ocean floors. These trap largeamounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which ocean warming has the potential to release. In 2004 the globalinventory of ocean methane clathrates was estimated to occupy between one and five million cubic kilometres.[] If allthese clathrates were to be spread uniformly across the ocean floor, this would translate to a thickness between threeand fourteen metres.[29] This estimate corresponds to 500-2500 gigatonnes carbon (Gt C), and can be compared withthe 5000 Gt C estimated for all other fossil fuel reserves.[][30]

Eutrophication

Polluted lagoon.

Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typicallycompounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It canresult in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessiveplant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygenand severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animalpopulations.

The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it themany chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste fromlivestock and humans. An excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in thewater can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[31]

Marine pollution 53

Effect of eutrophication on marine benthic life

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrientsare concentrated where runoff enters the marine environment in aconfined channel. The World Resources Institute has identified 375hypoxic coastal zones around the world, concentrated in coastal areasin Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, andEast Asia, particularly in Japan.[32] In the ocean, there are frequent redtide algae blooms[33] that kill fish and marine mammals and causerespiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when theblooms reach close to shore.

In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008found that this could account for around one third of the ocean’s external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply and up tothree per cent of the annual new marine biological production.[34] It has been suggested that accumulating reactivenitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[35]

One proposed solution to eutrophication in estuaries is to restore shellfish populations, such as oysters. Oyster reefsremove nitrogen from the water column and filter out suspended solids, subsequently reducing the likelihood orextent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions.[36] Filter feeding activity is considered beneficial to waterquality[37] by controlling phytoplanton density and sequestering nutrients, which can be removed from the systemthrough shellfish harvest, buried in the sediments, or lost through denitrification.[38][39] Foundational work towardthe idea of improving marine water quality through shellfish cultivation to was conducted by Odd Lindahl et al.,using mussels in Sweden.[40]

Plastic debris

A mute swan builds a nest using plastic garbage.

Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or issuspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic - acomponent that has been rapidly accumulating since the end of WorldWar II.[] The mass of plastic in the oceans may be as high as onehundred million metric tons.[]

Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings and other forms of plastic wastewhich finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife andfisheries.[41] Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement,suffocation, and ingestion.[42][43][44] Fishing nets, usually made ofplastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost

nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures,restricting movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and, in those that need to return to the surface tobreathe, suffocation.[45]

Marine pollution 54

Remains of an albatross containing ingestedflotsam

Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, asit often looks similar to their natural prey.[46] Plastic debris, whenbulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanentlylodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage offood and causing death through starvation or infection.[47][48]

Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way manyother substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun,but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibitsthis process.[49] In marine environments, photodegraded plasticdisintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining polymers, evendown to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfishattempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain. [50] [51] Many of these long-lastingpieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals,[] including sea turtles, and black-footed albatross.[]

Marine debris on Kamilo Beach, Hawaii, washedup from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Plastic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of ocean gyres. Inparticular, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch has a very high level ofplastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. In samplestaken in 1999, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton (thedominant animal life in the area) by a factor of six.[][] Midway Atoll, incommon with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives substantial amounts ofdebris from the garbage patch. Ninety percent plastic, this debrisaccumulates on the beaches of Midway where it becomes a hazard tothe bird population of the island. Midway Atoll is home to two-thirds(1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan Albatross.[52] Nearlyall of these albatross have plastic in their digestive system[53] andone-third of their chicks die.[54]

Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into their surroundings when exposed towater. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris,[] thus making plasticfar more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land.[] Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to bioaccumulatein fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic additives areknown to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decreasereproductive rates.[] Floating debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs,DDT and PAHs.[55] Aside from toxic effects,[56] when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal brain forestradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.[]

ToxinsApart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not disintegrate rapidly in the marineenvironment. Examples of persistent toxins are PCBs, DDT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and radioactivewaste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous atlow concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in thetissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate inbenthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century.Specific examples• Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in the Amur River have devastated

fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[57]

Marine pollution 55

• Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area, now has unacceptable levels of heavymetals in its sediment and fish.

• Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though theintensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration ofexposure.[58][59][60][61][62]

• Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet,mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the UnitedStates FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers and children limit theirintake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.[63]

• Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins in their tissues.For example, mitten crabs have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, includingpolluted waters.[] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if they are to be used asa food.[][]

• Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically, transforming male into female fish.[64]

• Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills - such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast - orfrom other natural or anthropogenic sources.[65]

• In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking at least 30 ships loaded with toxicwaste, much of it radioactive. This has led to widespread investigations into radioactive-waste disposalrackets.[66]

• Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the UnitedStates, and Germany, have disposed of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concerns of environmentalcontamination.[67][68]

Underwater noiseMarine life can be susceptible to noise or sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil exploration seismicsurveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea thanin the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and live in a world largely definedby acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness.[69] Between1950 and 1975, ambient noise in the ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a tenfold increase).[70]

Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response.[71] Whale songs arelonger when submarine-detectors are on.[72] If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice can be masked byanthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling.When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species voices, causing the whole ecosystem toeventually speak louder.[73]

According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the death of a thousand cuts. Eachsound in itself may not be a matter of critical concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping, seismicsurveys, and military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50 years ago. That highlevel of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on life in the sea."[74]

Marine pollution 56

Adaptation and mitigation

Aerosol can polluting a beach.

Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. The 2011 editionof the United Nations Environment Programme Year Book identifiesas the main emerging environmental issues the loss to the oceans ofmassive amounts of phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizer needed to feed agrowing global population", and the impact billions of pieces of plasticwaste are having globally on the health of marine environments.[75]

Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, “Anthropogenic pollutionmay reduce biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems,resulting in reduction and depletion of human marine foodresources”.[76] There are two ways the overall level of this pollution

can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the ecological footprint leftbehind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as worldecosystems falter.

The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with ashift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it.[77] At an operationallevel, regulations, and international government participation is needed.[78] It is often very difficult to regulatemarine pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard to create as wellas enforce.[79]

Without appropriate awareness of marine pollution, the necessary global will to effectively address the issues mayprove inadequate. Balanced information on the sources and harmful effects of marine pollution need to become partof general public awareness, and ongoing research is required to fully establish, and keep current, the scope of theissues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag’s research,[80] one of the reasons why environmental concern is lackingamong the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted. Likewise, regulation,based upon such in-depth research should be employed. In California, such regulations have already been put inplace to protect Californian coastal waters from agricultural runoff. This includes the California Water Code, as wellas several voluntary programs. Similarly, in India, several tactics have been employed that help reduce marinepollution, however, they do not significantly target the problem. In Chennai, sewage has been dumped further intoopen waters. Due to the mass of waste being deposited, open-ocean is best for diluting, and dispersing pollutants,thus making them less harmful to marine ecosystems.[citation needed]

Notes[1] Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2008) Poison in the Well: Radioactive Waste in the Oceans at the Dawn of the Nuclear Age. Rutgers University

Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4220-1[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Marine_pollution#endnote_Gerlach[5] Washington State Department of Ecology. “Control of Toxic Chemicals in Puget Sound, Phase 2: Development of Simple Numerical Models"

(http:/ / www. ecy. wa. gov/ Programs/ wq/ pstoxics/ index. html), 2008[6] Panetta, LE (Chair) (2003) America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission.[8] Meinesz, A. (2003) Deep Sea Invasion: The Impact of Invasive Species (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ algae/ impact. html) PBS:

NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2009[9] Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest. 2001. University of Washington. (http:/ /

www. wsg. washington. edu/ mas/ pdfs/ leastwanted. pdf)[10] Coral Mortality and African Dust: Barbados Dust Record: 1965-1996 (http:/ / coastal. er. usgs. gov/ african_dust/ barbados. html) US

Geological Survey. Retrieved 10 December 2009.[12] Usinfo.state.gov. Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S., Caribbean. (http:/ / www. gcrio. org/ OnLnDoc/ pdf/ african_dust. pdf)

Retrieved on 10 June 2007.[14] U. S. Geological Survey. Coral Mortality and African Dust. (http:/ / coastal. er. usgs. gov/ african_dust/ ) Retrieved on 10 June 2007.[15] Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/ assessment-report/ ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-chapter5. pdf) In:

Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the

Marine pollution 57

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (15MB).[16] Doney, S. C. (2006) " The Dangers of Ocean Acidification (http:/ / www. precaution. org/ lib/ 06/ ocean_acidification_from_c02_060301.

pdf)" Scientific American, March 2006.[17] Cheung, W.W.L., et al. (2009) " Redistribution of Fish Catch by Climate Change. A Summary of a New Scientific Analysis (http:/ / www.

seaaroundus. org/ ClimateChange/ images/ Pew OSS Final climate change and fisheries. pdf)" Pew Ocean Science Series. Oct 2009.[18] PACFA (http:/ / www. climatefish. org/ index_en. htm) (2009) Fisheries and Aquaculture in a Changing Climate (http:/ / www. fao. org/

climatechange/ 17789-1-0. pdf)[19] Ahnert, A., & Borowski, C. (2000). Environmental risk assessment of anthropogenic activity in the deep sea. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem

Stress & Recovery, 7(4), 299. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. http:/ / web. ebscohost. com/ ehost/ pdf?vid=5& hid=2&sid=4b3a30cd-c7ec-4838-ba3c-48ce12f26813%40sessionmgr12

[20] Halfar, Jochen, and Rodney M. Fujita. 2007. "Danger of Deep-Sea Mining." Science 316, no. 5827: 987. Academic Search Complete,EBSCOhost (accessed January 19, 2010) <http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/316/5827/987>

[21] Glasby, G P. "Lessons Learned from Deep-Sea Mining." Science Magazine 28 July 2000: 551-53. Web. 20 Jan. 2010.<http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/289/5479/551#ref3>

[22] Sharma R (2005) "Deep-Sea Impact Experiments and their Future Requirements" (http:/ / web. ebscohost. com/ ehost/ pdf?vid=7& hid=13&sid=cd55f6a4-c7f2-45e4-a1da-60c85c9b866e@sessionmgr10) Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 23(4): 331-338

[23] Nath B and Sharma R (2000) "Environment and Deep-Sea Mining: A Perspective" (http:/ / web. ebscohost. com/ ehost/ detail?vid=5&hid=2& sid=13877386-132b-4b8c-a81d-787869ad02cc@sessionmgr12& bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==#db=a9h& AN=4394513)Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 18(3): 285-294

[24] Coral reefs around the world (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ interactive/ 2009/ sep/ 02/ coral-world-interactive)Guardian.co.uk, 2 September 2009.

[25] Raven, J. A. et al. (2005). Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. (http:/ / www. royalsoc. ac. uk/displaypagedoc. asp?id=13314) Royal Society, London, UK.

[26] UNEP, FAO, IOC (2009) Blue Carbon. The role of healthy oceans in binding carbon (http:/ / dev. grida. no/ RRAbluecarbon/ pdfs/Blue_Carbon_Low_Res_2009-11-25. pdf)

[27] Monaco Declaration (http:/ / ioc3. unesco. org/ oanet/ Symposium2008/ MonacoDeclaration. pdf) and Ocean Acidification (http:/ / ioc3.unesco. org/ oanet/ OAdocs/ SPM-lorezv2. pdf) A Summary for Policymakers from the Second Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO2World.] Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Marine EnvironmentLaboratories (MEL) of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research. 2008.

[28] Manado Ocean Declaration (http:/ / www. cep. unep. org/ news-and-events/ manado-ocean-declaration) World Ocean ConferenceMinisterial/High Level Meeting. Manado, Indonesia, 11–14 May 2009.

[29][29] The oceans occupy 361 million sq km[30] USGS World Energy Assessment Team, 2000. US Geological Survey world petroleum assessment 2000––description and results. USGS

Digital Data Series DDS-60.[31][31] Gerlach: Marine Pollution, Springer, Berlin (1975)[32] Selman, Mindy (2007) Eutrophication: An Overview of Status, Trends, Policies, and Strategies. World Resources Institute.[34] Duce, R A and 29 others (2008) Impacts of Atmospheric Anthropogenic Nitrogen on the Open Ocean Science. Vol 320, pp 893–89[35] Addressing the nitrogen cascade (http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ pub_releases/ 2008-05/ uov-at051208. php) Eureka Alert, 2008.[36] Kroeger, Timm. 2012. Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf

of Mexico. TNC Report. http:/ / www. nature. org/ ourinitiatives/ regions/ northamerica/ oyster-restoration-study-kroeger. pdf[37] Burkholder, JoAnn M. and Sandra E. Shumway. 2011. Bivalve shellfish aquaculture and eutrophication. In: Shellfish Aquaculture and the

Environment. Ed. Sandra E. Shumway. John Wiley & Sons.[38][38] Kaspar, H.F., et al. 1985. Effects of mussel aquaculture on the nitrogen cycle and benthic communities in Kenepuru Sound, Marlborough

Sounds, New Zealand. Marine Biology 85:127-136.[39] Newell, R.IE, J.C. Cornwell & M.S. Owens. 2002. Influence of simulated bivalve biodepositon and microphytobenthos on sediment

nitrogen dynamics, a laboratory study. Limnology & Oceanography 47:1367-1379.[40][40] Lindahl. O., et al. 2005. Improving marine water quality by mussel farming-a profitable solution for Swedish society. Ambio 131-138.[41] "Research | AMRF/ORV Alguita Research Projects" (http:/ / www. algalita. org/ research. html) Algalita Marine Research Foundation.

Macdonald Design. Accessed 19 May 2009.[42] UNEP (2005) Marine Litter: An Analytical Overview (http:/ / www. unep. org/ regionalseas/ marinelitter/ publications/ docs/ anl_oview.

pdf)[43] Six pack rings hazard to wildlife (http:/ / www. helpwildlife. com/ sixpackring. html)[44] Louisiana Fisheries - Fact Sheets (http:/ / www. seagrantfish. lsu. edu/ resources/ factsheets/ litter_mess. htm)[48] Sheavly & Register, 2007, p. 3.[57] "Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North, Siberia and Far East: Nivkh" (http:/ / www. npolar. no/ ansipra/ english/ Indexpages/

Ethnic_groups. html#19) by Arctic Network for the Support of the Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Arctic[58][58] Grigg, R.W. and R.S. Kiwala. 1970. Some ecological effects of discharged wastes on marine life. California Department of Fish and Game

56: 145-155.[59] Stull, J.K. 1989. Contaminants in sediments near a major marine outfall: history, effects and future. OCEANS ’89 Proceedings 2: 481-484.

Marine pollution 58

[60] North, W.J., D.E. James and L.G. Jones. 1993. History of kelp beds (Macrocystis) in Orange and San Diego Counties, California.Hydrobiologia 260/261: 277-283.

[61][61] Tegner, M.J., P.K. Dayton, P.B. Edwards, K.L. Riser, D.B. Chadwick, T.A. Dean and L. Deysher. 1995. Effects of a large sewage spill on akelp forest community: catastrophe or disturbance? Marine Environmental Research 40: 181-224.

[64] Science News. "DDT treatment turns male fish into mothers." (http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/ 160/ title/DDT_treatment_turns_male_fish_into_mothers) 2000-02-05. (By subscription only.)

[65] Perez-Lopez et al. (2006)[66] Parla un boss: Così lo Stato pagava la 'ndrangheta per smaltire i rifiuti tossici (http:/ / www. archivio900. it/ it/ articoli/ art. aspx?r=relauto&

id=5978), by Riccardo Bocca, L’Espresso, August 5, 2005[67] Chemical Weapon Time Bomb Ticks in the Baltic Sea (http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,,3102728,00. html) Deutsche Welle, 1

February 2008.[68] Activities 2006: Overview (http:/ / www. helcom. fi/ stc/ files/ Publications/ Proceedings/ bsep112. pdf) Baltic Sea Environment

Proceedings No. 112. Helsinki Commission.[69] Noise pollution (http:/ / see-the-sea. org/ topics/ pollution/ noise/ noise_pollution. htm) Sea.org. Retrieved 24 October 2009.[70][70] Ross, (1993) On Ocean Underwater Ambient Noise. Institute of Acoustics Bulletin, St Albans, Herts, UK: Institute of Acoustics, 18.[71] Glossary (http:/ / www. dosits. org/ glossary/ pop/ lvr. htm) Discovery of Sounds in the Sea. Retrieved 23 December 2009.[73] Effects of Sound on Marine Animals (http:/ / www. dosits. org/ tutorials/ animalt-masking. htm) Discovery of Sounds in the Sea. Retrieved

23 December 2009.[74] Natural Resources Defense Council Press Release (1999) Sounding the Depths: Supertankers, Sonar, and the Rise of Undersea Noise,

Executive Summary. New York, N.Y.: www.nrdc.org.[75] Fertilizer and plastic pollution are main emerging issues in 2011 UNEP Year Book (http:/ / www. unep. org/ Documents. Multilingual/

Default. asp?DocumentID=659& ArticleID=6897& l=en), 17 February 2011. News Centre, United Nations Environment Programme, TheHague.

[76] Jenssen BM (2003) "Marine pollution: the future challenge is to link human and wildlife studies" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/articles/ PMC1241462/ pdf/ ehp0111-a00198. pdf) Environ Health Perspect. 111(4): A198–A199.

[77] Kullenberg G (1999) "Approaches to addressing the problems of pollution of the marine environment: an overview" (http:/ / www.sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6VG5-3Y9G793-1& _user=10& _coverDate=12/ 31/ 1999& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high&_orig=search& _origin=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10&md5=538a0c61eefdb8f993425bdf120a3afe& searchtype=a) Ocean & Coastal Management, 42(12): 999-1018

[78] Matthews G (1973) "Pollution of the oceans: An international problem?" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7580-487HM3S-S& _user=10& _coverDate=12/ 31/ 1973& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _origin=search& _sort=d&_docanchor=& view=c& _searchStrId=1648738296& _rerunOrigin=scholar. google& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0&_userid=10& md5=0a80ae3ccc651dd2d15076f23dcb9e01& searchtype=a) Ocean Management, 1: 161-170

[79] Warner R (2009) Protecting the oceans beyond national jurisdiction: strengthening the international law framework (http:/ / books. google.co. nz/ books?id=0s3nzXC7tMcC& printsec=frontcover& dq=title:Protecting+ the+ oceans+ beyond+ national+ jurisdiction& hl=en&ei=1VlhTaCDDcPzcf-ine4J& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) Volume 3 ofLegal aspects of sustainable development, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-17262-3.

[80] Daoji L and Daler D (2004) "Ocean pollution from land-based sources: East China Sea, China" (http:/ / www. unep. org/ dewa/ giwa/publications/ articles/ ambio/ article_13. pdf) Ambio, 33: 1–2. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

References• Ahn, YH; Hong, GH; Neelamani, S; Philip, L and Shanmugam, P (2006) Assessment of Levels of coastal marine

pollution of Chennai city, southern India. Water Resource Management, 21(7), 1187-1206.• Daoji, L and Dag, D (2004) Ocean pollution from land-based sources: East China sea. AMBIO – A Journal of

the Human Environment, 33(1/2), 107-113.• Dowrd, BM; Press, D and Los Huertos, M (2008) Agricultural non-point sources: water pollution policy: The

case of California’s central coast. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 128(3), 151-161.• Laws, Edward A (2000) Aquatic Pollution (http:/ / books. google. co. nz/ books?id=11LI7XyEIsAC& pg=PA4&

lpg=PA4& dq=As+ the+ trophic+ level+ increases,+ the+ biomass+ decreases. & source=web&ots=eZO8XKFQor& sig=IgNErx13uVipkhaa34G4F9kUObY& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=9&ct=result#PPA30,M1) John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-34875-7

• Sheavly, SB and Register, KM (2007) Marine debris and plastics: Environmental concerns, sources, impacts andsolutions. Journal of Polymers & the Environment, 15(4), 301-305.

• Slater, D (2007) Affluence and effluents. Sierra 92(6), 27

Marine pollution 59

• UNEP/GPA (2006) The State of the Marine Environment: Trends and processes (http:/ / gpa. unep. org/documents/ soe_-_trends_and_english. pdf) United Nations Environment Programme, Global Programme ofAction, The Hague. 2006 ISBN 92-807-2708-7.

• UNEP (2007) Land-based Pollution in the South China Sea (http:/ / www. unepscs. org/ SCS_Documents/Download/ 19_-_Technical_Publications_and_Guidelines/Technical_Publication_10_-_Land-Based_Pollution_in_the_South_China_Sea. html). UNEP/GEF/SCS TechnicalPublication No 10.

External links• Coastal Pollution Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute (http:/ / www. whoi. edu/ page. do?pid=12049),

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution• Mercury pollution (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20001021140316/ www. ecoscope. com/ mercury. htm)• How Oil Spill Absorbent Products Work (http:/ / www. censol. co. uk/ censol - oil absorbents - testing. html)• Facts about Marine Mercury Pollution from Oceana.org (http:/ / www. oceana. org/ north-america/ what-we-do/

stop-seafood-contamination)• Science News / Marine Pollution Spawns 'wonky Babies' (http:/ / www. sciencenews. org/ view/ generic/ id/

38922/ title/ Marine_pollution_spawns_wonky_babies)• Plastics at SEA: North Atlantic Expedition (http:/ / plastics. sea. edu)• Plastic Trash Plagues the Ocean (http:/ / ocean. si. edu/ blog/ plastic-trash-plagues-ocean), Trashing the Ocean

(http:/ / ocean. si. edu/ ocean-news/ trashing-ocean), Oil's Impact on Marine Invertebrates (http:/ / ocean. si. edu/blog/ invisible-loss-impacts-oil-you-do-not-see) on the Smithsonian Ocean Portal

• How the oceans can clean themselves (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?feature=player_embedded&v=ROW9F-c0kIQ) – TED Talk

Noise pollution 60

Noise pollution

A Boeing 747-400 passes close to houses shortlybefore landing at London Heathrow Airport

Noise pollution is displeasing or excessive noise that may disrupt theactivity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoornoise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportationsystems, motor vehicles, aircrafts, and trains.[1][2] Outdoor noise issummarized by the word environmental noise. Poor urban planningmay give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial andresidential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residentialareas.

Indoor noise is caused by machines, building activities, musicperformances, and especially in some workplaces. There is no greatdifference whether noise-induced hearing loss is brought about byoutside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise.

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans, a rise in blood pressure, and an increase instress and vasoconstriction, and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease. In animals, noise can increase therisk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, andcontribute to permanent hearing loss.

Health

Human

Loud music such as in a discothèque can be a riskfor human health

Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound(noise) can damage psychological health. Noise pollution can causeannoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus,hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects.[3][4][5][6]

Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to healthproblems.[4][7]

Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Oldermales exposed to significant occupational noise demonstrate moresignificantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers,though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and thetwo groups are indistinguishable by age 79.[] A comparison of Maabantribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. populationshowed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing loss.[3]

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high levels during a singleeight-hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase in stress,[3] andvasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above, as well as to increased incidence of coronaryartery disease.Noise pollution also is a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found that in urban areashouseholds are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel per year for noise reduction.[8]

Noise pollution 61

WildlifeNoise can have a detrimental effect on wild animals, increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance inpredator or prey detection and avoidance, and interfering the use of the sounds in communication, especially inrelation to reproduction and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss ofhearing. [9]

An impact of noise on wild animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may cause, which in thecase of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. Noise pollution has caused the death of certainspecies of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar,[10] (see alsoMarine mammals and sonar).Noise also makes species communicate more loudly, which is called Lombard vocal response.[11] Scientists andresearchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length is longer when submarine-detectors areon.[12] If creatures do not "speak" loudly enough, their voice will be masked by anthropogenic sounds. Theseunheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species beginsspeaking more loudly, it will mask other species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem eventually to speak moreloudly.Marine invertebrates, such as crabs (Carcinus maenas), have also been shown to be impacted by ship noise.[][]

Larger crabs were noted to be impacted more by the sounds than smaller crabs. Repeated exposure to the sounds didlead to acclimatization.[]

European Robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noisepollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagatethrough the environment more clearly.[13] The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor ofnocturnal singing than night-time light pollution, to which the phenomenon often is attributed.Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter a population'sevolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus leading toprofound genetic and evolutionary consequences.[14]

Impact in the United KingdomFigures compiled by Rockwool, the mineral wool insulation manufacturer, based on responses from local authoritiesto a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request reveal in the period April 2008 – 2009 UK councils received 315,838complaints about noise pollution from private residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across theUK serving 8,069 noise abatement notices, or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour (Scotland) Act.In the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment have been authorised involving the removal of powerfulspeakers, stereos and televisions. Westminster City Council has received more complaints per head of populationthan any other district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to 42.32 complaints per thousandresidents. Eight of the top 10 councils ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London.[15]

Noise pollution 62

Mitigation

The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia isdesigned to reduce roadway noise without

distracting from the area's aesthetics

Ear muffs for human protection against noisepollution

Roadway noise can be reduced by the use of noise barriers, limitationof vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation ofheavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow toreduce braking and acceleration, and tire design. An important factor inapplying these strategies is a computer model for roadway noise, that iscapable of addressing local topography, meteorology, trafficoperations, and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-in mitigationcan be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planningstage of a roadway project.

Aircraft noise can be reduced by using quieter jet engines. Alteringflight paths and time of day runway has benefitted residents nearairports.

Industrial noise has been addressed since the 1930s via redesign ofindustrial equipment, shock mounted assemblies and physical barriersin the workplace.

Legal status

Up until the 1970s governments viewed noise as a "nuisance" ratherthan an environmental problem. In the United States, there are federalstandards for highway and aircraft noise; states and local governmentstypically have very specific statutes on building codes, urban planning,and roadway development.

Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in some cities. Anordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a nuisance, or it may set out specificguidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities.Portland, Oregon instituted the first comprehensive noise code in 1975 with funding from the EPA (EnvironmentalProtection Agency) and HUD (Housing and Urban Development). The Portland Noise Code includes potential finesof up to $5000 per infraction and is the basis for other major U.S. and Canadian city noise ordinances.[16]

Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the receiver. Escalationprocedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with local authorities, in particular the police.Noise pollution is a major problem in countries such as India during the festivals of Diwali, Navaratri, and Ganpati.The government of India has regulations against firecrackers and loudspeakers, but enforcement is extremely lax.[17]

Awaaz Foundation is an Indian NGO working to control noise pollution from various sources in Mumbai throughadvocacy, public interest litigation, awareness, and educational campaigns since 2003.[18]

Noise pollution 63

References[1][1] Senate Public Works Committee, Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972, S. Rep. No. 1160, 92nd Cong. 2nd session[2] C. Michael Hogan and Gary L. Latshaw, "The relationship between highway planning and urban noise" (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/

wcpa/ top3mset/ 2930880), Proceedings of the ASCE, Urban Transportation, May 21-23, 1973, Chicago, Illinois. By American Society ofCivil Engineers. Urban Transportation Division

[3] S. Rosen and P. Olin, Hearing Loss and Coronary Heart Disease, Archives of Otolaryngology, 82:236 (1965)[4] J.M. Field, Effect of personal and situational variables upon noise annoyance in residential areas, Journal of the Acoustical Society of

America, 93: 2753-2763 (1993)[7] Karl D. Kryter, The Effects of Noise on Man , Academic Press (1985)[8] Jesús Barreiro, Mercedes Sánchez, Montserrat Viladrich-Grau (2005), "How much are people willing to pay for silence? A contingent

valuation study", Applied Economics, 37 (11)[10] Bahamas Marine Mammal Stranding Event of 15–16 March 2000 (http:/ / www. nmfs. noaa. gov/ pr/ pdfs/ acoustics/ bahamas_stranding.

pdf)[11][11] www.dosits.org/glossary/pop/lvr.htm[12] Variation in humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts (http:/ / adsabs. harvard.

edu/ abs/ 2003ASAJ. . 113. 3411F)[14] Milius, S. (2007). High Volume, Low Fidelity: Birds are less faithful as sounds blare, Science News vol. 172, p. 116. ( references (http:/ /

www. sciencenews. org/ articles/ 20070825/ fob3ref. asp))[16] City of Portland, Oregon. Auditor's Office. Chapter 18.02 Title Noise Control (http:/ / www. portlandonline. com/ auditor/ index.

cfm?c=28705). Retrieved on April 20, 2009.[17] Govt of India: Central Pollution Control Board FAQs (http:/ / cpcb. nic. in/ faq1. php)[18] Rising festival noise undoing past efforts' (http:/ / www. hindustantimes. com/ India-news/ Mumbai/

Rising-festival-noise-undoing-past-efforts/ Article1-939539. aspx)

External links• Noise pollution (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Issues/ Environment/ Noise_Pollution/ / ) at the Open

Directory Project• World Health Organization - Guidelines for Community Noise (http:/ / www. who. int/ docstore/ peh/ noise/

Comnoise-1. pdf)• The effects of noisy urban environment may cause the loss of memory to elderly person (abstract published in 1st

World Congress of Health and Urban Environment book.) (http:/ / www. bioneurologics. gr/ astheneies/neurology-psychiatry/ the-effects-of-noisy-urban-environment-may-cause-the-loss-of-memory-to-elderly-person/)

• Clive Thompson on How Man-Made Noise May Be Altering Earths Ecology (http:/ / www. wired. com/ science/planetearth/ magazine/ 16-06/ st_thompson) {[ [sic]]}

• EEA draws the first map of Europe's noise exposure - All press releases — EEA (http:/ / www. eea. europa. eu/pressroom/ newsreleases/ eea-draws-the-first-map-of-europe2019s-noise-exposure)

Radioactive contamination 64

Radioactive contamination

The Hanford site represents two-thirds of the nation's high-level radioactive wasteby volume. Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the

Columbia River in January 1960.

As of 2013, the Fukushima nuclear disaster site remains highly radioactive, withsome 160,000 evacuees still living in temporary housing, and some land will be

unfarmable for centuries. The difficult cleanup job will take 40 or more years, andcost tens of billions of dollars.[1][2]

Radioactive contamination, also calledradiological contamination, is thedeposition of, or presence of radioactivesubstances on surfaces or within solids,liquids or gases (including the human body),where their presence is unintended orundesirable (from IAEA definition).[3]

Such contamination presents a hazardbecause of the radioactive decay of thecontaminants, which emit harmful ionisingradiation such as alpha or beta particles,gamma rays or neutrons. The degree ofhazard is determined by the concentration ofthe contaminants, the energy of the radiationbeing emitted, the type of radiation, and theproximity of the contamination to organs ofthe body. It is important to be clear that thecontamination gives rise to the radiationhazard, and the terms "radiation" and"contamination" are not interchangeable.

Contamination may affect a person, a place,an animal, or an object such as clothing.Following an atmospheric nuclear weapondischarge or a nuclear reactor containmentbreach, the air, soil, people, plants, andanimals in the vicinity will becomecontaminated by nuclear fuel and fissionproducts. A spilled vial of radioactivematerial like Uranyl nitrate maycontaminate the floor and any rags used towipe up the spill. Cases of widespreadradioactive contamination include the BikiniAtoll, the Rocky Flats Plant in Colorado, theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the Chernobyl disaster, and the area around the Mayak facility in Russia.

Cleaning up contamination results in radioactive waste unless the radioactive material can be returned to commercialuse by reprocessing. In some cases of large areas of contamination, the contamination may be mitigated by buryingand covering the contaminated substances with concrete, soil, or rock to prevent further spread of the contaminationto the environment. If a person's body is contaminated by ingestion or by injury and standard cleaning cannot reducethe contamination further, then the person may be permanently contaminated.

Some of the largest areas committed to be decontaminated are in the Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. The nationalgovernment is under pressure to clean up radioactivity due to the Fukushima nuclear accident of March 2011 from as

Radioactive contamination 65

much land as possible so that some of the 110,000 displaced people can return. Stripping out the key radioisotopethreatening health (caesium-137) from low level waste could also dramatically decrease the volume of wasterequiring special disposal. A goal is to find techniques that might be able to strip out 80 to 95% of the caesium fromcontaminated soil and other materials, efficiently and without destroying the organic content in the soil. One beinginvestigated is termed hydrothermal blasting. The caesium is broken away from soil particles and then precipitatedwith ferric ferricyanide (Prussian blue). It would be the only component of the waste requiring special burial sites. [4]

The aim is to get annual exposure from the contaminated environment down to 1 millisievert (mSv) abovebackground. The most contaminated area where radiation doses are greater than 50 mSv/year must remain off limitsbut some areas that are currently <5mSv/year may be decontaminated allowing 22,000 residents to return.

Sources of contamination

Global airborne contamination Atmosphericnuclear weapon tests almost doubled the

concentration of 14C in the Northern Hemisphere.Plot of atmospheric 14C, New Zealand[5] and

Austria.[6] The New Zealand curve isrepresentative for the Southern Hemisphere, theAustrian curve is representative for the Northern

Hemisphere. .[7]

Radioactive contamination is typically the result of a spill or accidentduring the production, or use of, radionuclides (radioisotopes); thesehave unstable nuclei which are subject to radioactive decay.

Less typically, nuclear fallout is the distribution of radioactivecontamination by a nuclear explosion. The amount of radioactivematerial released in an accident is called the source term.

Contamination may occur from radioactive gases, liquids or particles.For example, if a radionuclide used in nuclear medicine is spilled(accidentally or, as in the case of the Goiânia incident, throughignorance), the material could be spread by people as they walkaround. Radioactive contamination may also be an inevitable result ofcertain processes, such as the release of radioactive xenon in nuclearfuel reprocessing. In cases that radioactive material cannot becontained, it may be diluted to safe concentrations. For a discussion ofenvironmental contamination by alpha emitters please see actinides inthe environment.

Contamination does not include residual radioactive material remaining at a site after the completion ofdecommissioning. Therefore, radioactive material in sealed and designated containers is not properly referred to ascontamination, although the units of measurement might be the same.

Containment

Large industrial glovebox in the nuclear industry

Being within the intended "Containment" differentiates radioactivematerial from radioactive contamination. When radioactive materialsare concentrated to a detectable level outside a planned containment,the area affected is generally referred to as "contaminated".There are a large number of techniques for containing radioactivematerial so that it does not spread beyond the containment and becomecontamination. In the case of liquids this is by the use of high integritytanks or containers, usually with a sump system so that leakage can bedetected by radiometric or conventional instrumentation.Where material is likely to become airborne, then extensive use ismade of the glovebox, which is a common technique in hazardous laboratory and process operations in many

Radioactive contamination 66

industries. The gloveboxes are kept under a slight negative pressure and the vent gas is filtered in high efficiencyfilters, which are monitored by radiometric instrumentation to ensure they are functioning correctly.

Contamination accumulationRadioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air.

Surface contaminationSurface contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit of area. For SI, this is becquerels persquare meter (or Bq/m²). Other units such as picoCuries per 100 cm² or disintegrations per minute per squarecentimeter (1 dpm/cm² = 167 Bq/m²) may be used. Surface contamination may either be fixed or removable. In thecase of fixed contamination, the radioactive material cannot by definition be spread, but it is still measurable.Detection and measurement of surface contamination of personnel and plant is normally by Geiger counter,scintillation counter or proportional counter. Proportional counters and dual phosphor scintillation counters candiscriminate between alpha and beta contamination, but the Geiger counter cannot. Scintillation detectors aregenerally preferred for hand held monitoring instruments, and are designed with a large detection window. Geigerdetectors tend to have small windows, but are more robust.In the United Kingdom the HSE has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct radiation measurementinstrument for the application concerned [8]. This covers all radiation instrument technologies, and is a usefulcomparative guide.The spread of contamination by personnel exiting controlled areas in which nuclear material is used or processed iscontrolled by a variety of barrier techniques, sometimes involving changes of clothing and foot wear as required.Radiological instrumentation plays a key role in monitoring and detecting any potential contamination spread, and acombination of hand held survey instruments and permanently installed contamination monitors is used. The UKNPL publishes a guide on the alarm levels to be used with instruments for checking personnel exiting controlledareas in which contamination may be encountered.[9]

Airborne contaminationThe air can be contaminated with radioactive isotopes in particulate form, which poses a particular inhalation hazard.Respirators with suitable air filters, or completely self-contained suits with their own air supply can mitigate thesedangers.Airborne contamination is measured by specialist radiometric instruments that continuously pump the sampled airthrough a filter. Airborne particles accumulate on the filter and can be measured in a number of ways:1. The filter paper is periodically manually removed to an instrument which measures any accumulated radiation.2. The filter paper is static and is measured in situ by a radiation detector3. The filter is a slowly moving strip and is measured by a radiation detector. These are commonly called "movingfilter" devices and automatically advance the filter to present a clean area for accumulation, and thereby allow a plotof airborne concentration over time.Commonly a semiconductor radiation detection sensor is used that can also provide spectrographic information onthe contamination being collected.See the article on Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring for more information.

Radioactive contamination 67

Internal human contaminationRadioactive contamination can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or injection. For this reason,it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with radioactive materials. Radioactivecontamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminatedwater or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all potential pathways of internalexposure should be considered.

Contamination levels

Periodic table with elements colored according tothe half-life of their most stable isotope.

  Elements which contain at least one stableisotope.  Radioactive elements: the most stableisotope is very long-lived, with half-life of overfour million years.  Radioactive elements: the

most stable isotope has half-life between 800 and34.000 years.  Radioactive elements: the most

stable isotope has half-life between one day and103 years.  Highly radioactive elements: the most

stable isotope has half-life between severalminutes and one day.  Extremely radioactive

elements: the most stable isotope has half-life lessthan several minutes.

Low level contamination

The hazards to people and the environment from radioactivecontamination depend on the nature of the radioactive contaminant, thelevel of contamination, and the extent of the spread of contamination.Low levels of radioactive contamination pose little risk, but can still bedetected by radiation instrumentation. If a survey or map is made of acontaminated area, random sampling locations may be labeled withtheir activity in bequerels or curies on contact. Low levels may bereported in counts per minute using a scintillation counter.

In the case of low-level contamination by isotopes with a shorthalf-life, the best course of action may be to simply allow the materialto naturally decay. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up andproperly disposed of, because even a very low level of radiation can belife-threatening when in long exposure to it.

Facilities and physical locations that are deemed to be contaminatedmay be cordoned off by a health physicist and labeled "Contaminatedarea." Persons coming near such an area would typically requireanti-contamination clothing or anti-c's.

High level contaminationHigh levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed topotentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following anaccident (or a deliberate initiation) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The biological effects ofexternal exposure to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source notinvolving radioactive materials, such as x-ray machines, and are dependent on the absorbed dose.When radioactive contamination is being measured or mapped in situ, any location that appears to be a point sourceof radiation is likely to be heavily contaminated. A highly contaminated location is colloquially referred to as a "hotspot." On a map of a contaminated place, hot spots may be labeled with their "on contact" dose rate in mSv/hr. In acontaminated facility, hot spots may be marked with a sign, shielded with bags of lead shot, or cordoned off withwarning tape containing the radioactive trefoil symbol in magenta on a yellow background.

Radioactive contamination 68

Radiation hazards

The radiation warning symbol (trefoil).

Alpha radiation consists of helium-4 nucleus andis readily stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta

radiation, consisting of electrons, is halted by analuminium plate. Gamma radiation is eventually

absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Lead isgood at absorbing gamma radiation, due to its

density.

The hazard from contamination is the emission of ionising radiation.The principal radiations which will be encountered are alpha, beta andgamma, but these have quite different characteristics. They havewidely differing penetrating powers and radiation effect, and theaccompanying diagram shows the penetration of these radiations insimple terms. For an understanding of the different ionising effects ofthese radiations and the weighting factors applied, see the article onabsorbed dose.

Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose orradionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment orcontrol of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and theinterpretation of the results. The methodological and technical detailsof the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoringprogrammes and systems for different radionuclides, environmentalmedia and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Standards SeriesNo. RS–G-1.8[10] and in IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 64.[11]

Background radiation

In the natural world, there is always radiation emitted fromradionuclides as they decay. Not only is the entire world constantlybombarded by cosmic rays, but practically every living thing on earthcontains carbon-14 and tritium and most (including humans) containsome potassium-40. These levels of radioactivity pose little danger butcan confuse measurement. A particular problem is encountered withnaturally generated Radon gas which can affect instruments which areset to detect contamination close to normal background levels and cancause false alarms. Because of this skill is required by the operator ofradiological survey equipment to differentiate between backgroundradiation and the radiation which emanates from contamination.

Effects of contamination

Biological effects

The biological effects of internally deposited radionuclides depend greatly on the activity, the biodistribution, andthe removal rates of the radionuclide, which in turn depends on its chemical form, the particle size, and route ofentry. Effects may also depend on the chemical toxicity of the deposited material, independent of its radioactivity.Some radionuclides may be generally distributed throughout the body and rapidly removed, as is the case withtritiated water.

Some organs concentrate certain elements and hence radionuclide variants of those elements. This action may lead to much lower removal rates. For instance, the thyroid gland takes up a large percentage of any iodine that enters the body. Large quantities of inhaled or ingested radioactive iodine may impair or destroy the thyroid, while other tissues are affected to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine-131 is a common fission product; it was a major component of the radiation released from the Chernobyl disaster, leading to nine fatal cases of pediatric thyroid cancer and

Radioactive contamination 69

hypothyroidism. On the other hand, radioactive iodine is used in the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases of thethyroid precisely because of the thyroid's selective uptake of iodine.

Mental health effectsThe consequences of low-level radiation are often more psychological than radiological. Because damage fromvery-low-level radiation cannot be detected, people exposed to it are left in anguished uncertainty about what willhappen to them. Many believe they have been fundamentally contaminated for life and may refuse to have childrenfor fear of birth defects. They may be shunned by others in their community who fear a sort of mysteriouscontagion.[]

Forced evacuation from a radiation or nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression,psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, even suicide. Such was the outcome of the 1986 Chernobylnuclear disaster in the Ukraine. A comprehensive 2005 study concluded that "the mental health impact of Chernobylis the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date".[] Frank N. von Hippel, a U.S. scientist,commented on the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, saying that "fear of ionizing radiation could have long-termpsychological effects on a large portion of the population in the contaminated areas".[]

Such great psychological danger does not accompany other materials that put people at risk of cancer and otherdeadly illness. Visceral fear is not widely aroused by, for example, the daily emissions from coal burning, although,as a National Academy of Sciences study found, this causes 10,000 premature deaths a year in the US. It is "onlynuclear radiation that bears a huge psychological burden — for it carries a unique historical legacy".[]

In the media• The Atom Strikes! (1945) — official US War Department film documenting damage to Hiroshima and Nagasaki.• Gembaku no ko (1952) — documentary showing a Japanese school teacher who visits her hometown of

Hiroshima 6 years after the bombing to find the horrors of radiation.• The War Game (1965) - banned television docudrama about a Soviet nuclear attack on Britain, not shown on TV

until 1985• Hiroshima Nagasaki August 1945 (1970) — documentary of atomic bomb devastation.• The Atomic Cafe (1982) — documentary combines stock US government footage of nuclear testing along with

propaganda films shown in public schools in the 1940s and 1950s about how citizens should respond to atomicattacks.

• The Day After (1983) — TV docudrama about the effects of a nuclear holocaust on the small-town residents ineastern Kansas.

• Threads (1984) — British television drama featuring a nuclear war and its effects on the city of Sheffield innorthern England.

• Radio Bikini (1988) — documentary film about Bikini Atoll atomic tests. Gruesome details and pictures of jokingsailors being irradiated, and interview with an injured (irradiated) sailor.

• Hiroshima: Out of the Ashes (1990) — TV history and graphic depictions of the horror of nuclear war.• K-19: Doomsday Submarine (2002) — TV documentary about Russia's disastrous first nuclear submarine.• K-19: The Widowmaker (2002) — docudrama about the first of many disasters that befell the Soviet submarine

K-19• The Last Atomic Bomb (2006) — documentary about the fate of the survivors of Nagasaki 1945.• White Light/Black Rain: The Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (2007) — HBO documentary showing how

many teenage Japanese are ignorant of what happened in 1945. Also includes some American atomic veterans.Also see Criticality accident for six more films about radioactive issues.

Radioactive contamination 70

References[4][4] Dennis Normile, "Cooling a Hot Zone," Science, 339 (1 March 2013) pp. 1028-1029.[8] http:/ / www. hse. gov. uk/ pubns/ irp7. pdf[9] Operational Monitoring Good Practice Guide "The Selection of Alarm Levels for Personnel Exit Monitors" Dec 2009 - National Physical

Laboratory, Teddington UK (http:/ / www. npl. co. uk/ upload/ pdf/ alarm_levels_personnel_exit_monitors. pdf)

•• Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 30 "Practical Radiation Monitoring" Oct 2002 - National PhysicalLaboratory, Teddington UK

External links• Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility (http:/ / a4nr. org/ )• training guide (http:/ / training. bnl. gov/ StudyGuides/ RWT/ rwt300. pdf) Brookhaven National Laboratory

Training Guide.

Soil contamination

Excavation showing soil contamination at a disused gasworks.

Soil contamination or soil pollution is causedby the presence of xenobiotic (human-made)chemicals or other alteration in the natural soilenvironment. It is typically caused by industrialactivity, agricultural chemicals, or improperdisposal of waste. The most common chemicalsinvolved are petroleum hydrocarbons,polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such asnaphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents,pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals.Contamination is correlated with the degree ofindustrialization and intensity of chemicalusage.[citation needed]

The concern over soil contamination stemsprimarily from health risks, from direct contactwith the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplieswithin and underlying the soil.[1] Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consumingand expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modeling skills, andGIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.

In North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is best known, with many of countries inthese areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem. Developing countriestend to be less tightly regulated despite some of them having undergone significant industrialization.[citation needed]

Soil contamination 71

CausesSoil contamination can be caused by:• Application of pesticides and fertilizers•• Mining•• Oil and fuel dumping• Disposal of coal ash• Leaching from landfills•• Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil•• Discharging urine and faeces in the openThe most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavymetals.

Coal ashHistorical deposition of coal ash used for residential, commercial, and industrial heating, as well as for industrialprocesses such as ore smelting, were a common source of contamination in areas that were industrialized beforeabout 1960. Coal naturally concentrates lead and zinc during its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesserdegree. When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception beingmercury). Coal ash and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a "characteristic hazardous waste", defined inthe USA as containing more than 5 mg/L of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure. In addition to lead, coal ashtypically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g.,benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(cd)pyrene, phenanthrene,anthracene, and others). These PAHs are known human carcinogens and the acceptable concentrations of them insoil are typically around 1 mg/kg. Coal ash and slag can be recognized by the presence of off-white grains in soil,gray heterogeneous soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble-sized grains.

SewageTreated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a fertilizer to the land. As itis the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, andheavy metals than other soil.[2]

In the European Union, the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive allows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land.The volume is expected to double to 185,000 tons of dry solids in 2005. This has good agricultural properties due tothe high nitrogen and phosphate content. In 1990/1991, 13% wet weight was sprayed onto 0.13% of the land;however, this is expected to rise 15 fold by2005.Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_(dates_and_numbers)#Chronological_items AdvocatesWikipedia:Avoid weaselwords say there is a need to control this so that pathogenic microorganisms do not get into water courses and toensure that there is no accumulation of heavy metals in the top soil.[citation needed]

Pesticides and herbicidesA pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance,biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pestsinclude insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes thatcompete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Althoughthere are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and otherorganisms. [citation needed]

Soil contamination 72

Herbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are similar to auxins and most arebiodegrale by soil bacteria. However, one group derived from trinitrotoluene (2:4 D and 2:4:5 T) have the impuritydioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low concentrations. Another herbicide is Paraquat. It is highlytoxic but it rapidly degrades in soil due to the action of bacteria and does not kill soil fauna.[citation needed]

Insecticides are used to rid farms of pests which damage crops. The insects damage not only standing crops but alsostored ones and in the tropics it is reckoned that one third of the total production is lost during food storage. As withfungicides, the first insecticides used in the nineteenth century were inorganic e.g.Paris Green and other compoundsof arsenic. Nicotine has also been used since the late eighteenth century. [citation needed]

There are now two main groups of synthetic insecticides -1. Organochlorines include DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin and BHC. They are cheap to produce, potent and persistent. DDTwas used on a massive scale from the 1930s, with a peak of 72,000 tonnes used 1970. Then usage fell as the harmfulenvironmental effects were realized. It was found worldwide in fish and birds and was even discovered in the snowin the Antarctic. It is only slightly soluble in water but is very soluble in the bloodstream. It affects the nervous andendocrine systems and causes the eggshells of birds to lack calcium causing them to be easily breakable. It is thoughtto be responsible for the decline of the numbers of birds of prey like ospreys and peregrine falcons in the 1950s -they are now recovering. [citation needed]

As well as increased concentration via the food chain, it is known to enter via permeable membranes, so fish get itthrough their gills. As it has low water solubility, it tends to stay at the water surface, so organisms that live there aremost affected. DDT found in fish that formed part of the human food chain caused concern, but the levels found inthe liver, kidney and brain tissues was less than 1 ppm and in fat was 10 ppm which was below the level likely tocause harm. However, DDT was banned in the UK and the United States to stop the further build up of it in the foodchain. U.S. manufactureres continued to sell DDT to developing countries, who could not afford the expensivereplacement chemicals and who did not have such stringent regulations governing the use of pesticides.[citation needed]

Health effectsContaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soilcontaminants which have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination intogroundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparentsource of above ground contamination.Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, pathway ofattack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chronic exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum,solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or cancause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, suchas nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified ashealth hazards in soil and groundwater.[3]

Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence ofleukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage, some irreversible.PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbomates can induce a chain of responsesleading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depressionof the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue,eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soilcontaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwatercontaminated through soil.[4]

The Scottish Government has commissioned the Institute of Occupational Medicine to undertake a review of methods to assess risk to human health from contaminated land. The overall aim of the project is to work up

Soil contamination 73

guidance that should be useful to Scottish Local Authorities in assessing whether sites represent a significantpossibility of significant harm (SPOSH) to human health. It is envisaged that the output of the project will be a shortdocument providing high level guidance on health risk assessment with reference to existing published guidance andmethodologies that have been identified as being particularly relevant and helpful. The project will examine howpolicy guidelines have been developed for determining the acceptability of risks to human health and propose anapproach for assessing what constitutes unacceptable risk in line with the criteria for SPOSH as defined in thelegislation and the Scottish Statutory Guidance.[citation needed]

Ecosystem effectsNot unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems.[5] There areradical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at lowconcentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemicmicroorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some ofthe primary food chain, which in turn could have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if thechemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals,which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects arenow well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakeningof egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential extinction of species.[citation needed]

Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plantmetabolism, often causing a reduction in crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since thelanguishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil from erosion. Some of these chemical contaminants have longhalf-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.[citation needed]

Cleanup options

Microbes can be used in soil cleanup

Clean up or environmental remediation is analyzed by environmentalscientists who utilize field measurement of soil chemicals and also applycomputer models (GIS in Environmental Contamination) for analyzingtransport[6] and fate of soil chemicals. There are several principal strategiesfor remediation:

• Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathwaysfor human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies todredging of bay muds containing toxins.

• Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creatingair pollution)

• Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently high to volatizechemical contaminants out of the soil for vapour extraction. Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistanceheating (ERH), and ET-DSPtm.

• Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques used in bioremediationinclude landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora.

• Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of thecontaminants from the extract.

•• Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).•• Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals

Soil contamination 74

By countryVarious national standards for concentrations of particular contaminants include the United States EPA Region 9Preliminary Remediation Goals (U.S. PRGs), the U.S. EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (U.S. EPA RBCs)and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels in Soil andGroundwater.

People's Republic of ChinaThe immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from theland in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to theenvironment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mi(100,000 square kilometers) of China’s cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used toirrigate a further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometers) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square kilometers)covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of China’s cultivatable land, and ismostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metalsevery year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).[7]

United KingdomGeneric guidance commonly used in the UK are the Soil Guideline Values published by DEFRA and theEnvironment Agency. These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a substance.Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These have been derivedusing the Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model (CLEA UK). Certain input parameters such as HealthCriteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic output[citation needed].Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL) has beenformally withdrawn by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), for use as a prescriptivedocument to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment.The CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002 sets a framework for theappropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of theEnvironmental Protection Act 1990. As part of this framework, generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) have currentlybeen derived for ten contaminants to be used as "intervention values"[citation needed]. These values should not beconsidered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered; see Dutchstandards.Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely•• residential (with and without plant uptake)•• allotments•• commercial/industrialIt is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. It should be noted that the CLEA SGVs relate toassessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers duringconstruction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEASGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route tocontaminated soils.[citation needed]

To date, the first ten of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene. Draft SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their publication is on hold. Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo[a]pyrene, benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane,

Soil contamination 75

tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethene and xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene,phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil organic matter (SOM) content (which can be calculated from the totalorganic carbon (TOC) content). As an initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate.[citation

needed]

References[1] Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. 20450[2] Free full-text (http:/ / www. ijoeh. com/ index. php/ ijoeh/ article/ view/ 278) (registration required)[3] http:/ / yosemite. epa. gov/ water/ owrcCatalog. nsf/ 065ca07e299b464685256ce50075c11a/

383316fae0e9065285256cfd0048e1d2!OpenDocument[4] Article on soil contamination in China (http:/ / www. heltheffects. com. net/ article/ show/ single/ en/ 724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-)[5] Michael Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw and Harry Seidman Computer modelng of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented

watersheds, prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale,California (1973)

[6] S.K. Gupta, C.T. Kincaid, P.R. Mayer, C.A. Newbill and C.R. Cole, "A multidimensional finite element code for the analysis of coupledfluid, energy and solute transport", Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory PNL-2939, EPA contract 68-03-3116 (1982)

[7] Facing up to “invisible pollution” (http:/ / www. chinadialogue. net/ article/ show/ single/ en/ 724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-)

External links• Portal for soil and water management in Europe (http:/ / www. eugris. info) Independent information gateway

originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and water, including contaminated land,soil and water management.

• Sound blaster cleans contaminated soil (http:/ / www. newscientisttech. com/ article. ns?id=dn10008&feedId=online-news_rss20) - High powered ultrasound can clean up soil tainted with organic toxins like PCBs orDDT

• Article on soil contamination in China (http:/ / www. chinadialogue. net/ article/ show/ single/ en/724-Facing-up-to-invisible-pollution-)

• Arsenic in groundwater (http:/ / www. hydrology. nl/ iahpublications/ 70-arsenic-in-groundwater. html) Book onarsenic in groundwater by IAH's Netherlands Chapter and the Netherlands Hydrological Society

• Draft Contaminated Land Statutory Guidance (part 2a) (http:/ / archive. defra. gov. uk/ environment/ quality/land/ contaminated/ documents/ contaminated-land-guidance120206. pdf) as laid before UK Parliament (February2012)

Ship pollution 76

Ship pollution

A cargo ship discharging ballast water into thesea.

The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gasemissions and oil pollution. Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping isestimated to be 4 to 5 percent of the global total, and estimated by theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO) to rise by as much as 72percent by 2020 if no action is taken.[1]

The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group onGreenhouse Gas Emissions[2] from Ships took place in Oslo, Norwayon 23–27 June 2008. It was tasked with developing the technical basisfor the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMOregime to control greenhouse gas emissions from internationalshipping, and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves,for further consideration by IMO’s Marine Environment ProtectionCommittee (MEPC).[3]

Ballast water

Ballast water discharges by ships can have a negative impact on themarine environment.

Cruise ships, large tankers, and bulk cargo carriers use a huge amount of ballast water, which is often taken on in thecoastal waters in one region after ships discharge wastewater or unload cargo, and discharged at the next port of call,wherever more cargo is loaded. Ballast water discharge typically contains a variety of biological materials, includingplants, animals, viruses, and bacteria. These materials often include non-native, nuisance, invasive, exotic speciesthat can cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems.

Sound pollutionNoise pollution caused by shipping and other human enterprises has increased in recent history.[4] The noiseproduced by ships can travel long distances, and marine species who may rely on sound for their orientation,communication, and feeding, can be harmed by this sound pollution[5][6]

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species has identified ocean noise as a potential threat to marinelife.[7]

Ship impactsMarine mammals, such a whales and manatees, risk being struck by ships, causing injury and death. For example, ifa ship is traveling at a speed of only 15 knots, there is a 79 percent chance of a collision being lethal to a whale.[]

One notable example of the impact of ship collisions is the endangered North Atlantic right whale, of which 400 orless remain. The greatest danger to the North Atlantic right whale is injury sustained from ship strikes.[] Between1970 and 1999, 35.5 percent of recorded deaths were attributed to collisions.[8] During 1999 to 2003, incidents ofmortality and serious injury attributed to ship strikes averaged one per year. In 2004 to 2006, that number increasedto 2.6.[9] Deaths from collisions has become an extinction threat.[]

Ship pollution 77

Exhaust emissionsExhaust emissions from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution, with 18 to 30 percent of allnitrogen oxide and 9 percent of sulphur oxide pollution.[] [] "By 2010, up to 40 percent of air pollution over landcould come from ships."[10] Sulfur in the air creates acid rain which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled thesulfur is known to cause respiratory problems and even increase the risk of a heart attack.[10] According to IreneBlooming, a spokeswoman for the European environmental coalition Seas at Risk, the fuel used in oil tankers andcontainer ships is high in sulfur and cheaper to buy compared to the fuel used for domestic land use. "A ship lets outaround 50 times more sulfur than a lorry per metric tonne of cargo carried."[10] Cities in the U.S. like Long Beach,Los Angeles, Houston, Galveston, and Pittsburgh see some of the heaviest shipping traffic in the nation and have leftlocal officials desperately trying to clean up the air.[11] Increasing trade between the U.S. and China is helping toincrease the number of vessels navigating the Pacific and exacerbating many of the environmental problems. Tomaintain the level of growth China is experiencing, large amounts of grain are being shipped to China by the boatload. The number of voyages are expected to continue increasing.[12]

3.5 to 4 percent of all climate change emissions are caused by shipping.[] Air pollution from cruise ships is generatedby diesel engines that burn high sulfur content fuel oil, also known as bunker oil, producing sulfur dioxide, nitrogenoxide and particulate, in addition to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons. Diesel exhaust has beenclassified by EPA as a likely human carcinogen. EPA recognizes that these emissions from marine diesel enginescontribute to ozone and carbon monoxide nonattainment (i.e., failure to meet air quality standards), as well asadverse health effects associated with ambient concentrations of particulate matter and visibility, haze, aciddeposition, and eutrophication and nitrification of water.[13] EPA estimates that large marine diesel enginesaccounted for about 1.6 percent of mobile source nitrogen oxide emissions and 2.8 percent of mobile sourceparticulate emissions in the United States in 2000. Contributions of marine diesel engines can be higher on aport-specific basis. Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially loweredsulfur contents. As of 2006, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in Europe and North America isof a ULSD type.As one way to reduce the impact of greenhouse gas emissions from shipping, vetting agency RightShip hasdeveloped an online “GHG Emissions Rating” as a systematic way for the industry to compare a ship’s CO2emissions to peer vessels of a similar size and type. Using higher rated ships can deliver significantly lower CO2emissions across the voyage length.

Cruise ship haze over Juneau, Alaska

One source of environmental pressures on maritime vessels recentlyhas come from states and localities, as they assess the contribution ofcommercial marine vessels to regional air quality problems when shipsare docked in port. [] For instance, large marine diesel engines arebelieved to contribute 7 percent of mobile source nitrogen oxideemissions in Baton Rouge/New Orleans. Ships can also have asignificant impact in areas without large commercial ports: theycontribute about 37 percent of total area nitrogen oxide emissions inthe Santa Barbara area, and that percentage is expected to increase to61 percent by 2015.[13] Again, there is little cruise-industry specificdata on this issue. They comprise only a small fraction of the worldshipping fleet, but cruise ship emissions may exert significant impacts on a local scale in specific coastal areas thatare visited repeatedly. Shipboard incinerators also burn large volumes of garbage, plastics, and other waste,producing ash that must be disposed of. Incinerators may release toxic emissions as well.

In 2005 MARPOL Annex VI came into force to combat this problem. As such cruise ships now employ cctvmonitoring on the smoke stacks as well as recorded measuring via opacity meter with some also using clean burninggas turbines for electrical loads and propulsion in sensitive areas.

Ship pollution 78

Oil spillsMost commonly associated with ship pollution are oil spills. While less frequent than the pollution that occurs fromdaily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs), the components in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sedimentand marine environment.[14] Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems,susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the ExxonValdez incident in Alaska. The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil into the ocean in March 1989.Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immensenumbers of fish were killed.[14]

International regulationSome of the major international efforts in the form of treaties are the Marine Pollution Treaty, Honolulu, which dealswith regulating marine pollution from ships, and the UN Convention on Law of the Sea, which deals with marinespecies and pollution.[15] While plenty of local and international regulations have been introduced throughoutmaritime history, much of the current regulations are considered inadequate. “In general, the treaties tend toemphasize the technical features of safety and pollution control measures without going to the root causes ofsub-standard shipping, the absence of incentives for compliance and the lack of enforceability of measures.”[16]

Cruise ships, for example, are exempt from regulation under the US discharge permit system (NPDES, under theClean Water Act) that requires compliance with technology-based standards.[14] In the Caribbean, many ports lackproper waste disposal facilities, and many ships dump their waste at sea.[17]

Sewage

Carcass of a whale on a shore in Iceland.

The cruise line industry dumps 255,000 US gallons (970 m3) ofgreywater and 30,000 US gallons (110 m3) of black water into the seaevery day. Blackwater is sewage, wastewater from toilets and medicalfacilities, which can contain harmful bacteria, pathogens, viruses,intestinal parasites, and harmful nutrients. Discharges of untreated orinadequately treated sewage can cause bacterial and viralcontamination of fisheries and shellfish beds, producing risks to publichealth. Nutrients in sewage, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, promoteexcessive algal blooms, which consumes oxygen in the water and canlead to fish kills and destruction of other aquatic life. A large cruiseship (3,000 passengers and crew) generates an estimated 55,000 to 110,000 liters per day of blackwater waste.[18][19]

Due to the environmental impact of shipping, and sewage in particular marpol annex IV was brought into forceSeptember 2003 strictly limiting untreated waste discharge. Modern cruise ships are most commonly installed with amembrane bioreactor type treatment plant for all blackwater and greywater, such as Zenon or Rochem [20] whichproduce near drinkable quality effluent to be re-used in the machinery spaces as technical water.

CleaningGreywater is wastewater from the sinks, showers, galleys, laundry, and cleaning activities aboard a ship. It can contain a variety of pollutant substances, including fecal coliforms, detergents, oil and grease, metals, organic compounds, petroleum hydrocarbons, nutrients, food waste, medical and dental waste. Sampling done by the EPA and the state of Alaska found that untreated greywater from cruise ships can contain pollutants at variable strengths and that it can contain levels of fecal coliform bacteria several times greater than is typically found in untreated domestic wastewater.[21] Greywater has potential to cause adverse environmental effects because of concentrations

Ship pollution 79

of nutrients and other oxygen-demanding materials, in particular. Greywater is typically the largest source of liquidwaste generated by cruise ships (90 to 95 percent of the total). Estimates of greywater range from 110 to 320 litersper day per person, or 330,000 to 960,000 liters per day for a 3,000-person cruise ship.[22]

Solid wasteSolid waste generated on a ship includes glass, paper, cardboard, aluminium and steel cans, and plastics. It can beeither non-hazardous or hazardous in nature. Solid waste that enters the ocean may become marine debris, and canthen pose a threat to marine organisms, humans, coastal communities, and industries that utilize marine waters.Cruise ships typically manage solid waste by a combination of source reduction, waste minimisation, and recycling.However, as much as 75 percent of solid waste is incinerated on board, and the ash typically is discharged at sea,although some is landed ashore for disposal or recycling. Marine mammals, fish, sea turtles, and birds can be injuredor killed from entanglement with plastics and other solid waste that may be released or disposed off of cruise ships.On average, each cruise ship passenger generates at least two pounds of non-hazardous solid waste per day.[23] Withlarge cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers, the amount of waste generated in a day can be massive. Fora large cruise ship, about 8 tons of solid waste are generated during a one-week cruise.[24] It has been estimated that24 percent of the solid waste generated by vessels worldwide (by weight) comes from cruise ships.[25] Most cruiseship garbage is treated on board (incinerated, pulped, or ground up) for discharge overboard. When garbage must beoff-loaded (for example, because glass and aluminium cannot be incinerated), cruise ships can put a strain on portreception facilities, which are rarely adequate to the task of serving a large passenger vessel.[26]

Bilge waterOn a ship, oil often leaks from engine and machinery spaces or from engine maintenance activities and mixes withwater in the bilge, the lowest part of the hull of the ship. Oil, gasoline, and by-products from the biologicalbreakdown of petroleum products can harm fish and wildlife and pose threats to human health if ingested. Oil ineven minute concentrations can kill fish or have various sub-lethal chronic effects. Bilge water also may containsolid wastes and pollutants containing high amounts of oxygen-demanding material, oil and other chemicals. Atypical large cruise ship will generate an average of 8 metric tons of oily bilge water for each 24 hours ofoperation.[27] To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially hazardous conditions from oil vapors in theseareas, the bilge spaces need to be flushed and periodically pumped dry. However, before a bilge can be cleared outand the water discharged, the oil that has been accumulated needs to be extracted from the bilge water, after whichthe extracted oil can be reused, incinerated, and/or offloaded in port. If a separator, which is normally used to extractthe oil, is faulty or is deliberately bypassed, untreated oily bilge water could be discharged directly into the ocean,where it can damage marine life. A number of cruise lines have been charged with environmental violations relatedto this issue in recent years.[28][29]

Ship pollution 80

Issues by region

United Kingdom•• Merchant Shipping Act 1995•• Merchant Shipping (Pollution) Act 2006

United StatesIt is expected that, “…shipping traffic to and from the USA is projected to double by 2020."[11]

•• Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships•• American Bureau of Shipping•• Cruise ship pollution in the United States•• National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan•• Oil Pollution Act of 1990•• Regulation of ship pollution in the United States

International regulation•• MARPOL 73/78

References[2] International Maritime Organization, London (2008). "Working Group Oslo June 2008." (http:/ / www. imo. org/ Environment/ mainframe.

asp?topic_id=1737)[3] SustainableShipping.com (2008). "IMO targets greenhouse gas emissions." (http:/ / www. sustainableshipping. com/ news/ 2008/ 06/

72085?gsid=bd38b351cb4e396c6349848dcc49aaf2& asi=1) (London: Petromedia Group). 2008-06-17.[10] Harrabin, R. (2003, June 25). "EU faces ship clean-up call." BBC News. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/

europe/ 3019686. stm[11] Watson, T. (2004, August 30). Ship pollution clouds USA's skies. USA Today. Retrieved November 1, 2006, from http:/ / www. usatoday.

com/ news/ nation/ 2004-08-30-ship-pollution_x. htm[12] Schmidt, C., & Olicker, J. (2004, April 20). World in the Balance: China Revs Up [Transcript]. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved November 26, 2006,

from http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ transcripts/ 3109_worldbal. html[13] US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, DC. "Control of Emissions From New Marine Compression-Ignition Engines at

or Above 30 Liters Per Cylinder." Final rule. Federal Register, , 2003-02-28.[14][14] Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). "America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change." Electronic Version, CD. Pew Oceans

Commission.[15] Steger, M. B. (2003). Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press Inc. New York.[16] Khee-Jin Tan, A. (2006). Vessel-source marine pollution: the law and politics of international regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press[17] United Nations Environment Programme in collaboration with GEF, the University of Kalmar, and the Municipality of Kalmar, Sweden, &

the Governments of Sweden, Finland and Norway. (2006). Challenges to international waters: regional assessments in a global perspective[Electronic Version]. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved January 5, 2010, from http:/ / www. unep. org/dewa/ giwa/ publications/ finalreport/

[18] The Ocean Conservancy, “Cruise Control, A Report on How Cruise Ships Affect the Marine Environment,” May 2002, p. 13. - PDF (http:/ /act. oceanconservancy. org/ site/ DocServer/ cruisecontrol. pdf?docID=141)

[19] General cruise line information, point 10 - (http:/ / www. 123cruiselines. com).[20] http:/ / www. rochem. com/ htm/ Rochem_Ultrafiltration. htm[21][21] EPA Draft Discharge Assessment Report, pp. 3-5 - 3-6.[22][22] Cruise Control, p. 15.[23] The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business, “A Shifting Tide, Environmental Challenges and Cruise Industry Responses,” p. 14.[24] Bluewater Network, “Cruising for Trouble: Stemming the Tide of Cruise Ship Pollution,” March 2000, p. 5. A report prepared for an

industry group estimated that a 3,000-person cruise ship generates of graywater during a seven-day cruise. Don K. Kim, “Cruise Ship WasteDispersion Analysis Report on the Analysis of Graywater Discharge,” presented to the International Council of Cruise Lines, September 14,2000.

Ship pollution 81

[25][25] National Research Council, Committee on Shipboard Wastes, Clean Ships, Clean Ports, Clean Oceans: Controlling Garbage and PlasticWastes at Sea (National Academy Press, 1995), Table 2-3, pp. 38-39.

[26][26] National Research Council, Committee on Shipboard Wastes, Clean Ships, Clean Ports, Clean Oceans: Controlling Garbage and PlasticWastes at Sea (National Academy Press, 1995), p. 126.

[27] “Shifting Tide,” p. 16.

Further reading• Copeland, Claudia (2008). "Cruise Ship Pollution: Background, Laws and Regulations, and Key Issues." (http:/ /

www. ncseonline. org/ NLE/ CRSreports/ 07Dec/ RL32450. pdf) CRS Report for Congress. Order CodeRL32450. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Updated 2008-02-06.

External links• Maritime International Secretariat Services (http:/ / www. marisec. org/ environmental-compliance/ ) - Shipping

Industry Guidance on Environmental Compliance• GloBallast partnership (http:/ / globallast. imo. org/ ) (IMO)• International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004 (http:/ /

www. ecolex. org/ server2. php/ libcat/ docs/ TRE/ Multilateral/ En/ TRE001412. pdf) - IMO• Cruise Ship Pollution Overview (http:/ / www. oceana. org/ north-america/ what-we-do/

stop-cruise-ship-pollution/ ) - Oceana• Ecological facts on ballast water (http:/ / ballastmasterultrav. westfalia-separator. com/ ballast-water-treatment.

html)

Thermal pollution

The Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plantdischarges heated water to the Connecticut

River.[1]

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any processthat changes ambient water temperature.

A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolantby power plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as acoolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature,the change in temperature decreases oxygen supply, and affectsecosystem composition. Urban runoff–stormwater discharged tosurface waters from roads and parking lots–can also be a source ofelevated water temperatures.

When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or othercauses, fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperaturerange can be killed by the abrupt change in water temperature knownas "thermal shock."

Thermal pollution 82

Ecological effects

Potrero Generating Station discharged heatedwater into San Francisco Bay.[2] The plant was

closed in 2011.[3]

Warm water

Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygenof water. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians andother aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase themetabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in theseorganisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if theirenvironment were not changed.[]:179 An increased metabolic rate mayresult in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in mayhave an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmertemperature. As a result, food chains of the old and new environmentsmay be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments orcoastal areas adjacent to a thermal discharge. Biodiversity can bedecreased as a result.[]:415-17 []:340

High temperature limits oxygen dispersion into deeper waters,contributing to anaerobic conditions. This can lead to increasedbacteria levels when there is ample food supply. Many aquatic specieswill fail to reproduce at elevated temperatures.[]:179-80

Primary producers are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant growth rates,resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. This can cause an algae bloom which reduces oxygenlevels.

Temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius can cause significant changes in organism metabolism andother adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse changes can include rendering cell walls less permeable tonecessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and alteration of enzyme metabolism. These cellular level effectscan adversely affect mortality and reproduction.A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogen-and disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquaticorganisms can cause problems such as the inability to break down lipids, which leads to malnutrition.In limited cases, warm water has little deleterious effect and may even lead to improved function of the receivingaquatic ecosystem. This phenomenon is seen especially in seasonal waters and is known as thermal enrichment. Anextreme case is derived from the aggregational habits of the manatee, which often uses power plant discharge sitesduring winter. Projections suggest that manatee populations would decline upon the removal of these discharges.

Thermal pollution 83

Cold WaterReleases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish and macroinvertebrate fauna ofrivers, and reduce river productivity. In Australia, where many rivers have warmer temperature regimes, native fishspecies have been eliminated, and macroinvertebrate fauna have been drastically altered. Due to the sudden fall ofwater temperature the contraction on dam and bridge pylon may take place.

Control of thermal pollution

Cooling tower at Gustav Knepper Power Station,Dortmund, Germany

Industrial wastewater

In the United States, about 75 to 82 percent of thermal pollution isgenerated by power plants.[]:335 The remainder is from industrialsources such as petroleum refineries, pulp and paper mills, chemicalplants, steel mills and smelters.[4][5] Heated water from these sourcesmay be controlled with:

• cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling byevaporation, convection, and radiation

• cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere throughevaporation and/or heat transfer

• cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes.[6]

Some facilities use once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce temperature as effectively as theabove systems. For example, the Potrero Generating Station in San Francisco (closed in 2011), used OTC anddischarged water to San Francisco Bay approximately 10°C (20°F) above the ambient bay temperature.[7]

Urban runoffDuring warm weather, urban runoff can have significant thermal impacts on small streams, as stormwater passesover hot parking lots, roads and sidewalks. Stormwater management facilities that absorb runoff or direct it intogroundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins, can reduce these thermal effects. Retention basins(ponds) tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before beingdischarged to a receiving stream.[8]

References[2] Selna, Robert (2009). "Power plant has no plans to stop killing fish." (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 01/ 01/

BAAS151F1U. DTL& tsp=1) San Francisco Chronicle, January 2, 2009.[3] Pacific Gas & Electric Co. "Potrero Power Plant: Site Overview." (http:/ / www. pge. com/ about/ environment/ taking-responsibility/ mgp/

Potrero/ site-overview. shtml) Accessed 2012-07-17.[4] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, D.C. "Cooling Water Intake Structures - Basic Information." (http:/ / www. epa.

gov/ waterscience/ 316b/ basic. htm) June 2, 2008.[5] EPA. "Technical Development Document for the Final Section 316(b) Phase III Rule." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ waterscience/ 316b/ phase3/

ph3docs/ tdd-final-part1-200606. pdf) June 2006. Chapter 2.[6][6] Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 24.[7] California Environmental Protection Agency. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Board. "Waste Discharge Requirements for

Mirant Potrero, LLC, Potrero Power Plant." (http:/ / www. swrcb. ca. gov/ sanfranciscobay/ board_info/ agendas/ 2006/ may/ mirantfinalorder.pdf) Order No. R2-2006-0032; NPDES Permit No. CA0005657. May 10, 2006.

[8] EPA. "Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ stormwater/ ) August 1999.Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012. p. 5-58.

• Michael Hogan, Leda C. Patmore and Harry Seidman (1973). Statistical Prediction of Dynamic Thermal Equilibrium Temperatures using Standard Meteorological Data Bases. EPA Office of Research and

Thermal pollution 84

Development, document no EPA-660/2-73-003. August 1973.• E.L. Thackston and F.L. Parker (1971). Effect of Geographical Location on Cooling Pond Requirements.

Vanderbilt University, for Water Quality Office, EPA, Project no. 16130 FDQ, March 1971.• Edinger, J.E.; Geyer, J.C (1965). Heat Exchange in the Environment. New York: Edison Electric Institute.

Visual pollutionPollution is the act of polluting with man-made waste or the state ofbeing polluted.[1] The action of polluting is usually referred topolluting through environmental contamination. Visual pollution isdefined as the whole of irregular formations, which are mostly found innatural and built environments.[2] The subjective issue of visual clutteris defined as the state in which a surplus of objects, or their depictionor organization, causes the ruin of performance at a task.[3] Visualpollution is an aesthetic issue and refers to the impacts of pollutionthat impair one's ability to enjoy a vista or view. Visual pollutiondisturbs the visual areas of people by creating negative changes in thenatural environment. Billboards, open storage of trash, space debris,telephone towers, electric wires, buildings and automobiles are formsof visual pollution. An overcrowding of an area causes visualpollution.[4]

SourcesAdministrative NegligenceThe local management of urban areas lose control over what is built and assembled in public places. As businesseslook for ways to increase profits, cleanliness, architecture, logic and use of space in urban areas are suffering fromvisual clutter.[5] Variations in the environment are determined by the location of various objects. For example, publictransport stations, garbage cans, large panels and stalls. Insensitivity of local administration is another cause forvisual pollution. For example poorly planned buildings and transportation systems create visual pollution. Theincrease in high-rise buildings brings negative change to the visual and physical characteristics of a city, whichreduces the readability of the city and destroys natural environments.[6]

Excessive AdvertisingAdvertising is a mirror and shaper of public outlook, social behaviors and standards.[7] A frequent criticism againstadvertising is that there is too much of it. On the other hand, with the introduction of new communicationtechnologies the fragmentation and incentive nature of advertising methods will improve, reducing clutter. Forexample, with the increase of mobile device usage, more money is invested in advertising on social media websitesand mobile device applications. Vandalism, in the form of graffiti is defined as street markings, offensive andinappropriate messages made without the owner’s consent.[8] Graffiti adds to visual clutter in neighborhoods as itmakes a disturbance of view, and the writing is often a bad influence to those of younger age groups. Billboards areanother example of excessive advertising. This form of visual pollution has been alleged as a distraction for drivers,corrupting public taste, boosting the infinite need of consumption and cluttering the land.[9]

Visual pollution 85

EffectsEffects of exposure to visual pollution include: distraction, eye fatigue, decreases in opinion diversity, and loss ofidentity[10]

PreventionPrevention in the United StatesIn the United States, there are several initiatives gradually taking place to prevent visual pollution. The FederalHighway Beautification Act of 1965, limits billboards on Interstate highways and federally aided roads, it hasdrastically decreased the amount of billboards placed on these roads.[11] Another highway bill, The IntermodalSurface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1991 has made transportation facilities sync with the needs ofcommunities. This bill created a system of state and national scenic byways and provided funds for biking trails,historic preservation and scenic conservation.[12]

The Dunn Foundation is an organization that increases public awareness of visual pollution and landscapeappearance in America through educational programs.[13] The foundation has designed an educationally interactivepackage for students from grades 3-12 for raising awareness about visual pollution and they educate students on howto improve the visual environment in their communities. Another example of a company working toward preventionof visual clutter is Scenic America; a non-profit organization that envisions a future movement toward ensuring thatscenic conservation boosts the economy and decreases visual pollution.[14] Businesses situated near and interstatecan create problems of advertising through large billboards, however now an alternative solution for advertisers isgradually eliminating the problem. For example, logo signs that provide directional information for travelers withoutdisfiguring the landscape are increasing and are a step toward decreasing visual pollution on highways inAmerica.[15] Thus, researchers believe that planners should help and encourage citizens to maintain theircommunities as citizens have the power to influence government, especially local and regional management wheremost issues regarding appearance and disclosed.

References[1] Pollution. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster. Online Dictionary. Retrieved from http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ pollution[3] Rosenholtz, R., Li, Y., & Nakano, L. (2007). Measuring visual clutter. Journal of Vision, 7(2), 1-22. doi: http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1167/ 7. 2.

17[4] Nagle, Copeland. (2009). Cell Phone Towers as Visual Pollution. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics and Public Policy. Retrieved from http:/

/ bf4dv7zn3u. search. serialssolutions. com. myaccess. library. utoronto. ca/ ?ctx_ver=Z39. 88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8& rfr_id=info:sid/ summon. serialssolutions. com& rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/ fmt:kev:mtx:journal& rft.genre=article& rft. atitle=Cell+ phone+ towers+ as+ visual+ pollution. + %28Symposium+ on+ the+ Environment%29& rft. jtitle=Notre+Dame+ Journal+ of+ Law%2C+ Ethics+ %26+ Public+ Policy& rft. au=Nagle%2C+ John+ Copeland& rft. date=2009& rft. pub=Thomas+ J.+ White+ Center+ on+ Law+ %26+ Government& rft. issn=0883-3648& rft. volume=23& rft. issue=2& rft. spage=537& rft.externalDBID=n%2Fa& rft. externalDocID=206558294

[9] Nagle, Copeland. (2009). Cell Phone Towers as Visual Pollution. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics and Public Policy. Retrieved from http:// bf4dv7zn3u. search. serialssolutions. com. myaccess. library. utoronto. ca/ ?ctx_ver=Z39. 88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8& rfr_id=info:sid/ summon. serialssolutions. com& rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/ fmt:kev:mtx:journal& rft.genre=article& rft. atitle=Cell+ phone+ towers+ as+ visual+ pollution. + %28Symposium+ on+ the+ Environment%29& rft. jtitle=Notre+Dame+ Journal+ of+ Law%2C+ Ethics+ %26+ Public+ Policy& rft. au=Nagle%2C+ John+ Copeland& rft. date=2009& rft. pub=Thomas+ J.+ White+ Center+ on+ Law+ %26+ Government& rft. issn=0883-3648& rft. volume=23& rft. issue=2& rft. spage=537& rft.externalDBID=n%2Fa& rft. externalDocID=206558294

[11] Nagle, Copeland. (2009). Cell Phone Towers as Visual Pollution. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics and Public Policy. Retrieved fromhttp:/ / bf4dv7zn3u. search. serialssolutions. com. myaccess. library. utoronto. ca/ ?ctx_ver=Z39. 88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8& rfr_id=info:sid/ summon. serialssolutions. com& rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/ fmt:kev:mtx:journal& rft.genre=article& rft. atitle=Cell+ phone+ towers+ as+ visual+ pollution. + %28Symposium+ on+ the+ Environment%29& rft. jtitle=Notre+Dame+ Journal+ of+ Law%2C+ Ethics+ %26+ Public+ Policy& rft. au=Nagle%2C+ John+ Copeland& rft. date=2009& rft. pub=Thomas+ J.+ White+ Center+ on+ Law+ %26+ Government& rft. issn=0883-3648& rft. volume=23& rft. issue=2& rft. spage=537& rft.externalDBID=n%2Fa& rft. externalDocID=206558294

Visual pollution 86

[12] Maguire, M., Foote, R., & Vespe, F. (1997). Beauty as well as bread. American Planning Association.Journal of the American PlanningAssociation, 63(3), 317-328. Retrieved from http:/ / search. proquest. com/ docview/ 229617956?accountid=14771

[15] Maguire, M., Foote, R., & Vespe, F. (1997). Beauty as well as bread. American Planning Association.Journal of the American PlanningAssociation, 63(3), 317-328. Retrieved from http:/ / search. proquest. com/ docview/ 229617956?accountid=14771

External links• The study for visual pollution in Albuquerque (http:/ / www. cabq. gov/ aes/ s5vp. html)• Visual pollution by out-of-home advertising (http:/ / www. economist. com/ business/ displaystory.

cfm?story_id=9963268)• BioMed Central|Full Text| (http:/ / www. biomedcentral. com/ 1471-2148/ 7/ 200)

Water pollution

Raw sewage and industrial waste in the New River as it passes from Mexicali toCalexico, California.

Water pollution is the contamination ofwater bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans,aquifers and groundwater). Water pollutionoccurs when pollutants are directly orindirectly discharged into water bodieswithout adequate treatment to removeharmful compounds.

Water pollution affects plants and organismsliving in these bodies of water. In almost allcases the effect is damaging not only toindividual species and populations, but alsoto the natural biological communities.

Introduction

Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river

Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoingevaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels(international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has beensuggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths anddiseases,[][] and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000people daily.[] An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to aproper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness everyday.[] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of waterpollution,[1] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinkingwater.[2] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution indeveloping countries, developed countries continue to struggle with

pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles

Water pollution 87

were classified as polluted.[3]

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does notsupport a human use, such as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituentbiotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes alsocause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.

CategoriesSurface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they areinterrelated.[4] Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can alsofeed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based ontheir origin.

Point sources

Point source pollution – Shipyard – Rio deJaneiro.

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter awaterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch.Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewagetreatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean WaterAct (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcementpurposes.[5] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrialstormwater, such as from construction sites.[6]

Nonpoint sources

Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does notoriginate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts ofcontaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds fromfertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest arealso cited as examples of NPS pollution.

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimesincluded under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systemsand discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source.

Groundwater pollutionInteractions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimesreferred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution.[4] By its verynature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface waterbodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical orradionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source ornon-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of theplume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model.Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology,hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants.

Water pollution 88

CausesThe specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, andphysical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals andsubstances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentrationis often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High concentrationsof naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well asman-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blockslight and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.[7]

Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animalhosts.[8] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity,temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in anecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree ofeutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductionsin water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitarysewer overflow.

Pathogens

Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of waterpollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Othermicroorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have causedhuman health problems include:

•• Burkholderia pseudomallei•• Cryptosporidium parvum•• Giardia lamblia•• Salmonella• Novovirus and other viruses• Parasitic worms (helminths).[9][10]

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges.[11] This can be caused by asewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developedcountries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves),which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreatedsewage during rain storms.[12]

Muddy river polluted by sediment. Photocourtesy of United States Geological Survey.

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestockoperations.

Chemical and other contaminants

Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

Water pollution 89

A garbage collection boom in an urban-areastream in Auckland, New Zealand.

Organic water pollutants include:•• Detergents• Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking

water, such as chloroform• Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding

substances, fats and grease• Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other

chemical compounds• Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet

fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustionbyproducts, from stormwater runoff[13]

•• Tree and bush debris from logging operations• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.• Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs,

since they don't mix well with water and are denser.• Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)•• Trichloroethylene

•• Perchlorate• Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.Inorganic water pollutants include:• Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)• Ammonia from food processing waste• Chemical waste as industrial by-products• Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture,

as well as commercial and residential use[13]

• Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[13][14] and acid mine drainage• Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites.Macroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed "floatables" in an urban stormwatercontext, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as:• Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or

intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged intosurface waters

• Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets• Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.

Water pollution 90

The Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plantdischarges heated water to the Connecticut River.

Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural bodyof water caused by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlikechemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties ofwater. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as acoolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated watertemperatures decreases oxygen levels, which can kill fish, and can alterfood chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and fosterinvasion by new thermophilic species.[][][] Urban runoff may alsoelevate temperature in surface waters.

Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold waterfrom the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutantsMost water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence canbe traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer modelssuch as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutantsin aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates inthe New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson dischargeflows south along the coast due to coriolis force. Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused bychemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death anddecomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fishconsume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwiseconcentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. Thisis known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation.

A polluted river draining anabandoned copper mine on Anglesey

Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The NorthPacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called "Great Pacific GarbagePatch" that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of theselong-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. Thisresults in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite oreven starvation. Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically changeespecially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthyclass of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene(used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) andtetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances inliquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both ofthese chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partialdecomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (includingdichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). Groundwater pollution is much more

difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers.Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption),dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants

Water pollution 91

merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can betransported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholesas dumps in areas of Karst topography. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the originalpollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration ofsunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

Measurement

Environmental Scientists preparing waterautosamplers.

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories ofmethods: physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection ofsamples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Some methods maybe conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature.Government agencies and research organizations have publishedstandardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate thecomparability of results from disparate testing events.[15]

Sampling

Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done byseveral methods, depending on the accuracy needed and thecharacteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly inassociation with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminantlevels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water ateither time or discharge intervals.

Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Dependingon the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to thewater body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.

Physical testingCommon physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS)) andturbidity.

Chemical testingWater samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods areavailable for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygendemand (BOD),[]:102 chemical oxygen demand (COD),[]:104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals(including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), andpesticides.

Water pollution 92

Biological testingBiological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquaticecosystem.

For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

Control of pollution

Domestic sewage

Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant servingBoston, Massachusetts and vicinity.

Domestic sewage is typically 99.9 percent water with 0.1 percentpollutants. Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants poserisk on a large scale.[16] In urban areas, domestic sewage is typicallytreated by centralized sewage treatment plants. Well-designed andoperated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove 90percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additionalsystems to remove nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants arenot specifically designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrialwastewater.[17]

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflowsemploy one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:

• utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, andreduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[18]

• repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[12]

•• increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option).A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treatsthe wastewater on site and discharges into the soil. Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearbyprivately owned treatment system (e.g. in a rural community).

Industrial wastewater

Dissolved air flotation system for treatingindustrial wastewater.

Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that canbe treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewaterwith high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil andgrease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organiccompounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia,need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can installa pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then sendthe partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industriesgenerating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their owncomplete on-site treatment systems.Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants,through a process called pollution prevention.

Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:• cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation• cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer• cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes.[19]

Water pollution 93

Agricultural wastewater

Riparian buffer lining a creek inIowa

Nonpoint source controlsSediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agriculturalpollution in the United States.[7] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reducerunoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contourplowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installingriparian buffers.[20][21]:pp. 4-95–4-96

Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland ascommercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrialwastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from cropresidues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.[21]:p. 2-9 Farmerscan develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excessapplication of nutrients[20][21]:pp. 4-37–4-38 and reduce the potential for nutrientpollution.

To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management(IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance onchemical pesticides, and protect water quality.[22]

Feedlot in the United States

Point source wastewater treatmentFarms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factoryfarms, are called concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots inthe US and are being subject to increasing governmentregulation.[23][24] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment inanaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application tograssland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitatetreatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixingwith straw and composted at high temperature to produce abacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.

Construction site stormwater

Silt fence installed on a construction site.

Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:• erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and• sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.[25]

Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washoutis prevented by use of:•• spill prevention and control plans, and• specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and

structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.[26]

Water pollution 94

Urban runoff (stormwater)

Retention basin for controlling urban runoff

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity andflow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Localgovernments use a variety of stormwater management techniques toreduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called bestmanagement practices (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on waterquantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, andsome perform both functions.[27]

Pollution prevention practices include low-impact developmenttechniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling(e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides).[28]

Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basinsand similar devices.[29][30]

Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or directit into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective atreducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.[27]:p. 5-58

References[1] " China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ english/ doc/ 2005-06/ 07/

content_449451. htm)". Chinadaily.com.cn. June 7, 2005.[2] " As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 08/ 26/ world/ asia/ 26china. html)". The New

York Times. August 26, 2007.[3] United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "The National Water Quality Inventory: Report to Congress for the

2002 Reporting Cycle – A Profile." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ 305b/ 2002report/ factsheet2002305b. pdf) October 2007. Fact Sheet No. EPA841-F-07-003.

[4] United States Geological Survey (USGS), Denver, CO (1998). "Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource." (http:/ / pubs. water.usgs. gov/ circ1139/ ) Circular 1139.

[5][5] Clean Water Act, section 502(14), (14).[6][6] CWA section 402(p),[7] EPA. "Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ owow/ nps/ Ag_Runoff_Fact_Sheet. pdf) Fact Sheet No.

EPA-841-F-05-001. March 2005.[8] C. Michael Hogan (2010). "Water pollution." (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Water_pollution). Encyclopedia of Earth. Topic ed. Mark

McGinley; ed. in chief C. Cleveland. National Council on Science and the Environment, Washington, DC.[9] USGS. Reston, VA. "A Primer on Water Quality." (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ fs-027-01/ ) FS-027-01. March 2001.[10] Schueler, Thomas R. "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, & Pathways." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed

Protection. (http:/ / cwp. org/ documents/ cat_view/ 75-articles-from-the-practice-of-watershed-protection. html?limit=40& order=name&dir=DESC& start=80) 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.

[11] EPA. “Illness Related to Sewage in Water.” (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ npdes/ sso/ control/ diseases. htm) Accessed February 20, 2009.[12] EPA. " Report to Congress: Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ cso/ cpolicy_report2004. cfm) August

2004. Document No. EPA-833-R-04-001.[13][13] Chapter 2.[14] Schueler, Thomas R. "Cars Are Leading Source of Metal Loads in California." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. (http:/ /

cwp. org/ documents/ cat_view/ 75-articles-from-the-practice-of-watershed-protection. html) 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. EllicottCity, MD.

[15] For example, see Clescerl, Leonore S.(Editor), Greenberg, Arnold E.(Editor), Eaton, Andrew D. (Editor). Standard Methods for theExamination of Water and Wastewater (20th ed.) American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. ISBN 0-87553-235-7. Thispublication is also available on CD-ROM and online (http:/ / www. standardmethods. org/ ) by subscription.

[16] "Environmental works: types of sewage. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. N.p., 2009. Web. October 9, 2009.<http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-72342>

[17] EPA (2004). "Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ npdes/ pubs/ primer. pdf) Document No. EPA832-R-04-001.

Water pollution 95

[18] EPA. "Green Infrastructure Case Studies: Philadelphia." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ greeninfrastructure/ gicasestudies_specific.cfm?case_id=62) December 9, 2008.

[19][19] Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 24[20] U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Washington, DC. "National Conservation Practice Standards." (http:/ / www. nrcs.

usda. gov/ technical/ standards/ nhcp. html) National Handbook of Conservation Practices. Accessed March 28, 2009.[21] EPA. "National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Agriculture." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ owow/ nps/

agmm/ ) July 2003. Document No. EPA-841-B-03-004.[22] EPA. "Integrated Pest Management Principles." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ opp00001/ factsheets/ ipm. htm) March 13, 2008.[23] EPA. "Animal Feeding Operations." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ home. cfm?program_id=7) December 15, 2008.[24] Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Des Moines, IA. "Animal Feeding Operations in Iowa." (http:/ / www. iowadnr. gov/ afo/ )

Accessed March 5, 2009.[25] Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Nashville, TN. "Tennessee Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook." (http:/ /

www. state. tn. us/ environment/ wpc/ sed_ero_controlhandbook/ ) 2002.[26] EPA (2006). "Construction Site Stormwater Runoff Control." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ stormwater/ menuofbmps/ index.

cfm?action=min_measure& min_measure_id=4) National Menu of Stormwater Best Management Practices.[27] EPA (1999). "Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management Practices." (http:/ / epa. gov/ guide/ stormwater/ )

Chapter 5. Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012.[28] EPA. "Fact Sheet: Low Impact Development and Other Green Design Strategies." (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ npdes/ stormwater/ menuofbmps/

index. cfm?action=factsheet_results& view=specific& bmp=124) October 9, 2008.[29] California Stormwater Quality Association. Menlo Park, CA. "Stormwater Best Management Practice (BMP) Handbooks." (http:/ / www.

cabmphandbooks. com) 2003.[30] New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Trenton, NJ. "New Jersey Stormwater Best Management Practices Manual." (http:/ /

www. njstormwater. org/ bmp_manual2. htm) April 2004.

External linksOverview Information

• "Troubled Waters" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ strangedays/ episodes/ troubledwaters/ ) - video from "Strange Dayson Planet Earth" by National Geographic & PBS (US)

• "Issues: Water" (http:/ / www. nrdc. org/ water/ pollution/ default. asp) – Guides, news and reports from USNatural Resources Defense Council

Analytical Tools and Other Specialized Resources

• Water pollution advice for businesses from the Environment Agency (http:/ / www. environment-agency. gov. uk/netregs/ )

• EUGRIS (http:/ / www. eugris. info) – portal for Soil and Water Management in Europe• Causal Analysis/Diagnosis Decision Information System (CADDIS) (http:/ / cfpub. epa. gov/ caddis/ ) - EPA

guide for identifying pollution problems; stressor identification• Ecotoxicology and Models (http:/ / www. ecotoxmodels. org) - Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science

& Technology

Waste 96

Waste

People who earn their living by collecting and sorting garbage andselling them for recycling (waste pickers), Payatas, Philippines.

Waste(s) is a pejorative term for unwanted materials.The term can be described as subjective and inaccuratebecause waste to one person is not waste to another.

Litter refers to waste disposed of improperly.

Definitions

United Nations Environment Programme

According to the Basel Convention,"'Wastes' are substances or objects, whichare disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions ofnational law"[1]

Schematic illustration of the EU Legal definition of waste.

United Nations Statistics Division, Glossary ofEnvironment Statistics

"Wastes are materials that are not primeproducts (that is products produced for themarket) for which the initial user has no furtheruse in terms of his/her own purposes ofproduction, transformation or consumption, andof which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes maybe generated during the extraction of rawmaterials, the processing of raw materials intointermediate and final products, theconsumption of final products, and otherhuman activities. Residuals recycled or reusedat the place of generation are excluded."[2]

European UnionUnder the Waste Framework Directive, the European Union defines waste as "an object the holder discards, intendsto discard or is required to discard."[3]

TypesThere are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste management, notably including:• Municipal Waste includes Household waste, Commercial waste, and Demolition waste• Hazardous Waste includes Industrial waste• Bio-medical Waste includes Clinical waste• Special Hazardous waste includes Radioactive waste, explosives waste, and Electronic waste (e-waste)

Waste 97

ReportingThere are many issues that surround reporting waste. It is most commonly measured by size or weight, and there is astark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is much heavier when it is wet, and plastic or glassbottles can have different weights but be the same size.[4] On a global scale it is difficult to report waste becausecountries have different definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways ofreporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338 million tonnes of wastewas generated in 2001.[5] For the same year, OECD estimated 4 billion tonnes from its member countries.[6] Despitethese inconsistencies, waste reporting is still useful on a small and large scale to determine key causes and locations,and to find ways of preventing, minimizing, recovering, treating, and disposing waste.

Costs

Environmental costsWaste attracts rodents and insects, which harbour gastrointestinal parasites, yellow fever, worms, the plague andother conditions for humans, and exposure to hazardous wastes, particularly when they are burned, can cause variousother diseases including cancers. Waste can contaminate surface water, groundwater, soil, and air which causes moreproblems for humans, other species, and ecosystems.[7] Waste treatment and disposal produces significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, notably methane, which are contributing significantly to global climate change.[5]

Social costsWaste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental burdens cited above aremore often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women, and residents of developing nations.NIMBY (not in my back yard) is the opposition of residents to a proposal for a new development because it is closeto them.[8] However, the need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities is increasingworldwide. There is now a growing market in the transboundary movement of waste, and although most waste thatflows between countries goes between developed nations, a significant amount of waste is moved from developed todeveloping nations.[9]

Economic costsThe economic costs of managing waste are high, and are often paid for by municipal governments;[10] money canoften be saved with more efficiently designed collection routes, modifying vehicles, and with public education.Environmental policies such as pay as you throw can reduce the cost of management and reduce waste quantities.Waste recovery (that is, recycling, reuse) can curb economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials andoften cuts transportation costs.[11] The location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often has an impact onproperty values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste sector consistsmostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and other materials and then trade them fora profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce waste in a particular system, but other negative economic effectscome with the disease, poverty, exploitation, and abuse of its workers.[12]

Education and awarenessEducation and awareness in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly important from a global perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declaration is a declaration for sustainability concerned about the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the

Waste 98

survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the securityof nations, and the heritage of future generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration byestablishing environmental management and waste management programs, e.g. the waste managementuniversityproject. University and vocational education are promoted by various organizations, e.g. WAMITAB andChartered Institution of Wastes Management.

Gallery1. Vegetable waste being dumped in a market in Hyderabad2.2. Weapon scraps3.3. Agobox; Bio-medical Waste4.4. Hospital waste5.5. Waste collected in a tricycle.

References[1] “Basel Convention.” 1989. www.basel.int (http:/ / www. basel. int/ TheConvention/ Overview/ TextoftheConvention/ tabid/ 1275/ Default.

aspx)[2] “Glossary of Environment Statistics.” 1997. UNSD. 1997. unstats.un.org (http:/ / unstats. un. org/ unsd/ environmentgl)[3][3] European Directive 75/442/EC, as amended[4] "Solid Waste Management." 2005. United Nations Environment Programme. Chapter III: Waste Quantities and Characteristics, 31-38.

unep.or.jp (http:/ / www. unep. or. jp/ Ietc/ Publications/ spc/ Solid_Waste_Management/ index. asp)[5] “International Waste Activities.” 2003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 12 Oct 2009. epa.gov (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ osw/ hazard/

international/ index. htm)[6] "Improving Recycling Markets." OECD Environment Program. Paris: OECD, 2006. oecd.org (http:/ / www. oecd. org/ document/ 14/

0,3343,en_2649_34395_37757966_1_1_1_1,00. html)[7] Diaz, L. et al. Solid Waste Management, Volume 2. UNEP/Earthprint, 2006.[8] Wolsink, M. "Entanglement of interests and motives: Assumptions behind the NIMBY-theory on Facility Siting." Urban Studies 31.6 (1994):

851-866.[9] Ray, A. "Waste management in developing Asia: Can trade and cooperation help?" The Journal of Environment & Development 17.1 (2008):

3-25.[10] “Muck and brass: The waste business smells of money.” The Economist. 2009 02 28. pp. 10-12.[11] Carlsson Reich, M. "Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems – case studies using a combination of life cycle

assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC)". Journal of Cleaner Production 13 (2005): 253-263.[12] Wilson, D.C.; Velis, C.; Cheeseman, C. "Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries." Habitat

International 30 (2006): 797-808.

External links• Waste (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Issues/ Environment/ Waste_and_Recycling/ / ) at the Open Directory

Project• Cambio verde: waste-food exchange project in Curitiba, Brazil (http:/ / member. clintonglobalinitiative. org/

Page. aspx?pid=3633)• Resource Productivity and Waste (http:/ / www. oecd. org/ topic/ 0,3699,en_2649_34395_1_1_1_1_37465,00.

html) at the OECD

99

Pollution control

Environmental management

The shrinking Aral Sea is an example of the poormanagement of water resources diverted for

irrigation.

Environmental resource management is the management of theinteraction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not,as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself.Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystemservices are protected and maintained for future human generations,and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical,economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.[] Environmentalresource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts thatrise between meeting needs and protecting resources.

Significance

Environmental resource management is an issue of increasing concern,as reflected in its prevalence in seminal texts influencing global socio-political frameworks such as the BrundtlandCommission's Our Common Future, [1] which highlighted the integrated nature of environment and internationaldevelopment and the Worldwatch Institute's annual State of the World (book series) reports.

Scope

Improved agricultural practices such as theseterraces in northwest Iowa can serve to preserve

soil and improve water quality

Environmental resource management can be viewed from a variety ofperspectives. Environmental resource management involves themanagement of all components of the biophysical environment, bothliving (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to theinterconnected and network of relationships amongst all living speciesand their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships ofthe human environment, such as the social, cultural and economicenvironment with the biophysical environment. The essential aspectsof environmental resource management are ethical, economical, social,and technological. These underlie principles and help make decisions.

Aspects

Ethical

Environmental resource management strategies are intrinsically drivenby conceptions of human-nature relationships.[] Ethical aspects involvethe cultural and social issues relating to the environment, and dealingwith changes to it. "All human activities take place in the context of

Environmental management 100

certain types of relationships between society and the bio-physical world (the rest of nature),"[] and so, there is agreat significance in understanding the ethical values of different groups around the world. Broadly speaking, twoschools of thought exist in environmental ethics: Anthropocentrism and Ecocentrism each influencing a broadspectrum of environmental resource management styles along a continuum.[] These styles perceive "...differentevidence, imperatives, and problems, and prescribe different solutions, strategies, technologies, roles for economicsectors, culture, governments, and ethics, etc."[]

Anthropocentrism

Anthropocentrism, "...an inclination to evaluate reality exclusively in terms of human values,"[2] is an ethic reflectedin the major interpretations of Western religions and the dominant economic paradigms of the industrialised world.[]

Anthropocentrism looks at nature as existing solely for the benefit of man, and as a commodity to use for the good ofhumanity and to improve human quality of life.[3][4][5] Anthropocentric environmental resource management istherefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but rather the conservation ofthe environment, and ecosystem structure, for human sake.

Ecocentrism

Ecocentrists believe in the intrinsic value of nature while maintaining that human beings must use and even exploitnature to survive and live.[] It is this fine ethical line that ecocentrists navigate between fair use and abuse.[] At anextreme end of the ethical scale, ecocentrism includes philosophies such as ecofeminism and deep ecology, whichevolved as a reaction to dominant anthropocentric paradigms.[] "In its current form, it is an attempt to synthesizemany old and some new philosophical attitudes about the relationship between nature and human activity, withparticular emphasis on ethical, social, and spiritual aspects that have been downplayed in the dominant economicworldview."[6]

Economic

A water harvesting system collects rainwaterfrom the Rock of Gibraltar into pipes that lead to

tanks excavated inside the rock.

The economy functions within, and is dependent upon goods andservices provided by natural ecosystems.[] The role of the environmentis recognized in both classical economics and neoclassical economicstheories, yet the environment held a spot on the back-burner ofeconomic policies from 1950 to 1980 due to emphasis from policymakers on economic growth.[] With the prevalence of environmentalproblems, many economists embraced the notion that, "Ifenvironmental sustainability must coexist for economic sustainability,then the overall system must [permit] identification of an equilibriumbetween the environment and the economy."[7] As such, economicpolicy makers began to incorporate the functions of the naturalenvironment—or natural capital — particularly as a sink for wastes and for the provision of raw materials andamenities.[8] Debate continues among economists as to how to account for natural capital, specifically whetherresources can be replaced through the use of knowledge and technology, or whether the economy is a closed systemthat cannot be replenished and is finite.[9] Economic models influence environmental resource management, in thatmanagement policies reflect beliefs about natural capital scarcity. For someone who believes natural capital isinfinite and easily substituted, environmental management is irrelevant to the economy.[] For example, economicparadigms based on neoclassical models of closed economic systems are primarily concerned with resource scarcity,and thus prescribe legalizing the environment as an economic externality for an environmental resource managementstrategy.[] This approach has often been termed 'Command-and-control'.[] Colby has identified trends in thedevelopment of economic paradigms, among them, a shift towards more ecological economics since the 1990s.[]

Environmental management 101

Ecological

A diagram showing the juvenile fish bypasssystem, which allows young salmon and

steelhead to safely pass the Rocky Reach HydroProject in Washington

Fencing separates big game from vehicles alongthe Quebec Autoroute 73 in Canada.

"The pairing of significant uncertainty about the behaviour andresponse of ecological systems with urgent calls for near-term actionconstitutes a difficult reality, and a common lament" for manyenvironmental resource managers.[10] Scientific analysis of theenvironment deals with several dimensions of ecological uncertainty.[]

These include: structural uncertainty resulting from themisidentification, or lack of information pertaining to the relationshipsbetween ecological variables; parameter uncertainty referring to"uncertainty associated with parameter values that are not knownprecisely but can be assessed and reported in terms of thelikelihood…of experiencing a defined range of outcomes";[11] andstochastic uncertainty stemming from chance or unrelated factors.[]

Adaptive management [12][13] is considered a useful framework fordealing with situations of high levels of uncertainty [14] though it is notwithout its detractors.[15]

A common scientific concept and impetus behind environmentalresource management is carrying capacity. Simply put, carryingcapacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particularresource can sustain. The concept of carrying capacity, whilstunderstood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusiantheory. An example is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive.However, "it is argued that Western scientific knowledge ... is ofteninsufficient to deal with the full complexity of the interplay ofvariables in environmental resource management.[16][17] These concerns have been recently addressed by a shift inenvironmental resource management approaches to incorporate different knowledge systems including traditionalknowledge,[] reflected in approaches such as adaptive co-management [18][19][20] community-based natural resourcemanagement [21][22] and transitions management.[23] among others.[]

SustainabilitySustainability and environmental resource management involves managing economic, social, and ecological systemswithin and external to an organizational entity do it can sustain itself and the system it exists in.[][] In context,sustainability implies that rather than competing for endless growth on a finite planet, development improves qualityof life without necessarily consuming more resources.[24] Sustainably managing environmental resources requiresorganizational change that instills sustainability values that portrays these values outwardly from all levels andreinforces them to surrounding stakeholders.[][] The end result should be a symbiotic relationship between thesustaining organization, community, and environment.Many drivers compel environmental resource management to take sustainability issues into account. Today's economic paradigms do not protect the natural environment, yet they deepen human dependency on biodiversity and ecosystem services.[25] Ecologically, massive environmental degradation [26][27] and climate change [][28] threaten the stability of ecological systems that humanity depends on.[][29] Socially, an increasing gap between rich and poor and the global North-South divide denies many access to basic human needs, rights, and education, leading to further environmental destruction.[][29][30][31] The planet's unstable condition is caused by many anthropogenic sources.[] As an exceptionally powerful contributing factor to social and environmental change, the modern organisation has the potential to apply environmental resource management with sustainability principals to achieve highly affective

Environmental management 102

outcomes.[][] To achieve sustainable development with environmental resource management an organisation shouldcoincide with sustainability principals, such as: social and environmental accountability, long-term planning; astrong, shared vision; a holistic focus; devolved and consensus decision making; broad stakeholder engagement andjustice; transparency measures; trust; and flexibility, to name a few.[][][32]

Current paradigm shiftsTo adjust to today's environment of quick social and ecological changes, some organizations have begun toexperiment with various new tools and concepts.[][] Those that are more traditional and stick to hierarchical decisionmaking have difficulty dealing with the demand for lateral decision making that supports effective participation.[]

Whether it be a matter of ethics or just strategic advantage organizations are internalizing sustainability principles.[][]

Examples of some of the world's largest and most profitable corporations who are shifting to sustainableenvironmental resource management are: Ford, Toyota, BMW, Honda, Shell, Du Pont, Swiss Re, Hewlett-Packard,and Unilever.[][] An extensive study by the Boston Consulting Group reaching 1,560 business leaders from diverseregions, job positions, expertise in sustainability, industries, and sizes of organizations, revealed the many benefits ofsustainable practice as well as its viability.[]

It is important to note that though sustainability of environmental resource management has improved,[][] corporatesustainability, for one, has yet to reach the majority of global companies operating in the markets.[32] The threemajor barriers to preventing organizations to shift towards sustainable practice with environmental resourcemanagement are: not understanding what sustainability is; having difficulty modeling an economically viable casefor the switch; and having a flawed execution plan, or a lack thereof.[] Therefore the most important part of shiftingan organization to adopt sustainability in environmental resource management would be to create a shared vision andunderstanding of what sustainability is for that particular organization, and to clarify the business case.[]

Stakeholders

Public sector

A conservation project in North Carolinainvolving the search for bog turtles was

conducted by United States Fish and WildlifeService and the North Carolina Wildlife

Resources Commission and its volunteers

The public sector comprises the general government sector plus allpublic corporations including the central bank.[33] In environmentalresource management the public sector is responsible for administeringnatural resource management and implementing environmentalprotection legislation.[34] The traditional role of the public sector inenvironmental resource management is to provide professionaljudgement through skilled technicians on behalf of the public.[] Withthe increase of intractable environmental problems, the public sectorhas been led to examine alternative paradigms for managingenvironmental resources.[] This has resulted in the public sectorworking collaboratively with other sectors (including othergovernments, private and civil) to encourage sustainable naturalresource management behaviours.[34]

Private sector

The private sector comprises private corporations and non-profit institutions serving households.[35] The privatesector's traditional role in environmental resource management is that of the recovers of natural resources.[] Such

private sector recovery groups include mining (minerals and petroleum), forestry and fishery organisations.[]

Environmental resource management undertaken by the private sectors varies dependent upon the resource type, that

Environmental management 103

being renewable or non-renewable and private and common resources (also see Tragedy of the Commons).[]

Environmental managers from the private sector also need skills to manage collaboration within a dynamic socialand political environment.[]

Civil societyCivil society comprises associations in which societies voluntarily organise themselves into and which represent awide range of interests and ties.[36] These can include community-based organisations, indigenous peoples'organisations and non-government organisations (NGO).[36] Functioning through strong public pressure, civil societycan exercise their legal rights against the implementation of resource management plans, particularly landmanagement plans.[] The aim of civil society in environmental resource management is to be included in thedecision-making process by means of public participation.[] Public participation can be an effective strategy toinvoke a sense of social responsibility of natural resources.[]

ToolsAs with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. Anenvironmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured bysome objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental riskmanagement and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a commonauditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it invarious ways:• The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard is a five level EMS designed for smaller organisations

for whom ISO 14001 may be too onerous and for larger organisations who wish to implement ISO 14001 in amore manageable step-by-step approach,[]

•• BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps,• The Natural Step focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials

or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term,• Natural Capitalism advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to

do the same thing,• US Environmental Protection Agency has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to

large-scale EMS,[citation needed]

• The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and managementframework,[citation needed]

• The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS).Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems"using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products intoconsumables, service products or durables and unsaleables — toxic products that no one should buy, or in manycases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of anypurchase, better environmental resource management is achieved without systems.Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of integrated management. It shares a wider approach andstresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable toall cases.[37]

Environmental management 104

Journals• Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, ISSN 1618-954X• Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, ISSN: 1535-3966 (electronic) 1535-3958

(paper), John Wiley & Sons• Environmental Management, Springer Science+Business Media• Environmental Practice, ISSN: 1466-0474 (electronic) 1466-0466 (paper), Cambridge University Press• Environmental Quality Management, ISSN: 1520-6483 (electronic) 1088-1913 (paper), John Wiley & Sons•• Journal of Environmental Economics and Management• Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, ISSN: 1360-0559 (electronic) 0964-0568 (paper),

Routledge• Journal of Environmental Management, ISSN: 0301-4797, Elsevier•• Environmental Values

References[29] UNEP United Nations Environmental Program, 2002, "Integrating Environment and Development: 1972 – 2002", United Nations.[32] UN Global Compact 2010, 'Blueprint for Corporate Sustainability Leadership', "UN Global Compact", UN Global Compact Office, Pp 2 –

12.[33][33] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)., 2006, Glossary of Statistical Terms: Public Sector, Retrieved

2011-09-23.[34][34] The State of Queensland: Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM)., 2011, What we do, Retrieved 2011-09-23.[35][35] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)., 2001, Glossary of Statistical Terms: Private Sector, Retrieved

2011-09-23.[36][36] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)., 2007, Glossary of Statistical Terms: Civil Society Organisations,,

Retrieved 2011-09-23.

Further reading• Schaltegger, Stefan; Burritt, Roger; Petersen, Holger (2003). An Introduction to Corporate Environmental

Management: Striving for Sustainability (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Sea4e_Z4vekC& pg=PA4).Greenleaf. ISBN 978-1-874719-65-6.

• Low Hock Heng (2003). "Globalisation, Business and Environmental Management: to Correct the BrokenCompass?" (http:/ / www. fppsm. utm. my/ download/ doc_download/122-globalisation-business-and-environmental-management-to-correct-the-broken-compass. html) (PDF). JurnalKemanusiaan (http:/ / www. fppsm. utm. my/ jurnal-kemanusiaan. html). ISSN  1675-1930 (http:/ / www.worldcat. org/ issn/ 1675-1930).

External links• Economic Costs & Benefits of Environmental Management (http:/ / www. economics. noaa. gov/

?goal=ecosystems& file=users/ ) NOAA Economics• business.gov (http:/ / business. gov/ guides/ environment/ ) — provides businesses with environmental

management tips, as well as tips for green business owners] (United States)

Regulation and monitoring of pollution 105

Regulation and monitoring of pollutionTo protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislationto regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution.

Regulation and monitoring by region

InternationalSince pollution crosses political boundaries international treaties have been made through the United Nations and itsagencies to address international pollution issues.

Greenhouse gas emissions

The Kyoto Protocol[1] is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC), an international treaty on global warming. It also reaffirms sections of the UNFCCC. Countries whichratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage inemissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.[1] A total of 141 countries have ratified theagreement. Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia, who have signed but not ratified theagreement. The stated reason for the United States not ratifying is the exemption of large emitters of greenhousegases who are also developing countries, like China and India.[]

An UN environmental conference held in Bali 3–14 December 2007 with the participation from 180 countries aimsto replace the Kyoto Protocol, which will end in 2012. During the first day of the conference USA, Saudi Arabia andCanada were presented with the "Fossil-of-the-day-award", a symbolic bag of coal for their negative impact on theglobal climate. The bags included the flags of the respective countries.[2]

CanadaIn Canada the regulation of pollution and its effects are monitored by a number of organizations depending on thenature of the pollution and its location. The three levels of government (Federal – Canada Wide; Provincial; andMunicipal) equally share in the responsibilities, and in the monitoring and correction of pollution.

ChinaChina's rapid industrialization has substantially increased pollution. China has some relevant regulations: the 1979Environmental Protection Law, which was largely modeled on U.S. legislation, but the environment continues todeteriorate.[] Twelve years after the law, only one Chinese city was making an effort to clean up its waterdischarges.[] This indicates that China is about 30 years behind the U.S. schedule of environmental regulation and 10to 20 years behind Europe. In July 2007, it was reported that the World Bank reluctantly censored a report revealingthat 750,000 people in China die every year as a result of pollution-related diseases. China's State EnvironmentProtection Agency and the Health Ministry asked the World Bank to cut the calculations of premature deaths fromthe report fearing the revelation would provoke "social unrest".[3]

Regulation and monitoring of pollution 106

EuropeThe basic European rules are included in the Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integratedpollution prevention and control (IPPC)[4] and the National Emission Ceilings Directive.

United Kingdom

In the 1840s, the United Kingdom brought onto the statute books legislation to control water pollution. It wasextended to all rivers and coastal water by 1961. However, currently the clean up of historic contamination iscontrolled under a specific statutory scheme found in Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part IIA),as inserted by the Environment Act 1995, and other ‘rules’ found in regulations and statutory guidance. The Actcame into force in England in April 2000.Within the current regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controllingpollution from certain industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of Best Available Techniques ("BAT")to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities toprevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water fromindustrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against benefits tothe environment. The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of Integrated Pollution Control(IPC) (which was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990) and is taking effect between 2000 and2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integratedpollution prevention and control.

United States

A polluted ditch along Interstate 25 betweenColorado Springs and Pueblo, Colorado.

The United States Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1963 tolegislate the reduction of smog and atmospheric pollution in general.That legislation has subsequently been amended and extended in 1966,1970, 1977 and 1990. Numerous state and local governments haveenacted similar legislation either implementing or filling in locallyimportant gaps in the national program. The national Clean Air Actand similar state legislative acts have led to the widespread use ofatmospheric dispersion modeling[5] in order to analyze the air qualityimpacts of proposed major actions. With the 1990 Clean Air Act, theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began acontroversial carbon trading system in which tradable rights to emit aspecified level of carbon are granted to polluters.[citation needed]

Enactment of the 1972 Clean Water Act required facilities to obtain permits for discharges to navigable waters andestablishment of national discharge standards for municipal sewage treatment plants and many industrialcategories.[6] It required use of best management practices for a wide range of other water discharges includingnonpoint source pollution. Amendments in 1977 required stricter regulation of toxic pollutants.[7] In 1987 Congressadded permit coverage for municipal and industrial stormwater discharges.[8]

Congress passed the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, which created a regulatory framework for both municipal solid waste and hazardous waste disposed on land.[9] RCRA requires that all hazardous wastes be managed and tracked from generation of the waste, through transport and processing, to final disposal, by means of a nationwide permit system. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 mandated regulation of underground storage tanks containing petroleum and hazardous chemicals, and the phasing out of land disposal of hazardous waste.[10] The Federal Facilities Compliance Act, passed in 1992, clarified RCRA coverage of federally owned properties such as military bases. Illegal disposal of waste is punishable by fines of up to $25,000

Regulation and monitoring of pollution 107

per occurrence.[11]

Passage of the Noise Control Act in 1972 established mechanisms of setting emission standards for virtually everysource of noise including motor vehicles, aircraft, certain types of HVAC equipment and major appliances. It alsoput local government on notice as to their responsibilities in land use planning to address noise mitigation. This noiseregulation framework comprised a broad data base detailing the extent of noise health effects. Congress endedfunding of the federal noise control program in 1981, which curtailed development of further national regulations.[12]

The state of California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has maintained anindependent list of substances with product labeling requirements as part of Proposition 65 since 1986.See also

•• Timeline of major US environmental and occupational health regulation• Superfund - Cleanup program for abandoned hazardous waste sites•• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

References[1] Kyoto Protocol To The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. pdf)[2] Fossil-of-the-Day Awards at UN Climate Change Negotiations (http:/ / www. fossil-of-the-day. org/ )[3] China covers up pollution deaths (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ world/ china-covers-up-pollution-deaths/ 2007/ 07/ 04/

1183351291152. html)[4] http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ LexUriServ. do?uri=CELEX:32008L0001:EN:NOT[5] www.air-dispersion.com (http:/ / www. air-dispersion. com)[6] United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972, (http:/ / www. glin. gov/ download. action?fulltextId=68260&

documentId=67980& glinID=67980) P.L. 92-500, et seq. October 18, 1972.[7] U.S. Clean Water Act of 1977, P.L. 95-217, December 27, 1977.[8] U.S. Water Quality Act of 1987, P.L. 100-4, February 4, 1987.[9] U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. P.L. 94-580, et seq. October 21, 1976.[10] U.S. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984, P.L. 98-616, November 8, 1984.[11] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC (2008). "Introduction to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act."

(http:/ / www. epa. gov/ wastes/ inforesources/ pubs/ orientat/ rom1. pdf) Chapter I of RCRA Orientation Manual.[12] EPA. "Noise Pollution." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ air/ noise. html) 2010-05-18.

External links• Environment Agency (England and Wales) (http:/ / www. environment-agency. gov. uk)• Environmental Assessment Agency - Canada (http:/ / www. ceaa-acee. gc. ca/ index_e. htm)• Environmental Protection Agency - USA (http:/ / www. epa. gov)• Extoxnet newsletters (http:/ / ace. orst. edu/ info/ extoxnet/ newsletters/ ghindex. html) - environmental pollution

news. Last update 1998.

Pollution prevention 108

Pollution preventionPollution prevention (P2) describes activities that reduce the amount of pollution generated by a process, whether itis consumer consumption, driving, or industrial production. In contrast to most pollution control strategies, whichseek to manage a pollutant after it is formed and reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution preventionapproach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby reducing the amount of pollution generated at itssource. Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy, some professionals also usethe term pollution prevention to include Pollution Prevention With the ever-rising human population, pollution hasbecome a great concern. Pollution from human activities is a problem that does not have to be inevitable. With acomprehensive pollution prevention programme, most pollution can be reduced, reused, or prevented. The purposeof this paper is to introduce a pollution prevention programme that will demonstrate how to stabilize the populationgrowth as well as how to reduce and manage waste to prevent further pollution to the planet. Human PopulationNumbers With nearly seven billion people in the world, and the fact that the average person produces 4.4 pounds ofwaste each day, around a ton of waste every year, it is easy to see why pollution is such a huge problem (RecyclingRevolution, 2010). In order to slow the growing levels of pollution, the human population needs to stabilize.Population numbers are rapidly increasing in developing countries. It is estimated that “the human population willincrease by one billion people in the next decade” (Kinder, 2011, Sec. 1, Para. 1). The math is staggering when youadd a ton a waste per person per year. Growth in these developing countries is partly due to developing countriesgovernments telling their citizens that more numbers are needed to fill in the open spaces as the West has (Kinder,2011). More people equals more natural resources used and waste created. The human population growth is thelargest environmental problem the world faces. Slowing the Population Growth What can be done to slow the humanpopulation growth? “Experience shows that the most effective ways to slow human population growth are toencourage family planning, to reduce poverty, and to elevate the status of women (Miller & Spoolman, 2009, p.133). Such plans and strategies can be converted into policies to ensure sustainability. “Action plans and strategiescan be developed to increase public understanding of how rapid population growth limits chances for meetingbasic... recycling or reuse.As an environmental management strategy, pollution prevention shares many attributes with cleaner production, aterm used more commonly outside the United States. Pollution prevention encompasses more specializedsub-disciplines including green chemistry and green design (also known as environmentally conscious design).The US Environmental Protection Agency has a number of P2 programs that can assist individuals and organizationsto implement P2.[1]

References[1] "Pollution Prevention (P2)." (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ p2/ ) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ). Accessed August

2011.

External links• United States National Pollution Prevention Information Center (http:/ / p2rx. org)• United States Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (http:/ / p2ric. org/ TopicHubs/ toc.

cfm?hub=26& subsec=7& nav=7)• National Pollution Prevention Roundtable Finds P2 Programs Effective (http:/ / enviro. blr. com/ display. cfm/ id/

71485/ source/ WKP/ effort/ 6) (article)• Pollution prevention directory: TURI - Toxics Use Reduction Institute (http:/ / www. p2gems. org/ )• The Southwest Network for Zero Waste (http:/ / www. zerowastenetwork. org) - Center for Environmental

Excellence

Pollution prevention 109

• Pollution Prevention Regional Information Center (P2RIC) (http:/ / www. p2ric. org) - EPA Region 7 (Iowa,Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska)

• The Environmental Sustainability Resource Center (ESRC) (http:/ / www. esrconline. org) - P2 resources, newsand information

Waste management

Waste management in Kathmandu (Nepal)

Waste management in Stockholm, Sweden

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing ordisposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The termusually relates to materials produced by human activity, and theprocess is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, theenvironment or aesthetics. Waste management is a distinct practicefrom resource recovery which focuses on delaying the rate ofconsumption of natural resources. All waste materials, whether theyare solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive fall within the remit of wastemanagement.

Waste management practices can differ for developed and developingnations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrialproducers. Management of non-hazardous waste residential andinstitutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility oflocal government authorities, while management for non-hazardouscommercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of thegenerator subject to local, national or international authorities.

Methods of disposal

Landfill

Landfill operation in Hawaii.

Disposal of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and thisremains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were oftenestablished in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrowpits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienicand relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials.Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create anumber of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter,attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Anothercommon product of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane andcarbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems,kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.

Waste management 110

A landfill compaction vehicle in action.

Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna

Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to containleachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste isnormally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered toprevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills alsohave landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas.Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared offor burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

Incineration

Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes aresubjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseousproducts. This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solidwaste management and solid residue from waste watermanagement.This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to30 percent of the original volume. Incineration and other hightemperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as"thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat,gas, steam and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on alarge scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseouswaste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certainhazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste).Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issuessuch as emission of gaseous pollutants.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is morescarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area aslandfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in afurnace or boiler to generate heat, steam or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and therehave been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused onsome very persistent organics such as dioxins, furans, PAHs which may be created which may have seriousenvironmental consequences.

Recycling

Steel crushed and baled for recycling

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collectionand reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. Thematerials from which the items are made can be reprocessed into newproducts. Material for recycling may be collected separately fromgeneral waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles are sorteddirectly from mixed waste streams and are known as kerb-siderecycling, it requires the owner of the waste to separate it into variousdifferent bins (typically wheelie bins) prior to its collection.

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminiumsuch as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel food and aerosol

Waste management 111

cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons,newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of asingle type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products(such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separationrequired.The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recyclingprograms in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptanceis reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed.

SustainabilityThe management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining ISO14001 accreditation.Companies are encouraged to improve their environmental efficiencies each year by eliminating waste throughresource recovery practices, which are sustainability-related activities. One way to do this is by shifting away fromwaste management to resource recovery practices like recycling materials such as glass, food scraps, paper andcardboard, plastic bottles and metal.

Biological reprocessing

An active compost heap.

Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material,food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through compostingand digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resultingorganic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agriculturalor landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (suchas methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity andheat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. The intention ofbiological processing in waste management is to control and acceleratethe natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See resourcerecovery).

Energy recovery

Anaerobic digestion component of Lübeckmechanical biological treatment plant in

Germany, 2007

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly byusing them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processingthem into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from usingwaste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel(see above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in aturbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermaltreatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures withlimited oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed

Waste management 112

vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. Theliquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solidresidue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arcgasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbonmonoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An alternative to pyrolisis is hightemperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

Resource recoveryResource recovery (as opposed to waste management) uses LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts to offer alternatives towaste management. For mixed MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have indicated thatadministration, source separation and collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction andenergy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic material via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path.

Avoidance and reduction methodsAn important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as wastereduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buyingnew, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouragingconsumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains fromcans, packaging, ...[1] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example,lightweighting of beverage cans).[2]

Waste handling and transport

Molded plastic, wheeled waste bin in Berkshire,England

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries andregions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by localgovernment authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Someareas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have aformal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systemsinclude:• In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few

communities use a proprietary collection system known as Envac,which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuumsystem. Other vacuum-based solutions include the MetroTaifun® [3]

single-line and ring-line automatic waste collection system, wherethe waste is automatically collected through relatively smalldiameter flexible pipes from waste collection points spread out up toa distance of four kilometres from the waste collections stations.

• In Canadian urban centres curbside collection is the most commonmethod of disposal, whereby the city collects waste and/orrecyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste by hauling it toa transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.

• In China, Plastic pyrolysis or Tire pyrolysis is: the process of converting waste plastic/tires into industrial fuelslike pyrolysis oil, carbon black and hydrocarbon gas.End products are used as industrial fuels for producing heat,steam or electricity. Pyrolysis plant is also known as: pyrolysis unit, plastic to fuel industry, tire to fuel industry,plastic and tire recycling unit etc.The system is used in USA, California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the UnitedKingdom and in Israel.For example, RESEM pyrolysis plant that has been operational at Texas USA sinceDecember 2011, and processes up to 60 tons per day.[4]

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• In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce.Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. Thispolicy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.

• In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio system, which takes trash directly fromcollection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, andhydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvagingrecyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California,Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has beenoperational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tonsof garbage a day.[5]

• In Saudi Arabia there is the world’s largest AWCS now being built in the vicinity of Islam’s holiest mosque(Mecca). During the Ramadan and Hajj 600,000 kilos, or 4,500 cubic meters, of waste is generated each day,which puts a heavy demand on those responsible for collecting the waste and litter. In the [3] MetroTaifunAutomatic Waste Collection System, the waste is automatically collected from 74 waste feeding points spread outacross the area and then transferred via a 20-kilometre pipe network to a central collection point, keeping all thewaste collecting activities out of sight and below ground with the central collection point well away from thepublic areas.

• In San Francisco, the local government established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance [6] insupport of its goal of zero waste by 2020 [7], requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostablesout of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside "Fantastic 3 [8]" bin system - blue forrecyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials - provided to residents and businessesand serviced by San Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The City's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system chargescustomers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclablesand compostables from other discards. The City's Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program [9] hasled the City to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.[10]

While waste transport within a given country falls under national regulations, trans-boundary movement of waste isoften subject to international treaties. A major concern to many countries in the world has been hazardous waste. TheBasel Convention, ratified by 172 countries, deprecates movement of hazardous waste from developed to lessdeveloped countries. The provisions of the Basel convention have been integrated into the EU waste shipmentregulation. Nuclear waste, although considered hazardous, does not fall under the jurisdiction of the BaselConvention.

TechnologiesTraditionally the waste management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies such as RFID (RadioFrequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to becollected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.•• Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation rates for curb-side pick-ups.• Benefits of GPS tracking is particularly evident when considering the efficiency of ad hoc pick-ups (like skip bins

or dumpsters) where the collection is done on a consumer request basis.•• Integrated software packages are useful in aggregating this data for use in optimisation of operations for waste

collection operations.• Rear vision cameras are commonly used for OH&S (Occupational Health & Safety) reasons and video recording

devices are becoming more widely used, particularly concerning residential services.

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Waste management concepts

Diagram of the waste hierarchy.

There are a number of concepts about waste management which varyin their usage between countries or regions. Some of the most general,widely used concepts include:

• Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce,reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategiesaccording to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. Thewaste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most wasteminimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extractthe maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste see: resourcerecovery.

• Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impactcaused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a wastegenerator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material.

Scientific journalsRelated scientific journals in this area include:•• Environmental and Resource Economics•• Environmental Monitoring and Assessment•• Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management•• Journal of Environmental Economics and Management

References[3] www.metrotaifun.com (http:/ / www. metrotaifun. com/ automatic_solid_waste_collection_system/ index. php/ en/ ) MariMatic Oy:

Automatic Waste Collection Systems[4] RESEM Waste Tyre Pyrolysis Plant in USA (http:/ / www. pyrolysisoil. net/ North-America/ Waste-Tyre-Pyrolysis-Plant-in-USA. html),

retrieved 2011-10-24[5] Sorting through garbage for gold (http:/ / www. israel21c. org/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article&

id=7402:sorting-through-garbage-for-gold& catid=58:environment& Itemid=101), retrieved 2009-11-24[6] http:/ / www. sfenvironment. org/ article/ recycling-and-composting/ mandatory-recycling-and-composting-ordinance[7] http:/ / www. sfenvironment. org/ zero-waste/ overview/ goals[8] http:/ / www. calrecycle. ca. gov/ LGCentral/ Library/ innovations/ curbside/ CaseStudy. htm[9] http:/ / www. sfenvironment. org/ zero-waste[10] http:/ / www. siemens. com/ entry/ cc/ features/ greencityindex_international/ all/ en/ pdf/ report_northamerica_en. pdf

External links• Envirowise UK Portal (http:/ / www. envirowise. gov. uk)• Clean Pyrolysis an alternative approach from Intervate (http:/ / www. intervate. co. uk/ )• Gasoline from Vinegar | MIT Technology Review (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ energy/ 23406/ ?a=f)

Waste minimisation 115

Waste minimisation

Waste hierarchy

Waste minimization is the process and thepolicy of reducing the amount of wasteproduced by a person or a society.

Waste minimization involves efforts tominimize resource and energy use duringmanufacture. For the same commercialoutput, usually the fewer materials are used,the less waste is produced. Wasteminimisation usually requires knowledge ofthe production process, cradle-to-graveanalysis (the tracking of materials from theirextraction to their return to earth) anddetailed knowledge of the composition of the waste.

The main sources of waste vary from country to country. In the UK, most waste comes from the construction anddemolition of buildings, followed by mining and quarrying, industry and commerce.[1] Household waste constitutes arelatively small proportion of all waste. Reasons for the creation of waste sometimes include requirements in thesupply chain. For example, a company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particularpacking because it fits its packaging equipment.In the waste hierarchy, the most effective approaches to managing waste are at the top. In contrast to wasteminimisation, waste management focuses on processing waste after it is created, concentrating on re-use, recycling,and waste-to-energy conversion.

IndustriesIn industries, using more efficient manufacturing processes and better materials will generally reduce the productionof waste. The application of waste minimisation techniques has led to the development of innovative andcommercially successful replacement products. Waste minimisation has proven benefits to industry and the widerenvironment.Waste minimisation often requires investment, which is usually compensated by the savings. However, wastereduction in one part of the production process may create waste production in another part.There are government incentives for waste minimisation, which focus on the environmental benefits of adoptingwaste minimisation strategies. In the UK, several pilot schemes such as The Catalyst Project and the Dee WasteMinimisation Project, have shown the efficacy of such policies. Fourteen companies in Merseyside took part in theCatalyst Project; the project generated overall savings of £9 million and landfill waste was reduced by 12,000 tonnesper year. [citation needed]

Waste minimisation 116

Processes•• Resource optimization

Minimising the amount of waste produced by organisations or individuals goes hand-in-hand with optimizingtheir use of raw materials. For example, a dressmaker may arrange pattern pieces on a length of fabric in aparticular way to enable the garment to be cut out from the smallest area of fabric.

•• Reuse of scrap materialScraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing line so that they do notbecome a waste product. Many industries routinely do this; for example, paper mills return any damaged rollsto the beginning of the production line, and in the manufacture of plastic items, off-cuts and scrap arere-incorporated into new products.

•• Improved quality control and process monitoringSteps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum. This is achieved byincreasing the frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection. For example, installingautomated continuous monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage.

•• Waste exchangesThis is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a second process. Wasteexchanges represent another way of reducing waste disposal volumes for waste that cannot be eliminated.

•• Ship to point of useThis involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to the point where they areassembled or used in the manufacturing process to minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings orenclosures.

Product designWaste minimisation and resource maximisation for manufactured products can most easily be done at the designstage. Reducing the number of components used in a product or making the product easier to take apart can make iteasier to be repaired or recycled at the end of its useful life.In some cases, it may be best not to minimise the volume of raw materials used to make a product, but instead reducethe volume or toxicity of the waste created at the end of a product's life, or the environmental impact of the product'suse. (See section Durability).

Fitting the intended use

In this strategy, products and packages are optimally designed to meet their intended use. This applies especially topackaging materials, which should only be as durable as necessary to serve their intended purpose. On the otherhand, it could be more wasteful if food, which has consumed resources and energy in its production, is damaged andspoiled because of extreme measures to reduce the use of paper, metals, glass and plastics in its packaging.

Durability

Improving product durability, such as extending a vacuum cleaner's useful life to 15 years instead of 12, can reducewaste and usually much improves resource optimisation.But in some cases it has a negative environmental impact. If a product is too durable, its replacement with moreefficient technology is likely to be delayed. For example, a washing machine produced 10 years ago may use twiceas much water, detergent and energy as one produced today. [citation needed] Therefore, extending an older machine'suseful life may place a heavier burden on the environment than scrapping it, recycling its metal and buying a newmodel. Similarly, older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern counterparts.

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Most proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any manufactured product atthe end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse rather than waste.[citation needed] Recycling a product iseasier if it is constructed of fewer materials. Car manufacturers have recently reduced the number of plastics used intheir cars from twenty or more to three or four, [citation needed] hence simplifying the recovery of plastics fromscrapped cars. However, exceptions (like having a combination of paper and plastic or plastic coating on glass) doexist, and might enable a product to fulfill its role with the minimum of resources.Making refillable glass bottles strong enough to withstand several journeys between the consumer and the bottlingplant requires making them thicker and so heavier, which increases the resources required to transport them. Sincetransport has a large environmental impact, careful evaluation is required of the number of return journeys bottlesmake. If a refillable bottle is thrown away after being refilled only several times, the resources wasted may be greaterthan if the bottle had been designed for a single journey..Many choices involve trade-offs of environmental impact, and often there is insufficient information to makeinformed decisions.

HouseholdsThis section details some waste minimisation techniques for householders.Appropriate amounts and sizes can be chosen when purchasing goods; buying large containers of paint for a smalldecorating job or buying larger amounts of food than can be consumed create unnecessary waste. Also, if a pack orcan is to be thrown away, any remaining contents must be removed before the container can be recycled.[2]

Home composting, the practice of turning kitchen and garden waste into compost can be considered wasteminimisation.The resources that households use can be reduced considerably by using electricity thoughtfully (e.g. turning offlights and equipment when it is not needed) and by reducing the number of car journeys made. Individuals canreduce the amount of waste they create by buying fewer products and by buying products which last longer.Mending broken or worn items of clothing or equipment also contributes to minimising household waste. Individualscan minimise their water usage, and walk or cycle to their destination rather than using their car to save fuel and cutdown emissions.In a domestic situation, the potential for minimisation is often dictated by lifestyle. Some people may view it aswasteful to purchase new products solely to follow fashion trends when the older products are still usable. Adultsworking full-time have little free time, and so may have to purchase more convenient foods that require littlepreparation, or prefer disposable nappies if there is a baby in the family.The amount of waste an individual produces is a small portion of all waste produced by society, and personal wastereduction can only make a small impact on overall waste volumes. Yet, influence on policy can be exerted in otherareas. Increased consumer awareness of the impact and power of certain purchasing decisions allows industry andindividuals to change the total resource consumption. Consumers can influence manufacturers and distributors byavoiding buying products that do not have eco-labelling, which is currently not mandatory, or choosing products thatminimise the use of packaging. In the UK, PullApart combines both environmental and consumer packagingsurveys, in a curbside packaging recycling classification system to waste minimise. Where reuse schemes areavailable, consumers can be proactive and use them.

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References[1] ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: Urban Environment (http:/ / www. official-documents. gov. uk/

document/ cm70/ 7009/ 7009. pdf) 2007[2] Removing food remains to reduce waste (http:/ / www. recycling-guide. org. uk/ etiquette. html)

External links• The Green Organisation's website, homepage. (http:/ / www. thegreenorganisation. info/ )• The EU Pre-waste project website, homepage. (http:/ / www. prewaste. eu/ )

119

International treaties

Montreal Protocol

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

Signed 16 September 1987

Location Montreal

Effective 1 January 1989 if 11 states have ratified by then.

Condition ratification by 20 states

Signatories 46

Ratifiers 197 (all United Nations members, as well as Niue, the Cook Islands, the Holy See and the European Union)

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.

Retrospective video on the Montreal Protocol and the collaboration between policymakers, scientists, and industry leaders to regulate CFCs.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to theVienna Convention for the Protection of theOzone Layer) is an international treatydesigned to protect the ozone layer byphasing out the production of numeroussubstances believed to be responsible forozone depletion. The treaty was opened forsignature on 16 September 1987, andentered into force on 1 January 1989,followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May1989. Since then, it has undergone sevenrevisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi),1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995(Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, theozone layer is expected to recover by 2050.[1] Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailedas an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the singlemost successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol".[2] The two

Montreal Protocol 120

The largest Antarctic ozone hole recorded as ofSeptember 2006

ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 states and the EuropeanUnion[] making them the most widely ratified treaties in UnitedNations history.[3]

Terms and purposesThe treaty[4] is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that have been shown to play a role inozone depletion. All of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containingonly fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). For a table of ozone-depleting substances see: [5]

For each group, including group ST, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substancesmust be phased out and eventually eliminated.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management PlanThe stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states "Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certainsubstances, including ST, can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely toresult in adverse effects on human health and the environment, ... Determined to protect the ozone layer by takingprecautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it, with the ultimateobjective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge ... Acknowledging that specialprovision, including ST is required to meet the needs of developing countries..."

shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including:from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of AnnexA do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated levels of production and consumption of those substances in1986;from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of AnnexA does not exceed, annually, twenty-five percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in1986.from 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled substances in Group I of AnnexA does not exceed zero.

There was a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112,etc.) and some chemicals were given individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). Thephasing-out of the less active HCFCs only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by2030.

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Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP)Under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, especially Executive Committee (ExCom)53/37 and ExCom 54/39, Parties to this Protocol agreed to set year 2013 as the time to freeze the consumption andproduction of HCFCs. They also agreed to start reducing its consumption and production in 2015. The time offreezing and reducing HCFCs is then known as 2013/2015.The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foammanufacture, and fire extinguishers. In term of Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that haveODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs have less ODP, i.e. 0.01 – 0.5. Whereas in term of Global Warming Potential (GWP),in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have less GWP, i.e. 76 – 2,270.There are a few exceptions for "essential uses", where no acceptable substitutes have been found (for example, in thepast metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and other respiratory problems were exempt, but nolonger as of 12/31/11.[6]) or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in generalindustry).The substances in Group I of Annex A are:• CFCl3 (CFC-11)• CF2Cl2 (CFC-12)• C2F3Cl3 (CFC-113)• C2F4Cl2(CFC-114)• C2F5Cl (CFC-115)The provisions of the Protocol include the requirement that the Parties to the Protocol base their future decisions onthe current scientific, environmental, technical, and economic information that is assessed through panels drawnfrom the worldwide expert communities. To provide that input to the decision-making process, advances inunderstanding on these topics were assessed in 1989, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2002 in a series of reports entitledScientific assessment of ozone depletion.Several reports have been published by various governmental and non-governmental organizations to presentalternatives to the ozone depleting substances, since the substances have been used in various technical sectors, likein refrigerating, agriculture, energy production, and laboratory measurements[7][8][9]

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)Produced mostly in developed countries, HFCs replaced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons(HCFCs), that were phased out under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. HFCs poseno harm to the ozone layer because, unlike CFCs and HCFCs, they do not contain chlorine that depletes the ozonelayer. But it has been established that HFCs are not innocuous either.[10] They are super-greenhouse gases with anextremely high global warming potential. This means they are capable of trapping enormous amounts of infraredradiations in the atmosphere and can cause a greenhouse effect a thousand times stronger than carbon dioxide. It hasbeen four years since the issue of bringing HFCs under the Protocol's ambit was raised. Developed countries say thatsince the rise in the emission of super-greenhouse gases is a consequence of the phasing out of CFCs and HCFCsunder the Montreal Protocol, the same agreement should monitor them. Developing countries like India, China andBrazil, however, say that the emission and regulation of greenhouse gases fall under the purview of the UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and HFCs already figure in the basket of sixgreenhouse gases under the Kyoto Protocol. Developed countries following the Kyoto Protocol report their HFCemission data to UNFCCC; parties to the Montreal Protocol have no such obligation. At the root of this argument isa doubt. Developing countries are apprehensive [11] about the high cost of transition from HFCs to a safer option.

Montreal Protocol 122

HistoryIn 1973, the chemists Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, who were then at the University of California,Irvine, began studying the impacts of CFCs in the Earth's atmosphere. They discovered that CFC molecules werestable enough to remain in the atmosphere until they got up into the middle of the stratosphere where they wouldfinally (after an average of 50–100 years for two common CFCs) be broken down by ultraviolet radiation releasing achlorine atom. Rowland and Molina then proposed that these chlorine atoms might be expected to cause thebreakdown of large amounts of ozone (O3) in the stratosphere. Their argument was based upon an analogy tocontemporary work by Paul J. Crutzen and Harold Johnston, which had shown that nitric oxide (NO) could catalyzethe destruction of ozone. (Several other scientists, including Ralph Cicerone, Richard Stolarski, Michael McElroy,and Steven Wofsy had independently proposed that chlorine could catalyze ozone loss, but none had realized thatCFCs were a potentially large source of chlorine.) Crutzen, Molina and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prizefor Chemistry for their work on this problem.The environmental consequence of this discovery was that, since stratospheric ozone absorbs most of theultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation reaching the surface of the planet, depletion of the ozone layer by CFCs would lead toan in increase in UV-B radiation at the surface, resulting in an increase in skin cancer and other impacts such asdamage to crops and to marine phytoplankton.But the Rowland-Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbonindustries. The chair of the board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fictiontale...a load of rubbish...utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the president of Precision Valve Corporation (andinventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain aboutRowland's public statements (Roan, p. 56.)After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at a hearing before the U.S. Houseof Representatives in December 1974. As a result significant funding was made available to study various aspects ofthe problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released areport that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis.[] NAS continued to publishassessments of related science for the next decade.Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin published results of abnormallylow ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near the South Pole. They speculated that this was connected toincreased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real andsignificant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. The impact of thesestudies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shockingenough for negotiators in Montreal to take the issue seriously.[12]

Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, whichestablished a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. After the discoveryof the ozone hole it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal.But the CFC industry did not give up that easily. As late as 1986, the Alliance for Responsible CFC Policy (anassociation representing the CFC industry founded by DuPont) was still arguing that the science was too uncertain tojustify any action. In 1987, DuPont testified before the US Congress that "we believe that there is no immediatecrisis that demands unilateral regulation."[citation needed]

Montreal Protocol 123

Multilateral FundThe main objective of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol is to assist developingcountry parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone depletingsubstances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol. Currently, 147 of the 196Parties to the Montreal Protocol meet these criteria (they are referred to as Article 5 countries).It embodies the principle agreed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 thatcountries have a common but differentiated responsibility to protect and manage the global commons.The Fund is managed by an Executive Committee with an equal representation of seven industrialized and sevenArticle 5 countries, which are elected annually by a Meeting of the Parties. The Committee reports annually to theMeeting of the Parties on its operations. The work of the Multilateral Fund on the ground in developing countries iscarried out by four Implementing Agencies, which have contractual agreements with the Executive Committee:[13]

• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), through the UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme.• United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).• United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).• World Bank.Up to 20 percent of the contributions of contributing parties can also be delivered through their bilateral agencies inthe form of eligible projects and activities.The fund is replenished on a three-year basis by the donors. Pledges amount to US$2.1 billion over the period 1991to 2005. Funds are used, for example, to finance the conversion of existing manufacturing processes, train personnel,pay royalties and patent rights on new technologies, and establish national ozone offices.

Montreal Protocol 124

PartiesAs of 29 December 2012, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See, Niue and the supranationalEuropean Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol[14] (see external link below), South Sudan being the lastcountry to ratify the agreement, bringing the total to 197. These countries have also ratified the first threeamendments. The last two amendments had as of 26 February 2012 not been ratified by 3 and 9 membersrespectively.[]

Effect

Ozone-depleting gas trends

Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, theatmospheric concentrations of the most importantchlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinatedhydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased.[15]

Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as thehalons presently stored in fire extinguishers arereleased, but their rate of increase has slowed and theirabundances are expected to begin to decline by about2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increaseddrastically at least partly because for many uses (e.g.used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs weresubstituted with HCFCs. While there have been reportsof attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g.by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developednations, the overall level of compliance has been high.In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often beencalled the most successful international environmentalagreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found theozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the samethickness for the previous three years,[16] however in2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size.[17] The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects ofthe Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in theatmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery."[18]

Unfortunately, the hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, are now thought tocontribute to anthropogenic global warming. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, these compounds are up to 10,000times more potent greenhouse gases than carbon dioxide. The Montreal Protocol currently calls for a completephase-out of HCFCs by 2030, but does not place any restriction on HFCs. Since the CFCs themselves are equallypowerful greenhouse gases, the mere substitution of HFCs for CFCs does not significantly increase the rate ofanthropogenic global warming, but over time a steady increase in their use could increase the danger that humanactivity will change the climate.[19]

Policy experts have advocated for increased efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protectionefforts.[20][21][22] Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements inthe other.

Montreal Protocol 125

25th Anniversary CelebrationsThe year 2012 marked the 25th anniversary of the signing of the Montreal Protocol. Accordingly, the MontrealProtocol community organized a range of celebrations at the national, regional and international levels to publicizeits considerable success to date and to consider the work ahead for the future.[23] Among its accomplishments are:The Montreal Protocol was the first international treaty to address a global environmental regulatory challenge; thefirst to embrace the “precautionary principle” in its design for science-based policymaking; the first treaty whereindependent experts on atmospheric science, environmental impacts, chemical technology, and economics, reporteddirectly to Parties, without edit or censorship, functioning under norms of professionalism, peer review, and respect;the first to provide for national differences in responsibility and financial capacity to respond by establishing amultilateral fund for technology transfer; the first MEA with stringent reporting, trade, and binding chemicalphase-out obligations for both developed and developing countries; and, the first treaty with a financial mechanismmanaged democratically by an Executive Board with equal representation by developed and developingcountries.[24]

Within 25 years of signing, Parties to the MP celebrate significant milestones; however, the job is not yet done andthe current moment could not be more pivotal for accomplishing its vital mission. Significantly, the world hasphased-out 98% of the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) contained in nearly 100 hazardous chemicals worldwide;every country is in compliance with stringent obligations; and, the MP has achieved the status of the first globalregime with universal ratification; even the newest member state, South Sudan, ratified in 2013. UNEP receivedaccolades for achieving global consensus that “demonstrates the world’s commitment to ozone protection, and morebroadly, to global environmental protection”.[25]

References[1] Speth, J. G. 2004. Red Sky at Morning: America and the Crisis of the Global Environment New Haven: Yale University Press, pp 95.[4] The full terms are available from http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ Publications/ MP_Handbook/ Section_1. 1_The_Montreal_Protocol/ .[7] Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http:/ / www. norden. org/ pub/ ebook/ 2003-516. pdf[8][8] The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Replacing Methyl Bromide in Developing Countries. Friends of the Earth, Washington, 173 pp,

1996[9] Guidance on the DOE Facility Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting Substances. 1995. http:/ / homer. ornl. gov/ nuclearsafety/ nsea/ oepa/ guidance/

ozone/ phaseout. pdf[11] http:/ / www. downtoearth. org. in/ content/ climate-irrationality[12][12] Grundmann, Reiner, Transnational Envionmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-22423-3[15] (http:/ / www. al. noaa. gov/ assessments/ 2002/ Q& As16. pdf)[18] Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2006, http:/ / www. esrl. noaa. gov/ csd/ assessments/ 2006/ report. html[20][20] Mario Molina, Durwood Zaelke, K. Madhava Sarma, Stephen O. Andersen, Veerabhadran Ramanathan, and Donald Kaniaru. "Reducing

abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions" PNAS 2009 106(49) 20616-20621;

[21] CS Norman, SJ DeCanio and L Fan. "The Montreal Protocol at 20: Ongoing opportunities for integration with climate protection." GlobalEnvironmental Change Volume 18, Issue 2, May 2008, Pages 330–340;

[22] UNEP press release, 2008 http:/ / www. unep. org/ Documents. Multilingual/ Default. asp?DocumentID=593& ArticleID=6250& l=en&t=long

[24][24] Canan, Penelope and Nancy Reichman (2013, forthcoming), "The Montreal Protocol" in J. Britt Holbrook (Chief Editor) Ethics, Science,Technology, and Engineering: An International Resource, 2nd Edition, Thompson Learning.

[25][25] ozone.unep.org

 This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2003 edition" (http:/ /www. umsl. edu/ services/ govdocs/ wofact2003/ index. html).(referred to as Ozone Layer Protection)

Montreal Protocol 126

Further reading• Andersen, S. O. and K. M. Sarma. (2002). Protecting the Ozone Layer: the United Nations History, Earthscan

Press. London.• Andersen, S. O., K. M. Sarma and K. N. Taddonio. (2007). Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for

Climate Change. Earthscan Press, London.• Benedick, Richard E. (1991). Ozone Diplomacy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-65001-8 (Ambassador

Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Protocol.)• Brodeur, Paul (1986). "Annals of Chemistry: In the Face of Doubt." The New Yorker, 9 June 1986, pp. 70–87.• Chasek, Pam, David Downie, and J.W. Brown (2013 – forthcoming). Global Environmental Politics, 6th Edition,

Boulder: Westview Press.• Dotto, Lydia and Harold Schiff (1978). The Ozone War. New York: Double Day.• Downie, David (1993). "Comparative Public Policy of Ozone Layer Protection.” Political Science (NZ) 45(2):

(December): 186–197.• Downie, David (1995). "Road Map or False Trail: Evaluating the Precedence of the Ozone Regime as Model and

Strategy for Global Climate Change,” International Environmental Affairs, 7(4):321–345 (Fall 1995).• Downie, David (1999). “The Power to Destroy: Understanding Stratospheric Ozone Politics as a Common Pool

Resource Problem”, in J. Barkin and G. Shambaugh (eds.) Anarchy and the Environment: The InternationalRelations of Common Pool Resources. Albany: State University of New York Press.

• David L. Downie (2012). “The Vienna Convention, Montreal Protocol and Global Policy to Protect StratosphericOzone”, in P. Wexler et al. (eds.) Chemicals, Environment, Health: A Global Management Perspective. Oxford:Taylor & Francis.

• Downie, David (2013) “Stratospheric Ozone Depletion.” The Routledge Handbook of Global EnvironmentalPolitics. New York: Routledge.

• Farman, J.C., B.G. Gardiner, and J.D. Shanklin (1985). "Large Losses of Total Ozone in Antarctica RevealSeasonal ClOx/NOx Interaction." Nature 315: 207–210, 16 May 1985.

• Grundmann, Reiner. (2001). Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone, London: Routledge.ISBN 0-415-22423-3

• Litfin, Karen T. (1994). Ozone Discourses. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08137-5• Molina, Mario and F. Sherwood Rowland (1974). "Stratospheric Sink for Chlorofluoromethanes: Chlorine

Atomic Catalyzed Destruction of Ozone." Nature 249: 810–12, 28 June 1974.• Morissette, P.M. (1989). "The evolution of policy responses to stratospheric ozone depletion." Natural Resources

Journal 29: 793–820.• Parson, Edward (2003). Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.• Roan, Sharon (1989). Ozone Crisis: The 15-Year Evolution of a Sudden Global Emergency. New York, John

Wiley and Sons• United Nations Environmental Programme. (2012). The Montreal Protocol and The Green Economy (http:/ / new.

unep. org/ ozonaction/ Portals/ 105/ documents/ publications/ green-economy-report. pdf).• Velders, G. J. M., S. O. Andersen, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, and M. McFarland. (2007). The Importance of the

Montreal Protocol in Protecting the Climate (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 104/ 12/ 4814. full). Proc. of theNatl. Acad. Of Sci., 104(12), 4814–4819, doi:10.1073/pnas.0610328104.

• Velders, G. J. M., D. W. Fahey, J. S Daniel, M. McFarland, and S. O. Andersen. (2009). The Large Contributionof Projected HFC Emissions to Future Climate Forcing (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ early/ 2009/ 06/ 19/0902817106. full. pdf+ html?with-ds=yes). Proc. of the Natl. Acad. Of Sci., 106(27),doi:10.1073/pnas.090281716.

• Velders, G. J. M., A. R. Ravishankara, M. K. Miller, M. J. Molina, J. Alcamo, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, S. A.Montzka, and S. Reimann. (2012). Preserving Montreal Protocol Climate Benefits by Limiting HFCs (http:/ /www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 335/ 6071/ 922). Science, 335(6071), 922–923, doi:10.1126/science.1216414.

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External links• The Ozone Secretariat (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ new_site/ en/ index. php)• Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol (http:/ / www. multilateralfund. org/ )• Status of Ratification (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ new_site/ en/ treaty_ratification_status. php)• The Montreal Protocol (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ new_site/ en/ montreal_protocol. php)• The Vienna Convention (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ new_site/ en/ vienna_convention. php)• Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) Controlled Under the Montreal Protocol (http:/ / ozone. unep. org/ new_site/

en/ Treaties/ treaties_decisions-hb. php?art_id=59,60,61,62,63)• U.S. EPA Ozone Layer Protection Information Home Page (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ozone/ strathome. html)• The Montreal Protocol Who's Who (http:/ / www. unep. fr/ ozonaction/ montrealprotocolwhoswho/ )• (http:/ / www. ncseonline. org/

cfc-ozone-puzzle-environmental-science-global-arena-2000-chafee-memorial-lecture) by F.Sherwood Rowlandand Mario J.Molina

• Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting gases in the atmosphere? (http:/ / www.al. noaa. gov/ assessments/ 2002/ Q& As16. pdf)(NOAA Aeronomy Lab)

• Doomsday Déjà vu: Ozone Depletion's Lessons for Global Warming (http:/ / www. cei. org/ gencon/ 025,01184.cfm) by Ben Lieberman (http:/ / www. cei. org/ dyn/ view_expert. cfm?expert=6)

• EIA reports (http:/ / www. eia-international. org/ campaigns/ global_environment/ ): Reports on illegal trade andsolutions.

• Introductory note by Edith Brown Weiss, procedural history note and audiovisual material (http:/ / untreaty. un.org/ cod/ avl/ ha/ vcpol/ vcpol. html) on the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in theHistoric Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ cod/avl/ historicarchives. html)

Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Protocol

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

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Kyoto Protocol participation map(commitment period: 2013-2020)

     Parties; Annex I & II countries with binding targets      Parties; Developing countries without binding targets*      States not Partyto the Protocol      Signatory country with no intention to ratify the treaty, with no binding targets[1]      Countries that have

renounced the Protocol, with no binding targets*[2]      Parties with no binding targets in the second period, which previously hadtargets*[3]

*Note: As part of the 2010 Cancún agreements, 76 developed and developing countries have made voluntary pledges to controltheir emissions of greenhouse gases.[4][5]

Signed 11 December 1997[]

Location Kyoto

Effective 16 February 2005[]

Condition Ratification by 55 States to the Convention, incorporating Statesincluded in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55 per cent ofthe total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties included inAnnex I

Signatories 83[]

Parties 192[]

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish

Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource

Kyoto Protocol Extension (2012 - 2020)

Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol[]

Drafted 8 December 2012[]

Location Doha, Qatar[]

Effective not in effect[]

Condition ratification by 3/4 of the member states

Ratifiers 2[]

Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol at Wikisource

Kyoto Protocol 129

Kyoto Parties with first period (2008-2012) greenhouse gas emissions limitations targets,and the percentage change in their carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustionbetween 1990 and 2009. For more detailed country/region information, see Kyoto

Protocol and government action.

Overview map of states committed to greenhouse gas (GHG) limitations in the first KyotoProtocol period (2008–2012):[6] Dark grey = Annex I Parties who have agreed to reducetheir GHG emissions below their individual base year levels (see definition in this article)

Grey = Annex I Parties who have agreed to cap their GHG emissions at their base yearlevels Pale grey = Non-Annex I Parties who are not obligated by caps or Annex I Partieswith an emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand above their base year levels

or countries that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol For specific emission reductioncommitments of Annex I Parties, see the section of the article on 2012 emission targetsand "flexible mechanisms". The European Union as a whole has in accordance with the

Kyoto Protocol committed itself to an 8% reduction. However, many member states (suchas Greece, Spain, Ireland and Sweden) have not committed themselves to any reductionwhile France has committed itself not to expand its emissions (0% reduction).[7] As to

Greenland: is partly committed through Denmark. However nothing states that Greenlandhas committed itself to a reduction towards Denmark.

The Kyoto Protocol to the UnitedNations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) is aninternational treaty that sets bindingobligations on industrialised countriesto reduce emissions of greenhousegases. The UNFCCC is anenvironmental treaty with the goal ofpreventing "dangerous" anthropogenic(i.e., human-induced) interference ofthe climate system.[] There are 192parties to the convention, including191 states (all UN members, exceptAndorra, Canada, South Sudan and theUnited States) and the EuropeanUnion.[] The United States signed butdid not ratify the Protocol and Canadawithdrew from it in 2011.[2] TheProtocol was adopted by Parties to theUNFCCC in 1997, and entered intoforce in 2005.[]

As part of the Kyoto Protocol, manydeveloped countries have agreed tolegally binding limitations/reductionsin their emissions of greenhouse gasesin two commitments periods. The firstcommitment period applies toemissions between 2008-2012, and thesecond commitment period applies toemissions between 2013-2020. Theprotocol was amended in 2012 toaccommodate the second commitmentperiod,[][][] but this amendment has (asof January 2013) not entered into legalforce.[]

The 37 countries with binding targetsin the second commitment period areAustralia, all members of the EuropeanUnion, Belarus, Croatia, Iceland,Kazakhstan, Norway, Switzerland, andUkraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan andUkraine have stated that they maywithdraw from the Protocol or not putinto legal force the Amendment with

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second round targets.[] Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not takenon new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets areCanada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified theProtocol).International emissions trading allows developed countries to trade their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.[8]

They can trade emissions quotas among themselves, and can also receive credit for financing emissions reductions indeveloping countries.[8] Developed countries may use emissions trading until late 2014 or 2015 to meet theirfirst-round targets.[9]

Developing countries do not have binding targets under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed under the treatyto reduce their emissions.[10] Actions taken by developed and developing countries to reduce emissions includesupport for renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation.[11] Under the Protocol,emissions of developing countries are allowed to grow in accordance with their development needs.[12]

The treaty recognizes that developed countries have contributed the most to the anthropogenic build-up of carbondioxide in the atmosphere (around 77% of emissions between 1750 and 2004),[13] and that carbon dioxide emissionsper person in developing countries (2.9 tonnes in 2010)[14] are, on average, lower than emissions per person indeveloped countries (10.4 tonnes in 2010).[14]

A number of developed countries have commented that the Kyoto targets only apply to a small share of annualglobal emissions.[15][16][17][] Countries with second-round Kyoto targets made up 13.4% of annual globalanthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2010.[18] Many developing countries have emphasized the need fordeveloped countries to have strong, binding emissions targets.[19][20] At the global scale, existing policies appear tobe too weak to prevent global warming exceeding 2 or 1.5 degrees Celsius, relative to the pre-industrial level.[21]

BackgroundThe view that human activities are likely responsible for most of the observed increase in global mean temperature("global warming") since the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of current scientific thinking.[22][]

Human-induced warming of the climate is expected to continue throughout the 21st century and beyond.[]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of projections of what thefuture increase in global mean temperature might be.[] The IPCC's projections are "baseline" projections, meaningthat they assume no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC projections cover thetime period from the beginning of the 21st century to the end of the 21st century.[][23] The "likely" range (as assessedto have a greater than 66% probability of being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgement) is a projectedincreased in global mean temperature over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C.[]

The range in temperature projections partly reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas emissions.[]:22-24

Different projections contain different assumptions of future social and economic development (e.g., economicgrowth, population level, energy policies), which in turn affects projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions.[]:22-24 The range also reflects uncertainty in the response of the climate system to past and future GHGemissions (measured by the climate sensitivity).[]:22-24

Chronology1988 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ([] IPCC) is formed by the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). A conference held in Toronto (notaffiliated with the IPCC) recommends a set of political targets to reduce anthropogenic emissions of carbondioxide.[24] The conference recommends that by 2005, industrialized countries should reduce their carbon dioxideemissions by 20 percent, compared to 1988 levels.

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1990 IPCC issues a report declaring its certainty that human activity is resulting in pollutants that will intensify thegreenhouse effect.1992 The UN Conference on the Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in theFramework Convention on Climate Change ("FCCC" or "UNFCCC") [25] among other agreements.1995 Parties to the FCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline specifictargets on emissions.1997 Parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto Japan, in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissionstargets.2000 Efforts to accommodate US and Australian objections to the Kyoto draft agreementWikipedia:Please clarifyfail at a meeting of signatories in the Hague.2001 George W. Bush withdraws US endorsement of the Kyoto Protocol. In November, the COP meeting inMarrakesh finalizes the provisionsWikipedia:Please clarify of the Kyoto Protocol without U.S support.2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the FCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 20052011 Canada withdraws from the protocol under the Harper government, having greatly increased emissions over thetarget, citing the intent to create a made-in-Canada solution

Article 2 of the UNFCCCMost countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[26] Article2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in theatmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human) interference with the climatesystem."[] The natural, technical, and social sciences can provide information on decisions relating to this objective,e.g., the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes.[] However, the IPCC has also concluded that thedecision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between differentregions of the world.[] Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate changeimpacts, the ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region toreduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity).[]

Objectives

Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases.

Kyoto Protocol 132

In order to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of CO2, emissions worldwide would need to be dramatically reduced from their present level.[27]

The main aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emissions of the main anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted)greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, andcapacity to make the reductions.[] The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN FrameworkConvention.[] According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty must have fulfilled theirobligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period(2008–2012). These emissions limitation commitments are listed in Annex B of the Protocol.The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments are the first detailed step taken within the UN Framework Conventionon Climate Change (Gupta et al., 2007).[] The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission reductioncommitment periods. It set a timetable starting in 2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction commitmentsfor a second commitment period (see Kyoto Protocol#Successor for details).[] The first period emission reductioncommitments expired on 31 December 2012.The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at alevel that would stop dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system."[] Even if Annex I Partiessucceed in meeting their first-round commitments, much greater emission reductions will be required in future tostabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations.[][28]

For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs, different levels of emissions reductions would be required to meet theobjective of stabilizing atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange#Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations).[] Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important anthropogenic GHG.[29] Stabilizing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.[]

Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:• Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol[] is that it established legally

binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for Annex I Parties. The commitments were basedon the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.[30][]:290

•• Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policiesand measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required toincrease the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, theclean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow moregreenhouse gas emissions at home.

•• Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.•• Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.

Kyoto Protocol 133

•• Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under theProtocol.

First commitment period: 2008-2012Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European Union-15, madeup of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions.[] Thetargets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).[] The six GHG are translatedinto CO2 equivalents in determining reductions in emissions.[31] These reduction targets are in addition to theindustrial gases, chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have committed themselves to national or joint reduction targets(formally called "quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1).[32] Parties to theKyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the Convention (the non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developingcountries,[33]:4 and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol through the Clean Development Mechanism (explainedbelow).[]

The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between different Parties.[] Some Parties have emissionslimitations reduce below the base year level, some have limitations at the base year level (i.e., no permitted increaseabove the base year level), while others have limitations above the base year level.Emission limits do not include emissions by international aviation and shipping.[] Although Belarus and Turkey arelisted in the Convention's Annex I, they do not have emissions targets as they were not Annex I Parties when theProtocol was adopted.[] Kazakhstan does not have a target, but has declared that it wishes to become an Annex IParty to the Convention.[]

For most Parties, 1990 is the base year for the national GHG inventory and the calculation of the assigned amount.[]

However, five Parties have an alternative base year:[]

•• Bulgaria: 1988;•• Hungary: the average of the years 1985-1987;•• Poland: 1988;•• Romania: 1989;•• Slovenia: 1986.Annex I Parties can use a range of sophisticated "flexibility" mechanisms (see below) to meet their targets. Annex IParties can achieve their targets by allocating reduced annual allowances to major operators within their borders, orby allowing these operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism that is agreedby all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission allowances from other operators which have excessemissions credits.

Kyoto Protocol 134

Flexible mechanismsThe Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms" that can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emissionlimitation commitments.[34]:402 The flexibility mechanisms are International Emissions Trading (IET), the CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" theiremissions (Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short).The economic basis for providing this flexibility is that the marginal cost of reducing (or abating) emissions differsamong countries.[8]:660[35] "Marginal cost" is the cost of abating the last tonne of CO2-eq for an Annex I/non-Annex I Party. At the time of the original Kyoto targets, studies suggested that the flexibilitymechanisms could reduce the overall (aggregate) cost of meeting the targets.[36] Studies also showed that nationallosses in Annex I gross domestic product (GDP) could be reduced by use of the flexibility mechanisms.[36]

The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in that they generate emission reductions from projects.The difference between IET and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a quantitativerestriction of emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the idea of "production" of emission reductions.[8] TheCDM is designed to encourage production of emission reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encouragesproduction of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.The production of emission reductions generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting theiremission limitation commitments.[37] The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both measuredagainst a hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have occurred in the absence of a particular emissionreduction project. The emission reductions produced by the CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs);reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The reductions are called "credits" becausethey are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical baseline of emissions.[citation needed]

Each Annex I country is required to submit an annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gasemissions from sources and removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominatea person (called a "designated national authority") to create and manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all ofthe non-Annex I countries have also established a designated national authority to manage their Kyoto obligations,specifically the "CDM process". This determines which GHG projects they wish to propose for accreditation by theCDM Executive Board.

International Emissions TradingA number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) have been, or are planned to be, implemented.[]:19–26

Asia

• Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in 2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo MetropolitanGovernment.[]:24

Europe

• European Union: the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), which started in 2005. This is run bythe European Commission.[]:20

• Norway: domestic emissions trading in Norway started in 2005.[]:21 This was run by the Norwegian Government,which is now a participant in the EU ETS.

• Switzerland: the Swiss ETS, which runs from 2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Protocol's firstcommitment period.[]:22

•• United Kingdom:

• the UK Emissions Trading Scheme, which ran from 2002–06. This was a scheme run by the UK Government,which is now a participant in the EU ETS.[]:19

• the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme, which started in 2010, and is run by the UK Government.[]:25

Kyoto Protocol 135

North America

• Canada: emissions trading in Alberta, Canada, which started in 2007. This is run by the Government ofAlberta.[]:22

•• United States:

• the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme caps emissions frompower generation in ten north-eastern US states (Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island and Vermont).[]:24

• emissions trading in California, which is planned to start in 2012.[]:26

• the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which is planned to start in 2012. This is a collective ETS agreed between11 US states and Canadian provinces.[]:25

Oceania

• Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which started in 2003. This schemeis run by the Australian State of New South Wales, and has now joined the Alfa Climate Stabilization (ACS).[]:19

• New Zealand: the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme, which started in 2008.[]:23

Intergovernmental Emissions Trading

The design of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade of nationalKyoto obligations to occur between participating countries (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).[] Carbon Trust (2009,pp. 24–25) found that other than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS, no intergovernmental emissionstrading had taken place.[]

One of the environmental problems with IET is the large surplus of allowances that are available. Russia, Ukraine,and the new EU-12 member states (the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, abbreviated "EIT": Belarus,Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia,Slovenia, and Ukraine)[38]:59 have a surplus of allowances, while many OECD countries have a deficit.[]:24 Some ofthe EITs with a surplus regard it as potential compensation for the trauma of their economic restructuring.[]:25 Whenthe Kyoto treaty was negotiated, it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs might lead to them having anexcess number of allowances.[39] This excess of allowances were viewed by the EITs as "headroom" to grow theireconomies.[40] The surplus has, however, also been referred to by some as "hot air," a term which Russia (a countrywith an estimated surplus of 3.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent allowances) views as "quiteoffensive."[41]

OECD countries with a deficit could meet their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from transition countrieswith a surplus. Unless other commitments were made to reduce the total surplus in allowances, such trade would notactually result in emissions being reduced[]:25 (see also the section below on the Green Investment Scheme).

Green Investment Scheme

A Green Investment Scheme (GIS) refers to a plan for achieving environmental benefits from trading surplusallowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol.[] The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in theframework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the targetsof the Kyoto Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is not required underthe Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition of the term.[]

Under the GIS a Party to the Protocol expecting that the development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyotoquota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs) to another Party. The proceeds from the AAU sales shouldbe "greened", i.e. channeled to the development and implementation of the projects either acquiring the greenhousegases emission reductions (hard greening) or building up the necessary framework for this process (softgreening).[]:25

Kyoto Protocol 136

Trade in AAUs

Latvia was one of the front-runners of GISs. World Bank (2011)[]:53 reported that Latvia has stopped offering AAUsales because of low AAU prices. In 2010, Estonia was the preferred source for AAU buyers, followed by the CzechRepublic and Poland.[]:53

Japan's national policy to meet their Kyoto target includes the purchase of AAUs sold under GISs.[42] In 2010, Japanand Japanese firms were the main buyers of AAUs.[]:53 In terms of the international carbon market, trade in AAUsare a small proportion of overall market value.[]:9 In 2010, 97% of trade in the international carbon market wasdriven by the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS).[]:9 However, firms regulated under the EU ETSare unable to use AAUs in meeting their emissions caps.[43]

Clean Development Mechanism

Between 2001, which was the first year Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be registered, and2012, the end of the first Kyoto commitment period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbondioxide equivalent (CO2e) in emission reductions.[] Most of these reductions are through renewable energycommercialisation, energy efficiency, and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010, p. 262). By 2012, the largest potentialfor production of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs produced in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region(7%).

Joint Implementation

The formal crediting period for Joint Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first commitment period of the KyotoProtocol, and did not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20).[] In November 2008, only 22 JI projectshad been officially approved and registered. The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are about onetenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up roughlyequally between the Ukraine and the EU's New Member States. Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, andN2O emissions.

Stabilization of GHG concentrationsAs noted earlier on, the first-round Kyoto emissions limitation commitments are not sufficient to stabilize theatmospheric concentration of GHGs. Stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations will require further emissionsreductions after the end of the first-round Kyoto commitment period in 2012.[][28]

Background

Indicative probabilities of exceeding various increases in global mean temperature for different stabilization levels ofatmospheric GHG concentrations.[44]

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Different targets for stabilization require different levels of cuts in emissions over time.[45] Lower stabilizationtargets require global emissions to be reduced more sharply in the near-term.[45]

Analysts have developed scenarios of future changes in GHG emissions that lead to a stabilization in the atmosphericconcentrations of GHGs.[46] Climate models suggest that lower stabilization levels are associated with lowermagnitudes of future global warming, while higher stabilization levels are associated with higher magnitudes offuture global warming (see figure opposite).[44]

To achieve stabilization, global GHG emissions must peak, then decline.[47] The lower the desired stabilization level,the sooner this peak and decline must occur (see figure opposite).[47] For a given stabilization level, larger emissionsreductions in the near term allow for less stringent emissions reductions later on.[48] On the other hand, less stringentnear term emissions reductions would, for a given stabilization level, require more stringent emissions reductionslater on.[48]

The first period Kyoto emissions limitations can be viewed as a first-step towards achieving atmosphericstabilization of GHGs.[] In this sense, the first period Kyoto commitments may affect what future atmosphericstabilization level can be achieved.[49]

Relation to temperature targetsAt the 16th Conference of the Parties held in 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming shouldbe limited below 2°C relative to the pre-industrial temperature level.[50] One of the stabilization levels discussed inrelation to this temperature target is to hold atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million (ppm) CO2- eq.[51] Stabilization at 450 ppm could be associated with a 26 to 78% risk of exceeding the 2°C target.[52]

Scenarios assessed by Gupta et al. (2007)[53] suggest that Annex I emissions would need to be 25% to 40% below1990 levels by 2020, and 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The only Annex I Parties to have made voluntarypledges in line with this are Japan (25% below 1990 levels by 2020) and Norway (30-40% below 1990 levels by2020).[54]

Gupta et al. (2007)[53] also looked at what 450 ppm scenarios projected for non-Annex I Parties. Projectionsindicated that by 2020, non-Annex I emissions in several regions (Latin America, the Middle East, East Asia, andcentrally planned Asia) would need to be substantially reduced below "business-as-usual".[53] "Business-as-usual"are projected non-Annex I emissions in the absence of any new policies to control emissions. Projections indicatedthat by 2050, emissions in all non-Annex I regions would need to be substantially reduced below"business-as-usual".[53]

Details of the agreementThe agreement is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adoptedat the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any legally binding limitations on emissions orenforcement mechanisms. Only Parties to the UNFCCC can become Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The KyotoProtocol was adopted at the third session of the Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in 1997 in Kyoto,Japan.National emission targets specified in the Kyoto Protocol exclude international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Partiescan use land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) in meeting their targets.[] LULUCF activities are alsocalled "sink" activities. Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on the climate,[55] and indeed theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry estimatesthat since 1750 a third of global warming has been caused by land use change.[56] Particular criteria apply to thedefinition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.Forest management, cropland management, grazing land management, and revegetation are all eligible LULUCFactivities under the Protocol.[] Annex I Parties use of forest management in meeting their targets is capped.[]

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NegotiationsArticle 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions.[] The initialaim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000.[] The failure of keyindustrialized countries to move in this direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved to bindingcommitments.[]

At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties in Berlin, the G77 was able to push for a mandate (the "Berlinmandate") where it was recognized that:[]

• developed nations had contributed most to the then-current concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere (seeGreenhouse gas#Cumulative and historical emissions).

• developing country emissions per-capita (i.e., average emissions per head of population)[57] were still relativelylow.

•• and that the share of global emissions from developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.During negotiations, the G-77 represented 133 developing countries. China was not a member of the group but anassociate.[58] It has since become a member.[59]

The Berlin mandate was recognized in the Kyoto Protocol in that developing countries were not subject to emissionreduction commitments in the first Kyoto commitment period.[] However, the large potential for growth indeveloping country emissions made negotiations on this issue tense.[] In the final agreement, the Clean DevelopmentMechanism was designed to limit emissions in developing countries, but in such a way that developing countries donot bear the costs for limiting emissions.[] The general assumption was that developing countries would facequantitative commitments in later commitment periods, and at the same time, developed countries would meet theirfirst round commitments.[]

Emissions cuts

Views on the Kyoto Protocol#Commentaries on negotiations contains a list of the emissions cuts that were proposedby UNFCCC Parties during negotiations. The G77 and China were in favour of strong uniform emission cuts acrossthe developed world.[] The US originally proposed for the second round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments tofollow the negotiations of the first.[] In the end, negotiations on the second period were set to open no later than2005.[] Countries over-achieving in their first period commitments can "bank" their unused allowances for use in thesubsequent period.[]

The EU initially argued for only three GHGs to be included – CO2, CH4, and N2O – with other gases such as HFCs regulated separately.[] The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" commitment,whereby it could make a collective commitment that allowed some EU members to increase their emissions, whileothers cut theirs.[]

The most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts bydeveloped nations, with the goal of having emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent.[] Countries that hadsupported differentiation of targets had different ideas as to how it should be calculated, and many differentindicators were proposed.[] Two examples include differentiation of targets based on gross domestic product (GDP),and differentiation based on energy intensity (energy use per unit of economic output).[]

The final targets negotiated in the Protocol are the result of last minute political compromises.[] The targets closelymatch those decided by Argentinian Raul Estrada, the diplomat who chaired the negotiations.[60] The numbers givento each Party by Chairman Estrada were based on targets already pledged by Parties, information received on latestnegotiating positions, and the goal of achieving the strongest possible environmental outcome.[61] The final targetsare weaker than those proposed by some Parties, e.g., the Alliance of Small Island States and the G-77 and China,but stronger than the targets proposed by others, e.g., Canada and the United States.[62]

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Financial commitmentsThe Protocol also reaffirms the principle that developed countries have to pay billions of dollars, and supplytechnology to other countries for climate-related studies and projects. The principle was originally agreed inUNFCCC. One such project is The Adaptation Fund"[63]", that has been established by the Parties to the KyotoProtocol of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change to finance concrete adaptation projects andprogrammes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.

Implementational provisionsThe protocol left several issues open to be decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties COP6 of the UNFCCC,which attempted to resolve these issues at its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but it was unable to reach anagreement due to disputes between the European Union (who favoured a tougher implementation) and the UnitedStates, Canada, Japan and Australia (who wanted the agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).In 2001, a continuation of the previous meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the required decisions wereadopted. After some concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by the European Union) managed to get theagreement of Japan and Russia by allowing more use of carbon dioxide sinks.COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final details of theprotocol.The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 November to 9December 2005, along with the 11th conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). See United NationsClimate Change Conference.During COP13 in Bali 36 developed C.G. countries (plus the EU as a party in the European Union) agreed to a 10%emissions increase for Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have individual obligations,[64] much largerincreases (up to 27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU countries (see below Kyoto Protocol#Increasein greenhouse gas emission since 1990).[65] Reduction limitations expire in 2013.

Mechanism of complianceThe protocol defines a mechanism of "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the commitments and penaltiesfor non-compliance."[66] According to Grubb (2003),[] the explicit consequences of non-compliance of the treaty areweak compared to domestic law.[] Yet, the compliance section of the treaty was highly contested in the MarrakeshAccords.[]

EnforcementIf the enforcement branch determines that an Annex I country is not in compliance with its emissions limitation, thenthat country is required to make up the difference during the second commitment period plus an additional 30%. Inaddition, that country will be suspended from making transfers under an emissions trading program.[67]

Ratification processThe Protocol was adopted by COP 3 of UNFCC on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on 16 March1998 for signature during one year by parties to UNFCCC, when it was signed Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, theMaldives, Samoa, St. Lucia and Switzerland. At the end of the signature period, 82 countries and the EuropeanCommunity had signed. Ratification (which is required to become a party to the Protocol) started on 17 Septemberwith ratification of Fiji. Countries that did not sign acceded to the convention, which has the same legal effect.[]

Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments

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of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession."[68]

The EU and its Member States ratified the Protocol in May 2002.[69] Of the two conditions, the "55 parties" clausewas reached on 23 May 2002 when Iceland ratified the Protocol.[] The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004satisfied the "55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16 February 2005, after the required lapse of90 days.[70]

On 3 December 2007, Australia ratified the protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali.As of May 2013, 191 countries and one regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified the agreement,representing over 61.6% of the 1990 emissions from Annex I countries.[] One of the 191 ratifyingstates—Canada—has denounced the protocol.

US positionThe U.S. signed the Protocol, but did not ratify it. Before the Protocol was agreed on, the US Senate passed theByrd-Hagel Resolution unanimously disapproving of any international agreement that 1) did not require developingcountries to make emission reductions and 2) "would seriously harm the economy of the United States".[71]

Therefore, even though the Clinton administration signed the treaty,[72] it remained only a symbolic act and wasnever submitted to the Senate for ratification.When George W. Bush was elected US president in 2000, he was asked by US Senator Hagel what hisadministration's position was on climate change. Bush replied that he took climate change "very seriously,"[73] butthat he opposed the Kyoto treaty, because "it exempts 80% of the world, including major population centers such asChina and India, from compliance, and would cause serious harm to the US economy".[] Almost all world leaders(e.g., China, Japan, South Africa, Pacific islands) expressed their disappointment over President Bush's decision notto support the treaty.[74]

The US accounted for 36% of emissions in 1990, and without US ratification, only an EU+Russia+Japan+smallparty coalition could place the treaty into legal effect. A deal was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP-6.5), heldin 2001.[75]

Withdrawal of CanadaIn 2011, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that they would not take on further Kyoto targets.[] The Canadiangovernment announced its withdrawal -possible at any time three years after ratification- from the Kyoto Protocol on12 December 2011, effective 15 December 2012.[76] Canada was committed to cutting its greenhouse emissions to6% below 1990 levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17% higher than in 1990. Environment minister PeterKent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew.[][77] He alsosuggested that the recently signed Durban agreement may provide an alternative way forward.[] Canada's decisionreceived a mixed response from representatives of other ratifying countries.[]

Other states and territories where the treaty is not applicableAndorra, the United States and, following their withdrawal on 15 December 2012, Canada are the only UNFCCCParties that are not party to the Protocol. Furthermore, the Protocol is not applied to UNFCCC observers Palestine,South Sudan and the Holy See. Although the Kingdom of the Netherlands approved the protocol for the wholeKingdom, it did not deposit an instrument of ratification for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten or the CaribbeanNetherlands.[78] The United Kingdom did not extent its ratification to Anguilla, British Virgin Islands, Montserrat,Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Turks and Caicos Islands or the Sovereign BaseAreas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, while Denmark excluded application to the Faroe Islands[]

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Government action and emissions

Annex I countries

Anthropogenic emissions of CO2-equivalents peryear by the 10 largest emitters (the European

Union is lumped as a single area, because of theirintegrated carbon trading scheme). Data sortedbased on 2010 contributions.   China (party, no

binding targets)  United States(non-party)  European Union (party, binding

targets)  India (party, no binding targets)  Russia(party, binding targets 2008-2012)  Indonesia(party, no binding targets  Brazil (party, nobinding targets)  Japan (party, no bindingtargets)  Congo (DR) (party, no binding

targets)  Canada (former party, binding targets2008-2012)  Other countries

Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding emissions/removals fromland use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storagein forests and soils) for all Annex I Parties (see list below) includingthe United States taken together decreased from 19.0 to 17.8 thousandteragrams (Tg, which is equal to 109 kg) CO2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990-2008 period.[]:3 Severalfactors have contributed to this decline.[]:14 The first is due to theeconomic restructuring in the Annex I Economies in Transition[]:14 (theEITs – see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list of EITs).Over the period 1990-1999, emissions fell by 40% in the EITsfollowing the collapse of central planning in the former Soviet Unionand east European countries.[79]:25 This led to a massive contraction oftheir heavy industry-based economies, with associated reductions intheir fossil fuel consumption and emissions.[]:24

Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also been limited due topolicies and measures (PaMs).[]:14 In particular, PaMs werestrengthened after 2000, helping to enhance energy efficiency anddevelop renewable energy sources.[]:14 Energy use also decreasedduring the economic crisis in 2007-2008.[]:14

Projections

UNFCCC (2011)[]:14 made projections of changes in emissions of theAnnex I Parties and the effectiveness of their PaMs. It was noted that their projections should be interpreted withcaution.[]:7 For the 39 Annex I Parties, UNFCCC (2011) projected that existing PaMs would lead to annualemissions in 2010 of 17.5 thousand Tg CO2 eq, excluding LULUCF, which is a decrease of 6.7% from the 1990 level.[]:14 Annual emissions in 2020 excludingLULUCF were projected to reach 18.9 thousand Tg CO2 eq, which is an increase of 0.6% on the 1990 level.[]:14

UNFCCC (2011)[]:14 made an estimate of the total effect of implemented and adopted PaMs. Projected savings wereestimated relative to a reference (baseline) scenario where PaMs are not implemented. PaMs were projected todeliver emissions savings relative to baseline of about 1.5 thousand Tg CO2 eq by 2010, and 2.8 thousand Tg CO2 eq by 2020.[]:14 In percentage terms, and using annual emissions in the year 1990 as a reference point, PaMs wereprojected to deliver at least a 5.0% reduction relative to baseline by 2010, and a 10.0% reduction relative to baselinein 2020.[]:14 Scenarios reviewed by UNFCCC (2011)[]:14 still suggested that total Annex I annual emissions wouldincrease out to 2020 (see the preceding paragraph).

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Annex I Parties with targets

Percentage changes in emissions for Annex I Parties with Kyoto targets[80]

Country/region Kyototarget

2008-2012

Kyototarget

2013-2020

GHGemissions1990-2008including

LULUCF[][81]

GHGemissions1990-2008excluding

LULUCF[][82]

CO2

emissionsfrom fuel

combustiononly

1990-2009[83][84]

North America - - - - +20.4

Canada[2][85] -6 - +33.6 +24.1 +20.4

Europe -4.9

European Union -8 -20[86]

Austria -13 -20[86] +6.6 +10.8 +12.2

Belgium -7.5 -20[86] -6.2 -7.1 -6.7

Denmark -21 -20[86] -6.8 -6.8 -7.2

Finland 0 -20[86] -35.9 -0.2 +1.1

France 0 -20[86] -12.7 -5.9 +0.6[87]

Germany -21 -20[86] -17.6 -21.4 -21.1

Greece +25 -20[86] +22.9 +23.1 +28.6

Iceland +10 -20[86] +19.2 +42.9 +6.2

Ireland +13 -20[86] +19.9 +23.2 +32.4

Italy -6.5 -20[86] +0.4 +4.7 -2.0

Luxembourg -28 -20[86] -9.2 -4.8 -4.4

Netherlands -6 -20[86] -2.4 -2.4 +13.0

Norway +1 -16 -32.8 +9.4 +31.9

Portugal +27 -20[86] +18.3 +32.2 +35.3

Spain +15 -20[86] +44.0 +42.5 +37.7

Sweden +4 -20[86] +19.8 -11.3 -20.9

Switzerland -8 -15.8 +6.8 +0.4 +2.5

United Kingdom -12.5 -20[86] -19.0 -18.5 -15.2

Asia Oceania - - - +12.7

Australia +8 -0.5 +33.1 +31.4 +51.8

Japan -6 - -0.2 +1.0 +2.7

New Zealand 0 - +62.4 +22.7 +34.3

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Economies inTransition

- - - -36.2

Bulgaria -8 -20[86] -45.5 -42.8 -43.7

Croatia -5 -20[86] -13.7 -0.9 -8.4

Czech Republic -8 -20[86] -28.7 -27.5 -29.2

Estonia -8 -20[86] -69.9 -50.9 -59.4

Hungary -8 -20[86] -38.1 -36.2 -27.8

Latvia -8 -20[86] -307.9 -55.6 -63.8

Lithuania -8 -20[86] -69.1 -51.8 -62.6

Poland -6 -20[86] -34.4 -29.6 -16.2

Romania -8 -20[86] -53.5 -45.9 -53.1

RussianFederation

0 - -52.8 -32.8 -29.7

SlovakRepublic

-8 -20[86] -34.4 -33.7 -41.5

Slovenia -8 -20[86] +5.2 +5.2 +21.2

Ukraine 0 -24 -52.2 -53.9 -62.7

Data given in the table above may not be fully reflective of a country's progress towards meeting its first-roundKyoto target. The summary below contains more up-to-date information on how close countries are to meeting theirfirst-round targets.

CO2 emissions from fuel combustion of Annex IKyoto Protocol (KP) Parties, 1990-2009. TotalAnnex I KP emissions are shown, along withemissions of Annex II KP and Annex I EITs.

Collectively the group of industrialized countries committed to a Kyototarget, i.e., the Annex I countries excluding the USA, have a target ofreducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on average for the period2008-2012 relative to the base year, which in most cases is 1990.[79]:24

According to Olivier et al. (2011),[79]:24 the Kyoto Parties willcomfortably exceed their collective target, with a projected averagereduction of 16% for 2008-2012. This projection excludes bothLULUCF and credits generated by the Clean Development Mechanism(CDM).[79]:24

As noted in the preceding section, between 1990–1999, there was alarge reduction in the emissions of the EITs.[79]:25 The reduction in the

EITs is largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction (excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex Icountries, excluding the USA.[79]:25 Emissions of the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries) haveexperienced a limited increase in emissions from 1990–2006, followed by stabilization and a more marked decreasefrom 2007 onwards.[79]:25 The emissions reductions in the early nineties by the 12 EIT countries who have sincejoined the EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective Kyoto target.[79]:25

Almost all European countries are on track to achieve their first-round Kyoto targets.[] Spain plans to meet its target by purchasing a large quantity of Kyoto units through the flexibility mechanisms.[] Australia,[79]:25 Canada[79]:25

(Canada withdrew from the Kyoto treaty in 2012),[] and Italy[] are not on course to meet their first-round Kyoto targets. In order to meet their targets, these countries would need to purchase emissions credits from other Kyoto countries.[79]:25 As noted in the section on Intergovernmental Emissions Trading, purchasing surplus credits from the

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EIT countries would not actually result in total emissions being reduced. An alternative would be the purchase ofCDM credits or the use of the voluntary Green Investment Scheme.In December 2011, Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent, formally announced that Canada would withdrawfrom the Kyoto accord a day after the end of the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (see the sectionon the withdrawal of Canada).[]

Annex I Parties without Kyoto targets

Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties but do not have first-round Kyoto targets.[88] The US has a Kyototarget of a 6% reduction relative to the 1990 level, but has not ratified the treaty.[79]:25 Emissions in the US haveincreased 11% since 1990, and according to Olivier et al. (2011),[79]:25 it will be unable to meet its original Kyototarget.If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions for the Annex Igroup would have been a 5.2% reduction relative to the base year.[79]:26 Including the US in their calculation, Olivieret al. (2011)[79]:26 projected that the Annex I countries would collectively achieve a 7% reduction relative to the baseyear, which is lower than the original target of a 5.2% reduction. This projection excludes expected purchases ofemissions credits.[79]:26

Non-Annex I

Annual per capita carbon dioxide emissions (i.e., average emissions per person) from fuel combustion between1990-2009 for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex I Parties.

Annual carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990-2009 for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex IParties.UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.[33] Most non-Annex IParties belonged in the low-income group, with very few classified as middle-income.[33]:4 Most Parties includedinformation on policies relating to sustainable development. Sustainable development priorities mentioned bynon-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and access to basic education and health care.[33]:6 Manynon-Annex I Parties are making efforts to amend and update their environmental legislation to include globalconcerns such as climate change.[33]:7

A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran, stated their concern over how efforts to reduce emissions by Annex IParties could adversely affect their economies.[33]:7 The economies of these countries are highly dependent onincome generated from the production, processing, and export of fossil fuels.Emissions

GHG emissions, excluding land use change and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = 1,000,000,000) of CO2-eq. CO2 was the

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largest proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane (26%) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (11%).The energy sector was the largest source of emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the agriculture sectorwas the largest. Per capita emissions (in tonnes of CO2-eq, excluding LUCF) averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122non-Annex I Parties.• The Africa region's aggregate emissions were 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 2.4 tonnes.•• The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of

2.6 tonnes.• The Latin America and Caribbean region's aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of

4.6 tonnes.• The "other" region includes Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Malta, Moldova, and Macedonia. Their

aggregate emissions were 0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions of 5.1 tonnes.Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to only be a smalldifference of 1.7% with and without LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion tonnes, without LUCF, totalaggregate emissions were 11.7 billion tonnes.Trends

In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, andIran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009).[89] For example, emissions in China have risen stronglyover the 1990–2005 period, often by more than 10% year. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are still,for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitativeemission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions. China, for example, has had anational policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-firedpower plants.

Cost estimatesBarker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol.[90] Due to non-USparticipation in the Kyoto treaty, costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previousIPCC Third Assessment Report. Without US participation, and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costswere estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This compared to earlier estimates of 0.1–1.1%. Without use ofthe flexible mechanisms, costs without US participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. This compared to earlierestimates of 0.2–2%. These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in theliterature.

Views on the ProtocolGupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy. They found that no authoritative assessments ofthe UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem.[] Inthese assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed. The FrameworkConvention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken.Gupta et al. (2007)[91] described the Kyoto first-round commitments as "modest," stating that they acted as aconstraint on the treaty's effectiveness. It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made moreeffective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a largershare of global emissions.[91] In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one-third of annual globalcarbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion.[92]

World Bank (2010)[93] commented on how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by 24%.[94] World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had provided only limited financial support to

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developing countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and adapting to climate change.[93]

Some of the criticism of the Protocol has been based on the idea of climate justice (Liverman, 2008, p. 14).[] This hasparticularly centred on the balance between the low emissions and high vulnerability of the developing world toclimate change, compared to high emissions in the developed world.Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town," and possiblybecause they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions(Aldy et al.., 2003, p. 9).[] In 2001, seventeen national science academies stated that ratification of the Protocolrepresented a "small but essential first step towards stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases."[95]

Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak (Grubb, 2000,p. 5).[96]

The United States (under former President George W. Bush) and Australia (initially, under former Prime MinisterJohn Howard) did not ratify the Kyoto treaty.[97] According to Stern (2006),[97] their decision was based on the lackof quantitative emission commitments for emerging economies (see also the 2000 onwards section). Australia, underformer Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, has since ratified the treaty,[98][] which took effect in March 2008.[99]

Views on the flexibility mechanismsAnother area which has been commented on is the role of the Kyoto flexibility mechanisms – emissions trading,Joint Implementation, and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).[100][101] The flexibility mechanisms haveattracted both positive and negative comments.[102][103][104]

As mentioned earlier, a number of Annex I Parties have implemented emissions trading schemes (ETSs) as part ofefforts to meet their Kyoto commitments. General commentaries on emissions trading are contained in emissionstrading and carbon emission trading. Individual articles on the ETSs contain commentaries on these schemes (seeKyoto Protocol#International Emissions Trading for a list of ETSs).One of the arguments made in favour of the flexibility mechanisms is that they can reduce the costs incurred byAnnex I Parties in meeting their Kyoto commitments.[100] Criticisms of flexibility have, for example, included theineffectiveness of emissions trading in promoting investment in non-fossil energy sources,[105] and adverse impactsof CDM projects on local communities in developing countries.[106]

Conference of the PartiesThe official meeting of all states party to the Kyoto Protocol is the Conference of the Parties. It is held every year aspart of the United Nations Climate Change conference, which also serves as the formal meeting of UNFCCC. Thefirst Meetings of Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (MOP) was held in 2005 in conjunction with the eleventhConferences of parties to UNFCCC. Also parties to the Convention that are not parties to the Protocol can participatein Protocol-related meetings as observers. The first conference was held in 1995 in Berlin, while the 2012 conferencewas held in Doha.

Amendment and possible successorsIn the non-binding 'Washington Declaration' agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments from Canada,France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, China, India, Mexico andSouth Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. They envisaged a globalcap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries, and initially hopedthat it would be in place by 2009.[107][108]

The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 was one of the annual series of UN meetings that followed the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. In 1997 the talks led to the Kyoto Protocol, and the conference in Copenhagen was considered to be the opportunity to agree a successor to Kyoto that would bring

Kyoto Protocol 147

about meaningful carbon cuts.[109][110]

The 2010 Cancún agreements include voluntary pledges made by 76 developed and developing countries to controltheir emissions of greenhouse gases.[4] In 2010, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annualglobal emissions.[4][5]

By May 2012, the USA, Japan, Russia, and Canada had indicated they would not sign up to a second Kyotocommitment period.[111] In November 2012, Australia confirmed it would participate in a second commitmentperiod under the Kyoto Protocol and New Zealand confirmed that it would not.[112]

New Zealand's climate minister Tim Groser said the 15-year-old Kyoto Protocol was outdated, and that New Zealandwas "ahead of the curve" in looking for a replacement that would include developing nations.[113] Non-profitenvironmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund criticised New Zealand's decision to pull out.[114]

On 8 December 2012, at the end of the 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference, an agreement was reachedto extend the Protocol to 2020 and to set a date of 2015 for the development of a successor document, to beimplemented from 2020 (see lede for more information).[115] The outcome of the Doha talks has received a mixedresponse,[][][] with small island states critical of the overall package.[] The Kyoto second commitment period appliesto about 15% of annual global emissions of greenhouse gases.[][] Other results of the conference include a timetablefor a global agreement to be adopted by 2015 which includes all countries.[116]

Notes[2] StarTribune - Canada formally pulls out of Kyoto Protocol on climate change (http:/ / www. startribune. com/ world/ 135469408. html)

Retrieved 4 May 2012.[3] United Nations- Doha Climate Gateway CMP8 Decisions (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ 2012/ cmp8/ eng/ l09. pdf) Retrieved 9 Dec

2012.[4] PDF version is also available (http:/ / www. smithschool. ox. ac. uk/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2011/ 03/ Climate-Negotiations-report_Final. pdf)[5] Executive summary in other languages (http:/ / www. unep. org/ publications/ ebooks/ emissionsgap2012/ )[7][7] KOM(2007) final edition page 2[8][8] , in[9][9] , in[10] See . The Kyoto Protocol states "The Parties to this Protocol (...) (being) guided by Article 3 of the Convention (...)". Article 3 (http:/ /

unfccc. int/ essential_background/ convention/ background/ items/ 1355. php) of the Convention states "Parties should take precautionarymeasures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects".

[11][11] and synthesize the policies that Parties to the UNFCCC have implemented to reduce their emissions. Detailed policy information for eachParty is also available .

[12] See . Parties to the Kyoto Protocol have agreed that the treaty is "(pursuant) to the Berlin Mandate adopted by decision 1/CP.1" (see pp.4-5(http:/ / maindb. unfccc. int/ library/ view_pdf. pl?url=http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ cop1/ 07a01. pdf) in )

[13] Cumulative emissions from fossil-fuel burning and industrial processes. Between 1750 and 2004, developing and least-developed countriescontributed 23% to total global cumulative emissions (Raupach et al., 2007):

[14][14] emissions from fuel combustion: , in .[15] , p.51. Report website. (http:/ / www. iea. org/ publications/ freepublications/ publication/ name,3997,en. html)[16][16] , p.2.[17][17] . Reference: IP/12/1342.[18] based on data from the Edgar database (http:/ / edgar. jrc. ec. europa. eu/ overview. php). See also: , in ][19][19] , p.2.[20] . Source website. (http:/ / www. foe. co. uk/ resource/ briefings/ )[21][21] , in[23] Temperatures are measured relative to the average global temperature averaged over the years 1980-1999, with the projected change

averaged over 2090–2099.[24][24] . Published as:[25] http:/ / www. unfccc. int/[26] . Most countries in the world are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which has adopted

the 2 °C target. There are currently (as of 25 November 2011) 195 Parties (194 states and 1 regional economic integration organization (theEuropean Union)) to the UNFCCC.

[28][28] , p.122, in

Kyoto Protocol 148

[31] The benchmark 1990 emission levels accepted by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision 2/CP.3) were the values of "globalwarming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report. These figures are used for converting the various greenhouse gasemissions into comparable carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-eq) when computing overall sources and sinks. Source:

[34][34] , in[35][35] , in[36][36] , in[37][37] , in[40][40] OECD reference: COM/ENV/EPOC/IEA/SLT(2003)9[43] This document can also be downloaded as a PDF file (http:/ / www. carbontradefinance. com/ articles/ IETA_GHG_Market_Report_2008

AAU Trading. pdf)[44][44] , in[45][45] , in[46][46] , in[47][47] , in[48][48] , in[53][53] , in[54] PDF version is also available (http:/ / www. smithschool. ox. ac. uk/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2011/ 03/ Climate-Negotiations-report_Final. pdf)[55][55] , in[56][56] Robert T. Watson, Ian R. Noble, Bert Bolin, N. H. Ravindranath, David J. Verardo and David J. Dokken (editors), 2000, Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Cambridge University Press, UK[57][57] , in[63] http:/ / www. adaptation-fund. org/[71] Byrd-Hagel Resolution (http:/ / www. nationalcenter. org/ KyotoSenate. html)[72] "Clinton Hails Global Warming Pact" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ ALLPOLITICS/ 1997/ 12/ 11/ kyoto/ ). All Politics (CNN). 11 December

1997. Retrieved 5 November 2006.[73] http:/ / www. ontheissues. org/ Celeb/ George_W__Bush_Energy_+ _Oil. htm#56[79][79] PBL publication number 500253004. JRC Technical Note number JRC65918.[80] Emissions data given in this table may not fully reflect progress towards the first-round Kyoto targets. This is because of the implicit trading

of targets under the EU ETS (see Kyoto Protocol#Intergovernmental Emissions Trading, possible effects of trade in AAUs (see KyotoProtocol#Trade in AAUs), and the use of different emissions base years for some Parties (see Kyoto Protocol#2012 emission targets and"flexible mechanisms").

[81] Aggregate emissions of the Kyoto "basket" of GHGs (see Kyoto Protocol#2012 emission targets and "flexible mechanisms"), measured incarbon dioxide equivalent, and including changes in emissions due to carbon sinks (land use, land use change, and forestry)

[82] Aggregate emissions of the Kyoto "basket" of GHGs (see Kyoto Protocol#2012 emission targets and "flexible mechanisms"), measured incarbon dioxide equivalent, and excluding changes in emissions due to carbon sinks (land use, land use change, and forestry)

[84][84] emissions from fuel combustion only. Estimates applying the Kyoto targets to International Energy Agency (IEA) data suggest the overallKyoto target is equivalent to about 4.7% on an aggregate basis for emissions from fuel combustion

[85][85] In 2011, Canada withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol[86][86] For the region encompassing the European Union, Croatia and Iceland[87][87] Monaco's emissions from fuel combustion are included with France's.[91][91] , in[93][93] , in[94][94] , in[95] The joint-statement was made by the Australian Academy of Science, the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts, the

Brazilian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society of Canada, the Caribbean Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, theFrench Academy of Sciences, the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina, the Indian National Science Academy, the IndonesianAcademy of Sciences, the Royal Irish Academy, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy), the Academy of Sciences Malaysia, the AcademyCouncil of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society (UK). . Statement website(http:/ / royalsociety. org/ policy/ publications/ 2001/ science-climate-change/ ) at the UK Royal Society. Also published as:

[97][97] , in[100] Toth et al. summarize the arguments for and against flexibility: , in[101][101] , in[102][102] , in[116][116] , p.2.

Kyoto Protocol 149

References• Carbon Trust (March 2009), Global Carbon Mechanisms: Emerging lessons and implications (CTC748) (http:/ /

www. carbontrust. com/ resources/ reports/ advice/ global-carbon-mechanisms), Carbon Trust• Depledge, J. (25 November 2000), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Technical paper: Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article Textual History (http:/ /unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ tp/ tp0200. pdf) (PDF), UNFCCC

• Dessai, S. (December 2001), Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12: The climate regime from The Hague toMarrakech: Saving or sinking the Kyoto Protocol? (http:/ / www. tyndall. ac. uk/ content/climate-regime-hague-marrakech-saving-or-sinking-kyoto-protocol), Norwich, UK: Tyndall Centre

• EEA (2012), Greenhouse gas emission trends and projections in Europe 2012 - Tracking progress towards Kyotoand 2020 targets. A report by the European Environment Agency (EEA) (http:/ / www. eea. europa. eu/publications/ ghg-trends-and-projections-2012/ at_download/ file), Luxembourg: Publications Office of theEuropean Union, doi: 10.2800/56770 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2800/ 56770), ISBN 978-92-9213-331-3, ISSN 1725-9177 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 1725-9177). Report No 6/2012. Report website (http:/ / www. eea.europa. eu/ pressroom/ publications/ ghg-trends-and-projections-2012/ ).

• G-77 (22 November 2011), The Group of 77 - Member States (http:/ / g77. org/ doc/ members. html), The Groupof 77, retrieved 22 October 2012

• Grubb, M. (July–September 2003), "The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol" (http:/ / www. econ. cam. ac. uk/rstaff/ grubb/ publications/ J36. pdf) (PDF), World Economics 4 (3)

• Grubb, M.; Depledge, J. (2001), "The Seven Myths of Kyoto" (http:/ / www. econ. cam. ac. uk/ rstaff/ grubb/publications/ JR09. pdf) (PDF), Climate Policy 1 (2)

• IEA (2011), CO2 Emissions From Fuel Combustion: Highlights (2011 edition) (http:/ / www. iea. org/co2highlights/ CO2highlights. pdf) (PDF), Paris, France: International Energy Agency (IEA)

• IEA (2012), CO2 Emissions From Fuel Combustion: Highlights (2012 edition) (http:/ / www. iea. org/publications/ freepublications/ publication/ CO2emissionfromfuelcombustionHIGHLIGHTS. pdf), Paris, France:International Energy Agency (IEA). Report website. (http:/ / www. iea. org/ publications/ freepublications/publication/ name,32870,en. html) Data as an Excel spreadsheet. (http:/ / www. iea. org/ media/ freepublications/2012/ CO2Highlights2012. xls)

• IPCC TAR WG3 (2001), Metz, B.; Davidson, O.; Swart, R.; and Pan, J., ed., Climate Change 2001: Mitigation(http:/ / www. grida. no/ publications/ other/ ipcc_tar/ ?src=/ climate/ ipcc_tar/ wg3/ index. htm), Contribution ofWorking Group III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-80769-7 (pb: 0-521-01502-2).

• IPCC TAR SYR (2001), Watson, R. T.; and the Core Writing Team, ed., Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report(SYR) (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ ipccreports/ tar/ vol4/ english/ index. htm), Contribution of Working Groups I, II,and III to the Third Assessment Report (TAR) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-80770-0 (pb: 0-521-01507-3).

• IPCC AR4 WG3 (2007), Metz, B.; Davidson, O.R.; Bosch, P.R.; Dave, R.; and Meyer, L.A., ed., Climate Change2007: Mitigation of Climate Change (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ ar4/ wg3/ en/ contents. html),Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4 (pb:978-0-521-70598-1).

• IPCC AR4 SYR (2007), Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K; and Reisinger, A., ed., Climate Change 2007:Synthesis Report (SYR) (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ ar4/ syr/ en/ contents. html), Contributionof Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC), Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, ISBN 92-9169-122-4.

• Liverman, D.M. (2009), "Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere" (http:/ / www. environment. arizona. edu/ files/ env/ profiles/ liverman/ liverman-2009-jhg. pdf)

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(PDF), Journal of Historical Geography 35 (2), doi: 10.1016/j.jhg.2008.08.008 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j.jhg. 2008. 08. 008)

• Spash, C.L. (2010), "The Brave New World of Carbon Trading" (http:/ / clivespash. org/2010_Spash_Brave_New_World_NPE. pdf) (PDF), New Political Economy 15 (2): 169–195

• Stern, N. (2006), Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change (pre-publication edition) (http:/ /webarchive. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ + / http:/ / www. hm-treasury. gov. uk/ stern_review_report. htm), London,UK: HM Treasury

• United Nations (9 May 1992), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (http:/ / unfccc. int/not_assigned/ b/ items/ 1417. php), New York

• United Nations (1998), Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (http:/ /unfccc. int/ essential_background/ kyoto_protocol/ items/ 1678. php). Also available (http:/ / unfccc. int/kyoto_protocol/ items/ 2830. php) in Arabic, Chinese, Spanish, French and Russian.

• UNEP (November 2012), The Emissions Gap Report 2012 (http:/ / www. unep. org/ pdf/ 2012gapreport. pdf),Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Executive summary in other languages (http:/ /www. unep. org/ publications/ ebooks/ emissionsgap2012/ )

• UNFCCC (6 June 1995), FCCC/CP/1995/7/Add.1: Report of the Conference of the Parties on its first session,held at Berlin from 28 March to 7 April 1995. Addendum. Part two: Action taken by the Conference of the Partiesat its first session (http:/ / maindb. unfccc. int/ library/ view_pdf. pl?url=http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ cop1/07a01. pdf), Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office. Available as a PDF (http:/ / unfccc. int/ documentation/documents/ advanced_search/ items/ 6911. php?priref=600000318) in the official UN languages.

• UNFCCC (25 October 2005), Sixth compilation and synthesis of initial national communications from Parties notincluded in Annex I to the Convention. Note by the secretariat. Executive summary. Document codeFCCC/SBI/2005/18 (http:/ / unfccc. int/ documentation/ documents/ advanced_search/ items/ 3594. php?rec=j&priref=600003578#beg), Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office

• UNFCCC (2011), Compilation and synthesis of fifth national communications. Executive summary. Note by theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/docs/ 2011/ sbi/ eng/ inf01. pdf) (PDF), Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office

• UNFCCC (28 March 2012), Annex I national communications (NC5) (http:/ / unfccc. int/ national_reports/annex_i_natcom/ submitted_natcom/ items/ 4903. php), UNFCCC

• UNFCCC (2 October 2012), Reports on in-depth reviews of national communications of Annex I Parties (http:/ /unfccc. int/ national_reports/ annex_i_natcom/ idr_reports/ items/ 4056. php), UNFCCC

• UNFCCC (22 January 2013), Non-Annex I national communications (http:/ / unfccc. int/ national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/ items/ 2979. php), UNFCCC

• World Bank (2010), World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change (http:/ / go. worldbank.org/ UVZ0HYFGG0), Washington DC, USA: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / TheWorld Bank

Further reading• Ekardt, F./von Hövel, A.: Distributive Justice, Competitiveness, and Transnational Climate Protection. In:

Carbon & Climate Law Review, Vol. 3., 2009, p. 102–114.Economics• Weyant, J.P. (ed) (May 1999). "The Costs of the Kyoto Protocol: A Multi-Model Evaluation" (http:/ / emf.

stanford. edu/ publications/ the_costs_of_the_kyoto_protocol_a_multimodel_evaluation/ ). Energy Journal(Special issue). Retrieved 8 August 2009. From this issue:• Manne, A.S. and R. Richels. The Kyoto Protocol: A Cost-Effective Strategy for Meeting Environmental

Objectives? (http:/ / www. oecd. org/ dataoecd/ 38/ 53/ 1923159. pdf). Retrieved 8 August 2009.

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• Nordhaus, W.D. and J.G. Boyer. Requiem for Kyoto: An Economic Analysis of the Kyoto Protocol (http:/ /www. econ. yale. edu/ ~nordhaus/ homepage/ Kyoto. pdf). Retrieved 8 August 2009.

External links• Protocol text ( HTML (http:/ / unfccc. int/ resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. html) and PDF (http:/ / unfccc. int/

resource/ docs/ convkp/ kpeng. pdf)), 2007 (http:/ / treaties. un. org/ doc/ Publication/ CTC/ Ch_XXVII-7-b. pdf)and 2012 amendment (http:/ / treaties. un. org/ doc/ Publication/ CTC/ Ch_XXVII-7-c. pdf)

• List of countries who have ratified, accepted, approved, or accessed the Kyoto Protocol (http:/ / treaties. un. org/pages/ ViewDetails. aspx?src=TREATY& mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-a& chapter=27& lang=en), its first amendment(http:/ / treaties. un. org/ pages/ ViewDetails. aspx?src=TREATY& mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-b& chapter=27&lang=en) (Targets for Belarus) and its second amendment (http:/ / treaties. un. org/ pages/ ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY& mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-c& chapter=27& lang=en) (extension period 2012-2020)

• Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Law-Ref.org (http:/ / zvon.org/ law/ r/ kyoto. html) – fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents

• The layman's guide to the Kyoto Protocol (http:/ / mindprod. com/ environment/ kyoto. html)• Kyoto: On Target? – Google Docs (https:/ / spreadsheets. google. com/

ccc?key=0AmCeWwNKr6FmdGZLWGotWGNfcUtYWmkyalJIb21vbnc& hl=en<br ></ a>#gid=0)• Introductory note by Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, procedural history note and audiovisual material (http:/ /

untreaty. un. org/ cod/ avl/ ha/ kpccc/ kpccc. html) on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library ofInternational Law (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ cod/ avl/ historicarchives. html)

CLRTAP

Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution signatories(green) and ratifications (dark green) as of July 2007

The Convention on Long-RangeTransboundary Air Pollution, oftenabbreviated as Air Pollution orCLRTAP, is intended to protect thehuman environment against airpollution and to gradually reduce andprevent air pollution, includinglong-range transboundary air pollution.It is implemented by the EuropeanMonitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the United Nations Economic Commission forEurope (UNECE).

OverviewThe convention opened for signature on 1979-11-13 and entered into force on 1983-03-16.The Convention, which now has 51 Parties, identifies the Executive Secretary of the United Nations EconomicCommission for Europe (UNECE) as its secretariat. The current parties to the Convention are shown on the map.The Convention is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) (short forCo-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants inEurope).[1] Results of the EMEP programme are published on the EMEP website, www.emep.int [2].

CLRTAP 152

Since 1979 the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution has addressed some of the majorenvironmental problems of the UNECE region through scientific collaboration and policy negotiation. TheConvention has been extended by eight protocols that identify specific measures to be taken by Parties to cut theiremissions of air pollutants.The aim of the Convention is that Parties shall endeavour to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce andprevent air pollution including long-range transboundary air pollution. Parties develop policies and strategies tocombat the discharge of air pollutants through exchanges of information, consultation, research and monitoring.The Parties meet annually at sessions of the Executive Body to review ongoing work and plan future activitiesincluding a workplan for the coming year. The three main subsidiary bodies - the Working Group on Effects, theSteering Body to EMEP and the Working Group on Strategies and Review - as well as the Convention'sImplementation Committee, report to the Executive Body each year.Currently, the Convention's priority activities include review and possible revision of its most recent protocols,implementation of the Convention and its protocols across the entire UNECE region (with special focus on EasternEurope, the Caucasus and Central Asia and South-East Europe) and sharing its knowledge and information withother regions of the world.

SubstancesThe following substances are contained in the CLRTAP POPs Protocol.[3]

POP Inclusion

Aldrin Originally included

Chlordane Originally included

Dieldrin Originally included

Endrin Originally included

Heptachlor Originally included

Hexachlorobenzene Originally included

Mirex Originally included

Toxaphene Originally included

PCBs Originally included

DDT Originally included

PCDDs/PCDFs Originally included

Chlordecone Originally included

Hexachlorocyclohexanes Originally included

Hexabromobiphenyl Originally included

PAHs Originally included

Pentabromodiphenyl ether Recognized

Octabromodiphenyl ether Recognized

Pentachlorobenzene Recognized

PFOS Recognized

Hexachlorobutadiene Recognized

PCNs Recognized

SCCPs Recognized

CLRTAP 153

References• Source: CIA World Factbook, as of 2003[4] edition[1] EMEP History and Structure, EMEP website (http:/ / www. emep. int/ index. html)[2] http:/ / www. emep. int/[3] UNECE: Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution 2010 (http:/ / www. unece. org/ fileadmin/ DAM/ env/ lrtap/ Publications/ 11-22162-Part-C.

pdf), p. 12–13.[4] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution& action=edit

External links• Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (http:/ / www. unece. org/ env/ lrtap/ )• Ratifications (http:/ / treaties. un. org/ pages/ ViewDetails. aspx?src=TREATY& mtdsg_no=XXVII-1&

chapter=27& lang=en), at depositary

OSPAR ConventionThe Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic [1] or OSPARConvention is the current legislative instrument regulating international cooperation on environmental protection inthe North-East Atlantic. It combines and up-dates the 1972 Oslo Convention on dumping waste at sea and the 1974Paris Convention on land-based sources of marine pollution. Work carried out under the convention is managed bythe OSPAR Commission, which is made up of representatives of the Governments of the 15 signatory nations, andrepresentatives of the European Commission, representing the European Union.The OSPAR Convention was concluded at Paris on 22 September 1992.

  signatory states  European Union

History

The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment ofthe North-East Atlantic was opened for signature at the MinisterialMeeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions in Paris on September22, 1992. The Convention has been signed and ratified by all ofthe Contracting Parties to the original Oslo or Paris Conventions(Belgium, Denmark, the European Community, Finland,[2]</ref>France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway,Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom of Great Britainand Northern Ireland) and by Luxembourg[3] and Switzerland.[3]

The OSPAR Convention entered into force on March 25, 1998,and replaced the Oslo and Paris Conventions, but decisions andother agreements adopted under those conventions remainedapplicable unless they are terminated by new measures adopted under the OSPAR Convention.

OSPAR Convention 154

The first Ministerial Meeting of the OSPARCommission at Sintra, Portugal, in 1998 adoptedAnnex V to the Convention, extending the cooperationof the signatory parties to cover "all human activitiesthat might adversely affect the marine environment ofthe North East Atlantic". Nevertheless, programmesand measures cannot be adopted under the Conventionon questions relating to fisheries management, whichare currently coordinated by European nations in thenorth east Atlantic and North Sea by the InternationalCouncil for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). TheOSPAR convention now regulates European standardson marine biodiversity, eutrophication, the release ofhazardous and radioactive substances into the seas, theoffshore oil and gas industry and baseline monitoringof environmental conditions.

In 2000, the OSPAR Commission published acomprehensive report on the quality of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. This was supported byfive smaller reports on the different parts of the OSPAR maritime area –the Arctic, the Greater North Sea, the CelticSeas, the Bay of Biscay/Golfe de Gascogne and Iberian waters, and the Wider Atlantic.

References[1] http:/ / www. ospar. org/ html_documents/ ospar/ html/ OSPAR_Convention_e_updated_text_2007. pdf[2] Finland is not on the western coasts of Europe, but some of its rivers flow to the Barents Sea, and historically it was involved in the efforts to

control the dumping of hazardous waste in the Atlantic and the North Sea.<ref name="about"> About OSPAR (http:/ / www. ospar. org/content/ content. asp?menu=00010100000000_000000_000000)

[3] Luxembourg and Switzerland are Contracting Parties due to their location within the catchments of the River Rhine.Finland is not on thewestern coasts of Europe, but some of its rivers flow to the Barents Sea, and historically it was involved in the efforts to control the dumpingof hazardous waste in the Atlantic and the North Sea.<ref name="about"> About OSPAR (http:/ / www. ospar. org/ content/ content.asp?menu=00010100000000_000000_000000)

External links• OSPAR Convention (http:/ / www. ospar. org/ content/ content. asp?menu=01481200000000_000000_000000)• Text (http:/ / www. ospar. org/ html_documents/ ospar/ html/ ospar_convention_e_updated_text_2007. pdf).• Ratifications (http:/ / www. ospar. org/ content/ content. asp?menu=01481200000026_000000_000000).

Stockholm Convention 155

Stockholm Convention

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

The logo of the Stockholm Convention Secretariat

Type United Nations treaty

Signed 22 May 2001

Location Stockholm, Sweden

Effective 17 May 2004

Condition Ninety days after the ratification by at least 50 signatory states

Signatories 152

Parties 179

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish

  State parties to the Stockholm Convention as ofMay 2012

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is aninternational environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective fromMay 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use ofpersistent organic pollutants (POPs).

History

In 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) called for global action to be taken on POPs,which it defined as "chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate through the food web, andpose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment".

Following this, the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme onChemical Safety (IPCS) prepared an assessment of the 12 worst offenders, known as the dirty dozen.The INC met five times between June 1998 and December 2000 to elaborate the convention, and delegates adoptedthe Stockholm Convention on POPs at the Conference of the Plenipotentiaries convened from 22–23 May 2001 inStockholm, Sweden.The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered intoforce on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. Co-signatories agree to outlawnine of the dirty dozen chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production ofdioxins and furans.Parties to the convention have agreed to a process by which persistent toxic compounds can be reviewed and addedto the convention, if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat. The first set of newchemicals to be added to the Convention were agreed at a conference in Geneva on 8 May 2009.As of May 2013, there are 179 parties to the Convention, (178 states and the European Union). Notable non-ratifyingstates include the United States, Israel, Malaysia, Italy Saudi Arabia, and Iraq.

Stockholm Convention 156

Summary of provisionsKey elements of the Convention include the requirement that developed countries provide new and additionalfinancial resources and measures to eliminate production and use of intentionally produced POPs, eliminateunintentionally produced POPs where feasible, and manage and dispose of POPs wastes in an environmentally soundmanner. Precaution is exercised throughout the Stockholm Convention, with specific references in the preamble, theobjective and the provision on identifying new POPs.

Persistent Organic Pollutants Review CommitteeWhen adopting the Convention, provision was made for a procedure to identify additional POPs and the criteria to beconsidered in doing so. At the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP-1), held in Punta del Este,Uruguay from 2–6 May 2005, the POPRC was established to consider additional candidates nominated for listingunder the Convention.The Committee is composed of 31 experts nominated by parties from the five United Nations regional groups andreviews nominated chemicals in three stages. The Committee first determines whether the substance fulfills POPscreening criteria detailed in Annex D of the Convention, relating to its persistence, bioaccumulation, potential forlong-range environmental transport (LRET), and toxicity. If a substance is deemed to fulfill these requirements, theCommittee then drafts a risk profile according to Annex E to evaluate whether the substance is likely, as a result ofits LRET, to lead to significant adverse human health and/or environmental effects and therefore warrants globalaction. Finally, if the POPRC finds that global action is warranted, it develops a risk management evaluation,according to Annex F, reflecting socioeconomic considerations associated with possible control measures. Based onthis, the POPRC decides to recommend that the COP list the substance under one or more of the annexes to theConvention. The POPRC has met annually in Geneva, Switzerland since its establishment. The seventh meeting ofthe Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC-7) of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent OrganicPollutants (POPs) took place from 10–14 October 2011 in Geneva, Switzerland. POPRC-8 was held from 15–19October 2012 in Geneva.

Listed substancesThere were initially twelve distinct chemicals listed in three categories. Two chemicals, hexachlorobenzene andpolychlorinated biphenyls, were listed in both categories A and C.[1]

Annex Name CASNumber

Exemptions

A. Elimination Aldrin 309-00-2 Production noneUse as a local ectoparasiticide and insecticide

A. Elimination Chlordane 57-74-9 Production by registered partiesUse as a local ectoparasiticide, insecticide, termiticide (includingin buildings, dams and roads) and as an additive in plywoodadhesives

A. Elimination Dieldrin 60-57-1 Production noneUse in agricultural operations

A. Elimination Endrin 72-20-8 None

A. Elimination Heptachlor 76-44-8 Production noneUse as a termiticide (including in the structure of houses andunderground), for organic treatment and in underground cableboxes

A. Elimination Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1 Production by registered partiesUse as a chemical intermediate and a solvent for pesticides

Stockholm Convention 157

A. Elimination Mirex 2385-85-5 Production by registered partiesUse as a termiticide

A. Elimination Toxaphene 8001-35-2 None

A. Elimination Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) various Production noneUse in accordance with part II of Annex A

B. Restriction DDT 50-29-3 Disease vector control in accordance with Part II of Annex BProduction and use as an intermediate in the production ofdicofol and other compounds

C. UnintentionalProduction

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins("dioxins") and polychlorinateddibenzofurans

various

C. UnintentionalProduction

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) various

C. UnintentionalProduction

Hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1

Added by the Fourth Conference of Parties, May 2009These modifications has come into force on 26 August 2010, except for countries that submit a notificationpursuant to the provisions of paragraph 3(b) of Article 22.[2]

Annex Name CASNumber

Exemptions

A. Elimination α-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-84-6 None

A. Elimination β-Hexachlorocyclohexane 319-85-7 None

A. Elimination Chlordecone 143-50-0 None

A. Elimination Hexabromobiphenyl 36355-01-8 None

A. Elimination Hexabromodiphenyl etherand heptabromodiphenyl ether

various Production noneUse recycling and reuse of articles containingthese compounds

A. Elimination Lindane (gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane ) 58-89-9 Production noneUse Human health pharmaceutical for controlof head lice and scabies as second linetreatment

A. Elimination & C.Unintentional Production

Pentachlorobenzene 608-93-5 None

A. Elimination Tetrabromodiphenyl etherand pentabromodiphenyl ether

various Production noneUse recycling and reuse of articles containingthese compounds

B. Restriction Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), its salts andperfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride (PFOSF)

various Production for permitted usesUse various uses specified in part III ofAnnex B

Stockholm Convention 158

Chemicals newly proposed for inclusion in Annexes A,B,CPOPRC-7 considered three proposals for listing in Annexes A, B and/or C of the Convention: chlorinatednaphthalenes (CNs), hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) and pentachlorophenol (PCP), its salts and esters. The proposal isthe first stage of the POPRC's work in assessing a substance, and requires the POPRC to assess whether the proposedchemical satisfies the criteria in Annex D of the Convention. The criteria for forwarding a proposed chemical to therisk profile preparation stage are persistence, bioaccumulation, potential for long-range environmental transport(LRET), and adverse effects.POPRC-8 proposed hexabromocyclododecane for listing in Annex A, with specific exemptions for production anduse in expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene in buildings. This proposal is due to be considered at the sixthConference of Parties on 28 April-10 May 2013.[3]

ControversiesAlthough some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in realitythe treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malariavector).[4][5][6][7] From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases,and environmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need forresearch.[8][9]

Related conventions and other ongoing negotiations regarding pollution•• Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides

in International Trade• Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP)•• Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

Ongoing negotiations•• Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee's work towards a Legally Binding Instrument on Mercury•• Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS)•• Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)

Further reading• Chasek, Pam, David L. Downie, and J.W. Brown (2013). Global Environmental Politics, 6th Edition, Boulder:

Westview Press.• Downie, David (2003). “Global POPs Policy: The 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants”,

in D. Downie and T. Fenge (ed.) Northern Lights against POPs: Combating Toxic Threats in the Arctic,Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.

• Downie, David and Terry Fenge (2003). Northern Lights against POPs: Combating Toxic Threats in the Arctic,Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.

• Downie, D., Krueger, J. and Selin, H. (2005). “Global Policy for Toxic Chemicals”, in R. Axelrod, D. Downie andN. Vig (eds.) The Global Environment: Institutions, Law & Policy, 2nd Edition, Washington: CQ Press.

• Downie, David and Jessica Templeton (2013). “Persistent Organic Pollutants.” The Routledge Handbook ofGlobal Environmental Politics. New York: Routledge.

• Eckley, N. And Selin, H. (2003). "Science, Politics, and Persistent Organic Pollutants: Scientific Assessments andTheir Role in International Environmental Negotiations," International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Lawand Economics 3:1: 17–42.

Stockholm Convention 159

• Kohler, P. and Ashton, M. (2010.) “Paying for POPs: Negotiating the Implementation of the StockholmConvention in Developing Countries”, International Negotiation, 15: 459–484.

•• Selin, H. (2010). Global Governance of Hazardous Chemicals: Challenges of Multilevel Management,Cambridge: The MIT Press.

External links• Stockholm Convention Secretariat [10]

• Text of the Convention [11]

• Ratifications [12]

• Earth Negotiation Bulletin coverage of Stockholm Convention Meetings [13]

• Introduction to the POPs Convention [14]

• Safe Planet [15]

References[2][2] .[3] Proposal from POPRC-8 (http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Convention/ POPsReviewCommittee/ LatestMeeting/ POPRC8/ POPRC8Followup/

HBCDRecommendation/ tabid/ 2912/ Default. aspx)[4][4] .[5][5] .[6][6] .[9] Porta, M., Zumeta, E (2002). Implementing the Stockholm treaty on POPs [Editorial]. Occupational & Environmental Medicine 59: 651–652

http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/ articles/ PMC1740221/ pdf/ v059p00651. pdf.[10] http:/ / www. pops. int/[11] http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Portals/ 0/ Repository/ convention_text/ UNEP-POPS-COP-CONVTEXT-FULL. English. PDF[12] http:/ / chm. pops. int/ Countries/ StatusofRatification/ tabid/ 252/ language/ en-US/ Default. aspx[13] http:/ / www. iisd. ca/ process/ chemical_management. htm[14] http:/ / www. iisd. ca/ process/ chemical_management-popsintro. html[15] http:/ / safepla. net/

Article Sources and Contributors 160

Article Sources and ContributorsPollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569290168  Contributors: .snoopy., 168..., 16@r, 5 albert square, 9k8a5r0a2n35559, @pple, A little insignificant, ABF, AJR,APsci, Aarchiba, Aaron Rotenberg, Abeg92, Absroks, Acalamari, Acather96, Acer311, Achowat, AdamCarden, Addihockey10, Adikd54, AdjustShift, Adriaan, Adrian, Aeidein, AgentCDE,Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajor, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Aliensvortex, Alksub, Allens, Alloquep, Amaury, AnakngAraw, Anand Karia, Anaraug, Anarchangel, Andrei Stroe,Andrewhiteisgay, Andrewrp, Andy M. Wang, Andy120290, AndySpeed, Andyjsmith, Anenglishperson, Angela, Anitaisme, Anku3234, Anlace, Anna Lincoln, Anon169, Anonymous Dissident,Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Antidemon, Anurag.yadav090, Aqwis, Arcandam, Arjun01, Arnack, Arpit123, Arthena, Arturo zuniga, Asterion, AutoGeek, Avicennasis, Avoided, AwamerT,Awesomeness, Awotter, Aymatth2, AzureFury, Babulbaishya, Badgernet, Banes, Bargains001, Barthandelus, Basar, Basharh, Battoe19, Beaslayer99, Bejnar, Beland, Ben Ben, Bender235,Bhadani, Bhagyashrimandrekar, Bidgee, Big Brother 1984, Bigger digger, Bill37212, Black-Velvet, Blackangel25, BlankVerse, Blossom ananya, Bluezy, Bobby H. 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GeorgeStepanek, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Ginsengbomb, Glacialfox, Glandrid, Glane23, Glen, Glenn, Gobbleswoggler, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goldom,Gopy333, GorillaWarfare, Grafen, Graham87, Grandsummit, Granitethighs, Gryph13, Gsociology, Gtg179u, Guanaco, Gueneverey, Gunnville, Gurch, Gwernol, H Padleckas, Haakon, Hagedis,Haha2014, Haham hanuka, HalJor, Hamamelis, HangingCurve, Happysailor, Harishreddya6991, Haukurth, Haymaker, Headbomb, Healthvalue, Heimstern, Helix84, Henrik, Heron, Hghyux,Hindustanilanguage, Hitrish, Hmrox, Hockey294, Holepole, Holon67, Hongthay, Hoo man, Housecat Monkey, Hu12, Humus sapiens, Hwangrox99, HybridBoy, Hydrogen Iodide, Hyperandy,IGlowInTheDark, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IJA, IRP, Ialsoagree, Ibbn, Iced Kola, Ikalpo, Imastareverywere, Immunize, Imnotminkus, ImperfectlyInformed, Incantation, Inferno, Lord of Penguins,Infrogmation, Intelligentsium, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, It Is Me Here, Ivang, Ixfd64, J Di, J.delanoy, J8079s, JForget, JLMadrigal, JLaTondre, 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Air pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569035155  Contributors: 10014derek, 26Isabella, 2A00:1370:8004:6F7:BC15:51E8:BB29:35E, 2D, 2kentjd, 5 albert square, 9k8a5r0a2n35559, A D Monroe III, A Softer Answer, AKA MBG, AManWithNoPlan, AbigailAbernathy, AbsolutDan, Acather96, Accas1, Achowat, Acroterion, Adam Bishop, Adriaan, AgentPeppermint, Ahm2307, Ahmiguel, Ahoerstemeier, Aishwaryamani, Akendall, Akyoyo94, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alastair B. Campbell, Alchimista, Aleenf1, Alex dacosta, Alex3917, Alexandra mb, Alexius08, All Is One, Allstarecho, Alnokta, Alphatwo, Altermike, Amaury.lecocq, Ameliorate!, Anbu121, Andre Engels, Andrewman327, Andrewmc123, Andrewpmk, Andycjp, Anetode, Angela, Anlace, Anneman, Antandrus, Antonrojo, ApostleVonColorado, Apothecia, Apppooos, Aqhiguy, Aqwis, Aricco, ArielGold, Arpit123, Artaxiad, Arturo zuniga, AtheWeatherman, Atomician, Avoided, Awesdh, BCAttwood, BTDenyer, Babban12, Babyface123, Bad words suc, Badanedwa, Barneca, BarretB, Beagel, Beetstra, Bejnar, Beland, Ben Eyer, Bergsten, Betterusername, Beurk, BigDwiki, BillFlis, Billtubbs, Binksternet, Blanchardb, Bluemoose, Bobak, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Boing! said Zebedee, Bongwarrior, Bookgrrl, Bookofjude, Boorvix, BoredTerry, Borisblue, Bradeos Graphon, Brentleefrog, Brett R. Stone, Brianga, Brolin Empey, Bronc4lyf237, BryanFrazar, Btyner, BuickCenturyDriver, Bushcarrot, C0617470r, CBowers, CIreland, CJ King, CL, CUSENZA Mario, CWii, Caiaffa, Caknuck, Calabe1992, Caltas, Calvin 1998, Cambrasa, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canterbury Tail, Capricorn42, Carlosguitar, Carter, Caster23, Catmoongirl, Chase.alton3, Chato, Cheesus55, Chet1234567, Chikinnugget, Chinacap, Cholerashot, Cholpon.tuzabaeva, Chris565781, ChrisGualtieri, Chrislk02, Chrisw404, Chrkl, City-state, Clarince63, Clemifornia, Closedmouth, Closenplay, Cobaltbluetony, Coemgenus, Coffee, Colonel oneill, Cometstyles, Cool Blue, Cool3, Corpx, Courcelles, Covalent, Crazycomputers, Cremma, Cst17, Ctbolt, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DFS, DVD R W, DVdm, DabMachine, Dacostaallenm, Daniel 1992, Daniel5127, DanielEng, DanielleHurley, Daren420c, Darkspots, Dasani, Davidduck, Dawn Bard, Deathmoose12, Definetely coolash2007, Delldot, Denisarona, DennyColt, Dentren, Deor, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Deryck Chan, Dethme0w, Diannaa, Dicklyon, Digitalme, Diliff, Dinnerbone, Dirkbb, Discospinster, Divyakashal, Dj7amood, Dlary, Dodo bird, Doghog, Dolphin51, Donner60, Doomer4life, DotComCairney, Dougher, Download, Dpeters11, Dr bab, Dr. Blofeld, DrABomb, Drc79, DrumCarton, DualHelix, Duja, Dust Filter, E9, ESkog, EVCM, EagleFan, Ebaeful, Ebishirl, Edalgarden, Edderso, Edgar181, Eeekster, Elassint, Electric Celery, Eleland, Eleven even, Elio96, Envirocorrector, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Erpbridge, Esanchez7587, Escape Orbit, Eternal Pink, Evil saltine, Evolauxia, Ewlyahoocom, Excalibarsonic, Excirial, Eye of the Mind, FF2010, Fabricationary, Faizan, Falcanary, Faradayplank, Fatzo1, Finalius, Finn Bjørklid, Firetrap9254, Firien, FisherQueen, Fl, Flammingo, Fmrauch, FordPrefect42, Fordan, Freakofnurture, Fred Bauder, Fredbauder, Fredericknoronha, Fredwerner, FreplySpang, Frietjes, Fsotrain09, FurrySings, Fæ, GPohlhammer, Gabriel Kielland, Gail, Gamaliel, Gareth Griffith-Jones, GcSwRhIc, Gene Nygaard, Ghosts&empties, Giftlite, Gilderien, Gilliam, Giorgiogp2, Gkfhfdbv, Gladlast1, Glenn, Gloy, Gman124, Gogo Dodo, Gomm, Gonzo fan2007, Got a little rhythm, Gpgarrettboast, Gracenotes, Graham87, GreatWhiteNortherner, Greatestrowerever, Greengreengreenred, Grim23, Grsz11, Grundle2600, Guycalledryan, Gwernol, Gzkn, Gökhan, H Bruthzoo, HalfShadow, Happyidiot01, Hasslejp, Haza-w, Hdt83, Headbomb, Heavilybroken16, Hello32020, Henryisamazingyeh, Hephaestos le Bancal, HisSpaceResearch, Hmrox, Hnoble32, Hotcrocodile, Hro, Hu, Hu Gadarn, Hu12, HumberView, Husond, Hz.tiang, I dream of horses, I

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Light pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569633005  Contributors: 041744, 2toise, 75th Trombone, A Stop at Willoughby, Accurizer, Adam850, Akamad, AlanLiefting, Alansohn, Albester, Alnokta, Andersmusician, Andre Engels, Andycjp, Andyroo g, Anlace, Ann Stouter, Anotherdoon, Anthony Arrigo, Antonio Lopez, Arbiter117, Ardo191, Arthena,Ashley thomas80, AstroHurricane001, Axeman89, Baeksu, Banaticus, Bbpen, Beetstra, Berkut, Betacommand, Bevo, Bige1977, BillFlis, BitterMan, Bkell, Blathersby, Bletch, Bob98133,Bobblewik, Bobo192, BorisFromStockdale, BreachReach, Bryan Derksen, Bsherr, Btafreshi, C.Fred, Cactus.man, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canberra User,Casper2k3, Catgut, Cburnett, CelticWonder, Ceyockey, Chamal N, Chesnok, Chiswick Chap, Chris Roy, ChrisCork, ChrisHodgesUK, Chuunen Baka, Cieloscuro, Civil Engineer III, Cluginbuhl,Cocuyo, Coffee, Collegebookworm, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Craigsjones, Cremepuff222, Czarkoff, D. F. Schmidt, Damirgraffiti, Daniel J. Leivick, Dantheman531,David G Brault, Dcoetzee, DeadEyeArrow, Deltapi, Denelson83, DerHexer, Difu Wu, Dilawaiz.p, Discospinster, Dlrohrer2003, Download, Downstream, Dr bab, Dust Filter, Dusti, E PluribusAnthony, Ed Cormany, Ed Poor, EdgeOfEpsilon, Eidako, El C, Emijrp, Enviroboy, Envirocorrector, Equendil, Eregli bob, EromiralT, Esfandieasil, Esn, Eumolpo, Fastily, Felix Wiemann,Fireaxe888, Foobaz, Fotaun, Frap, Funandtrvl, Fæ, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth Bruce, Gary King, GavinTing, Geniac, Gentgeen, Geremia, GiancarloGotta, Giftlite, Gilliam, Glane23, GngstrMNKY,Gobonobo, GrahamLP, Gralo, Grand Dizzy, GrayFullbuster, Ground Zero, Hans Dunkelberg, Hashar, Hdt83, Head, Headbomb, Henry Flower, Heron, Hertz1888, Hgrosser, Hooriaj, Hop77,Hordaland, Hottentot, Huntster, Hurtetusda, Hydrargyrum, Inkypaws, Into The Fray, Itsmine, Izogi, J.delanoy, JHMM13, JRR Trollkien, JWGreen, Jackp, JakeWi, Jayjg, Jeff G., Jenikhollan,Jimtaip, Jmencisom, JoanneB, Joeblakesley, JohnAugust, JohnOwens, Johnny Au, Jonathan Kovaciny, Josh Parris, Karol Langner, Keegan, Kenneth Cooke, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kosebamse,Koyaanis Qatsi, Krushdiva, Ksenon, Ktr101, Kukini, Kwigell, Kylenano, Lambiam, Lamiot, Leon7, Lexor, Lightdarkness, Lighthouse1971, Lightmouse, Ligulem, LilHelpa, Litefantastic, Looxix,Loren.wilton, Lova Falk, Lugia2453, MGTom, MMich, MSTCrow, Mandarax, Mangostar, Manu bcn, MarcoPolo419, Margin1522, Martarius, Marty 0750, Master of Puppets, Materialscientist,Mattpik2, Maya anand, Mdd4696, Measure, Meelar, Megan 189, Melodyzian, Metafax1, Mhansen, Michael Hardy, Middayexpress, Midgrid, Mifter, Mike s, Millbrooky, Mimihitam, Mitsuhirato,Mormegil, Moroderen, Mozasaur, Mykll, N5iln, NJR ZA, Nagkamali sa trigo, NawlinWiki, NetRolller 3D, Neutrality, Nick carson, Nihiltres, Nikai, NoEggsHere, Nsaa, Numbo3, Omegatron,Onebravemonkey, Onorem, Open2universe, PCHS-NJROTC, Pagw, Party, Passionless, Patrick, Pats1, Pearle, Peregrine981, Pflatau, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, PhilipStobbart, Photophiliac,Pigsonthewing, Pizza Puzzle, PlanetStar, PleaseStand, Pollinator, PrestonH, Pwnage8, QuiteUnusual, R Lee E, RG2, Rboatright, Reedy, Rei, Reinyday, RenamedUser01302013, RexNL, Riana,Rich Farmbrough, Ringbang, Rintojiang, Riprova, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, Rnt20, Robert Merkel, Robo Cop, Rohnadams, Rw, S0uj1r0, SBarnes, ST47, Sabarna, Samuelcraft09, Sango123,Saperaud, ScOtTyZ, Schenzman, SchreiberBike, Scottk, Sean Whitton, Seaphoto, Securiger, Seth Ilys, Sfan00 IMG, Shadowjams, Shanes, Sharktopus, Shblight, Sherazade96, Shivankvishnoi,SimonP, Skatebiker, SkippySky, Skywalter2000, SmileToday, Snailwalker, Snaxorb, Solipsist, Songyw124, Sp3000, Srleffler, StaceyGrove, StarlightCBL, StarryEye, Steveprutz, Swaggerjacker,Tatpong, Templationist, Texture, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anonymouse, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGreenMartian, ThePedanticPrick, TheStarmon,Thompsma, Thorseth, Thw1309, Tigerlisa, Toagac, Tothebarricades.tk, TreasuryTag, Trilobitealive, Triona, Twinsday, Tyrol5, Ulric1313, Uppland, Vegaswikian, Vicki Rosenzweig,VictorAnyakin, VictorianMutant, Voidxor, Voyevoda, Vrenator, Vsmith, Warren, Washburnmav, Wavelength, Wayward, Windharp, Woohookitty, Worfasdgi, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski,Xanzzibar, Xxxkhjaosxxx, Yankeguy, YorkBW, Yvan Dutil, Zacharypio, Zerial48, Zodon, 698 anonymous edits

Marine pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=557579336  Contributors: AKGhetto, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alchimista, Andonic, Andycjp, Anxietycello, Arthur Rubin,BRUTE, Backslash Forwardslash, Benjohn65, BomBom, Bongwarrior, Brandon5485, CSWarren, Caiaffa, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Camstool, Capricorn42, Censol, Cgingold,Christiandasilva, Cskok, Cubanonradar, DabMachine, Dasani, DeadEyeArrow, Dean1970, DerickDiamond, Djrao25, Elemesh, Elfino, Epipelagic, Ex nihil, Eyesnore, Fagopyrum, Falcon8765,Favonian, Flyguy649, Fæ, Gene Nygaard, Gjs238, Headbomb, Hotcrocodile, Infrogmation, Inomyabcs, Jayen466, Jeff G., Jga49143, JimVC3, Jivecat, Jonadin93, Jonnieroxursox, Jprg1966,KGasso, Kaszeta, Kils, Koba-chan, L Kensington, Lesliebre, LilHelpa, Luthiens submarine, Mahlum, Mandarax, Marinecreatures, Mazca, Michael Frind, Miguel.mateo, MikeLynch,Mintyzoozoos, Miquonranger03, Mkill, Monfornot, MrOllie, N5iln, NJA, Nakon, Nathec12, Neelix, Niffweed17, Nsaa, Nukesea, Oceans and oceans, Onceler, Pakaraki, Pakaran, Pazqual3,Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Raywil, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, Rrburke, Sandstein, Seidenstud, Shellfishbiologist, Snowolf, Squirepants101, Stephen,Templationist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Thecheesykid, Themfromspace, Titodutta, Tommy2010, Trofobi, Tsuchiya Hikaru,Usmanmumtazbutt, Valenciano, Valentin Zahrnt, Velella, Vrenator, Vsmith, Wavelength, Webclient101, Widr, William M. Connolley, Willking1979, Woohookitty, Zenibus, Zzuuzz, 285anonymous edits

Noise pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570004962  Contributors: -1g, 5 albert square, 83d40m, Aagneya, Abb615, Acather96, Achowat, Acs272, Adolphus79, Aeternus, Afluent Rider, Aherunar, Ahills60, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex E. Clarke, All Is One, Amazon10x, Anakin101, Andrea105, Andycjp, Anechoic Man, Anetode, Angrymansr, Anlace, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Anunay333, Arpingstone, Arunsingh16, Asclepias, Astatine211, Atlantia, Atomic Monarch, Audiolistic, AzaToth, Barticus88, BaseballDetective, Battyface, Beland, BernardBlackII, Bgpaulus, Binksternet, Biosthmors, Biscuittin, BluejacketT, Bongwarrior, Bowlderizer, Brendan Moody, Bubba73, Bunnyhugger, CALR, Calmer Waters, Caltas, Cambrasa, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canberra User, Canthusus, Capa49, Capricorn42, Ccoll, CharlotteWebb, ChillDeity, Chongkian, Christian yow sang, Chronulator, CjDMaX, Cjos, Cjwright79, Claush66, Closedmouth, ConCompS, Connormah, Corvus cornix, Countgallo, Covalent, Coyote`, D. Recorder, D0762, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Daa89563, Dana boomer, Dark Serge, DarkAudit, Darkwind, Dawn Bard, Dcirovic, Dcooper, Dekisugi, DerHexer, Dicklyon, Discospinster, DoubleBlue, Doughtar, Download, Drawat123, Drugsarefun123, Dsfhglieutrdsjhflkjdsry, Dumpweed777, Dysmorodrepanis, ERK, ESkog, Edward Z. Yang, ElectricEye, Empty Buffer, Eno1, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Everyking, EvilZak, Excirial, Faizan, Fang Aili, Fangjian, Faradayplank, Femmafm, Fennec, Fiberglass Monkey, Fischer.sebastian, Flewis, Fmrauch, Footballrocks, Fox816, Frap, Freakofnurture, Free Bear, Frosted14, Funnyfarmofdoom, Fuzzy510, Fyyer, GCFreak2, Gabriel Kielland, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Ganesh.fc, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Gawaxay, GcSwRhIc, Gene Hobbs, GeorgeLouis, Ggrinnell, Ghaly, Giant89, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Gimpmask, Ginsuloft, Gurchzilla, Hadal, Happenstancial, Harland1, Harshachssp, Headbomb, Hemanshu, Hephaestos, Heron, Hhielscher, Hooperbloob, House1630, Hu, Hyacinth, Ihope127, IncognitoErgoSum, Ipatrol, Iridescent, Irma71, Ithildraug, J.delanoy, Jamoche, Jan1nad, Jaredroberts, Jason Quinn, JasonMitch, JayJasper, Jayen466, Jianhui67, Jim1138, JimVC3, Jncraton, JoanneB, John0099, Johnmc, Jojhutton, Jonkerz, Jorge Stolfi, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joshi.sameer, Jpers36, Jschnur, Juliancolton, Jwy, K2wiki, Karenjc, Keegan, Kenguest, Kerotan, Kevin B12, Kilbosh, Killjoy12, Kingpin13, Kinkyturnip, KnowledgeOfSelf, Konstable, Krajinaetc, Krakahead, KrakatoaKatie, Kvng, Kwiki, L'Aquatique, LOL, LarryGilbert, Lear's Fool, Lesonyrra, Light current, Lindosland, LittleHow, Lobo, Lordluxion, Lou.weird, LuK3, Lugia2453, Luna Santin, Lusitana, Lyrelle Everyne, MBisanz, MECU, MER-C, MFZoubeir, Magioladitis, Maias, Makecat, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer, Malcolmxl5, Mangostar, Manop, Marcopololu, Marechal Ney, Mason1212, Masonrox1212, Materialscientist, Mausy5043, Max13102, McGeddon, McVities, Mdebets, Meekywiki, Meezaa., Melaen, Mentifisto, Mike Rosoft, Millermk, MiloKral, Minimac, Mscollard95, Musica-magic 6, N5iln, NawlinWiki, Ndenison, Neutrality,

Article Sources and Contributors 162

Newsaholic, Nikai, Noiseactivist, Noisefighter, Nposs, O Govinda, Ocaasi, Ocee, Omega2498, Omegatron, Onceler, Optimist on the run, Oxymoron83, PL290, PaperTruths, Passionless, PaulErik, Pauljvanorden, Paxsimius, Pearle, Persian Poet Gal, Petrb, Pewwer42, Pflatau, PhiLiP, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, PlanetStar, Plasticup, Pollypollypollywee, Poweroid,Pris0ner, PseudoSudo, Qwe, Qxz, RW Marloe, Raelx, RandomP, Rd232, Reconsider the static, Redanim, Reinyday, Rg998, Rhrad, Rich Farmbrough, Rintojiang, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, RobertBond, Rocks25, Roleplayer, Rolypolyman, Royalguard11, Rrburke, Rsrikanth05, Runt, Rupy, RyanGerbil10, Ryulong, S unsure36, SBKT, SCEhardt, SJP, Sachinvenga, Saga City,Sambob999999, Sandcherry, Scarlet Lioness, Scohoust, Scottywong, Sct72, SebastianHelm, Semperf, Shanes, Shantavira, Shiftchange, Shivankvishnoi, Shoessss, Sibi antony, SimonMayer,Skeledzija, SkerHawx, Smappy, Smart youth, Snow Blizzard, Snowolf, Solomaxwell, Sriharsh123, Srishti katoch, Srleffler, Ssssssttttt23, Stambouliote, Stemonitis, Stevebailey09, Stewartadcock,Sumaira Abdulali, Surv1v4l1st, SuzanneIAM, Sw258, Sylent, T3h 1337 b0y, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tartarus, Techman224, Telfordbuck, Templationist, Teriyakimoto, Tevildo, Tgeairn,The Anonymouse, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thennicke, Theopolisme, Thunderbird2, Thunderboltz, Tibzycool, Tide rolls, Tim Q. Wells, TimothyPilgrim, Timvasquez, Titodutta, TobiasBergemann, Toddmedema, Tolly4bolly, Tom Morris, Tommy2010, Travelbird, Trevor MacInnis, Trigaranus, Triona, Tuchicita, TutterMouse, Twinsday, Typpo, UV254, Uncle Dick,UncleBubba, UtherSRG, Vald, Valentinian, Vary, Versus22, Viriditas, Vslashg, Vsmith, Waveguy, Wavelength, Wgeorge737, Whispering, Widr, Wiki alf, Wikibofh, WikipedianMarlith,Wikipelli, William Pietri, Woodroar, Wordmoderators, Worm That Turned, WriterHound, Xiaxei, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamla, Yerpo, Z.E.R.O., Zachbe, Zachlipton, Zeimusu, Zikiodotte, Zodon,Zsinj, 1094 anonymous edits

Radioactive contamination  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=567323864  Contributors: Aarchiba, Abdull, Aditya Gune, Alansohn, Altenmann, Andycjp, Anna Lincoln,AnthonyA7, Anville, Avidallred, Becook, Bgordski, BollyDave, Bornintheguz, Bryan Derksen, Cadmium, Caknuck, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carbon-16, Charles Matthews, Chase.indy,Chowbok, Coffee, CompRhetoric, Corruptcopper, D.h, DV8 2XL, Daggerstab, Deglr6328, Dennis Brown, Dgies, Dougsim, Elmindreda, Eric Kvaalen, Eric119, Farras Octara, Fastfission,Floodamanny, Fredrik, Furrykef, Gene Nygaard, Getcrunk, GoingBatty, Gregz08, Gwernol, Hall Monitor, Headbomb, Icairns, Ikester8, Imjustmatthew, Intershark, Iridescent, Jacj, JackSchitt, JimSwenson, Jim.henderson, JohnI, Johnfos, Joseph Solis in Australia, KathyR@aol.com, Keilana, Kinkreet, Kjkolb, Ksyrie, Layla27, Leszek Jańczuk, Lethaniol, Ligar, Light current, Lightmouse,Little guru, Lomn, LovesMacs, LucasVB, Luna Santin, Magus732, Martins, MassimoAr, Matveims, Mr Adequate, MrX, Mulad, Nepenthes, Nergaal, Nihiltres, Nono64, Nsaa, Oldnoah,Olegwiki, Oxymoron83, Phearson, PhilKnight, Pinethicket, Pstudier, Qwyrxian, R. fiend, RVJ, Raul654, Reconsider the static, Reify-tech, Reyk, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robofish, Rsabbatini,Rumping, Rxnd, Sasquatch, Sbharris, Scottfisher, Serbianboy, Shaddack, Silverwizard, Simesa, Slastic, Smartse, SoledadKabocha, Sophus Bie, Stepa, Stephenchou0722, SueHay, Svgalbertian,Taizor, Tareq84, Templationist, TexMurphy, The Bushranger, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thue, Tide rolls, Tobias Bergemann, Trofobi, Tubbyspencer, Uruiamme, Utcursch, V1adis1av,Vlad21263, Vsmith, Warpflyght, Wavelength, Wiki13, Willking1979, Ybbor, Yerpo, Zoicon5, 166 ,زرشک anonymous edits

Soil contamination  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=560533656  Contributors: Af38, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alucard 16, Anlace, Bbb2007, BeGenderNeutral, Beland,Bencherlite, Betterusername, Biker Biker, Biscuittin, Blethering Scot, Bobo192, Borgx, CUSENZA Mario, Cadmium, Celsea5, ChrisGualtieri, Circeus, ClamDip, Closedmouth, Cmcnicoll,Courcelles, Covalent, DRTllbrg, DancingMan, Darth Panda, DeadEyeArrow, Denihilonihil, Deville, Dghosh12, Dochimochi, Doniago, Drmies, Dumelow, Dycedarg, Edgar181, Epbr123,Favonian, Fieldmarshal Miyagi, Fratrep, Gianreali, Grafen, GregorB, Gtg204y, Gwernol, Harshpatel5, Hbent, Headbomb, HiLo48, Hotchoco-heart, ImperfectlyInformed, Iridescent, J.delanoy,J04n, Jarble, Jennavecia, Jim1138, Jwkpiano1, KD888, Kafziel, Kilonum, Knellotron, KudzuVine, Lamro, Latka, LeaveSleaves, Leptosome, Ligulem, Longhair, Look2See1, LovesMacs,MBTuser1, MacsBug, Magioladitis, Manishearth, MarkSutton, Martynas Patasius, MassimoAr, Mattgirling, Maxim Gavrilyuk, Mdwyer, Melweave, Michael Devore, MichaelS82, Milhaus,Millermk, MisfitToys, Muuurk, Natsadler, Nia12877, Nihiltres, Noah Salzman, Nposs, O.Koslowski, Oatmealface, Oil Treatment International, Oxymoron83, Paleorthid, Peter Kaminski, Peter MDodge, PhilKnight, Phoenix-wiki, Pinethicket, Pissant, Pixeltoo, Please accept my love, Plumpurple, Pollinator, Poots.hearts, Rad-Man, Rawrimjaine, Remi0o, RexNL, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi,Rockfang, Roy Bateman, Rushbugled13, Russman101, Sabregirl, Sam907, Sekolov, Shadowjams, Shiny green, Shivankvishnoi, Shuipzv3, Silvrous, Smartse, Smithbrenon, Smokizzy, Soliloquial,SomedumbSN, Soumyadeep2208, Ssarajlic1, Steveozone, Tariqabjotu, Templationist, The High Magus, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Wikimon, Thingg, Tide rolls, Timrem,Tinkyourmagic, Tony Fox, Urjanhai, Velella, Vertium, Vibhijain, Vsmith, WLU, Warfreak, Wavelength, Widr, Xue hanyu, Yamamoto Ichiro, 420 ,קהלת anonymous edits

Ship pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423046528  Contributors: Aeusoes1, Alan Liefting, Biker Biker, Bmokris, Cara lorrainec, Carnildo, DASonnenfeld,Eangelopoulos, Earlgrey101, Epipelagic, Flyingidiot, Gamesguru2, Gobonobo, Ground Zero, Jarble, Jeellis2, KVDP, King of Hearts, Liberatus, MER-C, Materialscientist, Misterx2000, Moreau1,Mrhank3y0000, Mvieiro, NHSavage, Namazu-tron, Neelix, Neogeolegend, Olwen Griffiths, Ponyo, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Schoernig, Sophus Bie, Wolfkeeper, Yaksar, 26 anonymous edits

Thermal pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569985450  Contributors: (jarbarf), Acalamari, AdjustShift, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Ajaxkroon, Alansohn,Alchimista, Anlace, Arthena, Arubadude, AwamerT, Ayanoa, B-17mansam, BackwardsBoy, BazookaJoe, Blainster, Bobo192, Burn, CTZMSC3, Cameron Keener, Cgingold, Clarince63,Clicketyclack, Closedmouth, Codman, Coin945, Cometstyles, Cupivistine Noscere?, DabMachine, Danski14, Dfrg.msc, Discospinster, Drunken Pirate, Duncan.france, Element16, Ellen Fawstvil,Emerson7, EncycloPetey, Enviroboy, Epipelagic, Ericoides, Evil Monkey, Geni, Gilliam, Glane23, Glen, HEL, Headbomb, HistoryBA, HoodedMan, Hyperflux, I am One of Many, Iridescent,J.delanoy, Jake Wartenberg, Javert, Jeffrey Mall, Jguy, Jj137, Journalist, Juliancolton, Kanonkas, Kingpin13, Ksd5, Leafyplant, Loren.wilton, Lrreiche, Mackseem, Madbehemoth, Madhero88,Magioladitis, Mandoliniment, Mausy5043, MelbourneStar, Meno25, MindstormsKid, Moreau1, Mothmolevna, Mátyás, Natsirtguy, Nlu, P3Pp3r, Pearle, Peter Karlsen, Pichpich, Pinethicket,Pollinator, Pratyya Ghosh, Primacag, ProperManner, QuicheBoy, RandomStringOfCharacters, Rbanzai, Reinyday, Rnt20, Rocketere o1, Rodii, Rumbehant, Ruthushan, Ryan032, Sbierwagen,ShelfSkewed, Skizzik, Slakr, Specs112, Spiffy sperry, Spitfire, Srleffler, Srpnor, Stwalkerster, Superabhay, Tabletop, Tawker, Templationist, Thewhitebeaner, Thunk, Tolly4bolly, Tommy2010,Tv316, Utcursch, Versus22, Vivio Testarossa, Waggers, Wikipelli, Yamaguchi先 生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zappa711, 413 anonymous edits

Visual pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565623693  Contributors: 10ten, 3abboo, Abmac, Amplitude101, Andycjp, Andyjsmith, Brazzouk, BreathingMeat, Bus stop,Dabramsdt, Davidsmind, DeltaQuad, Dentren, Dmmaus, Dragomiloff, Ericoides, Ewlyahoocom, Firey man, Funandtrvl, Gulshan Ara Sharif, Headbomb, Housecat Monkey, Jeanne050, Jesant13,Jgov05, Jschnur, KConWiki, Ken Gallager, Kurieeto, Lady Weaxzezz, Lemonaid, Marek69, Materialscientist, Miguel Andrade, Mkamara23, Nilfanion, Oda Mari, Onore Baka Sama,Oxymoron83, Piano non troppo, ProfessorTofty, R'n'B, RG72, Rjwilmsi, Rwalker, Sabarna, Saffron Blaze, Shanoman, Shivankvishnoi, Shruti.shirke, Signalhead, Stefanbcn, Stevenmitchell,Surv1v4l1st, Templationist, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tommy2010, Transity, Urco, Vsmith, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, WaysToEscape, Welsh, Wikipelli, Wizardman, Wkyken, 92anonymous edits

Water pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569725896  Contributors: 2D, 7, 88dude, 9k8a5r0a2n35559, A Softer Answer, A. B., A. Parrot, A8UDI, ABCD, ABF, Aaroncrick, Abba12, Abeg92, Acroterion, Adamsapple4, Addihockey10, Ageekgal, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akhileshvarma1996, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex Rio Brazil, Alex436, Alexgilbertstudios, AlexiusHoratius, Allens, Alloquep, Allstarecho, Alpha Quadrant (alt), AlphaAqua, Altenmann, Amberstarr05, Amis2007, AmosWolfe, Anand Karia, Andonic, Andrewman327, Andycjp, Anlace, Ann Stouter, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, ApolloBoy, Apothecia, Applegate12345, Applegatee, Aremith, ArglebargleIV, Armagecotto, Asenine, Asimepd, Asmaulai244, Astral highway, AstroHurricane001, AuburnPilot, Aude, Aukland, Austinman1234, Avicennasis, Avillia, B-RREEZZYY, B. Wolterding, BD2412, Basar, Bbazinet, Beetstra, Beland, Bender235, Benmace, Bennybp, Benzpilot, Berimbau1, Berkay0652, Betterusername, Bigafolazi, Bigtimepeace, Bigwer, Bihco, Bill37212, Binary TSO, Bioarchie1234, Biopresto, BjörnBergman, Blanchardb, Bluerasberry, Bluezy, Bobo192, BocoROTH, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Borgx, Bork, Bped1985, Brianb824, Brianga, BrokenSegue, Bruce89, Brunton, Bryan Derksen, Bsece010, Bubulili, BurtAlert, Burzmali, Butane Goddess, C.Fred, CDM2, CDN99, CLW, CUSENZA Mario, CUTKD, Cactus.man, Caknuck, Calliopejen1, Caltas, Calvin 1998, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Canderson7, CanisRufus, Canthusus, Capitalismojo, Capricorn42, Captain-n00dle, CardinalDan, Catgut, Centrx, Cflm001, Chandra gupta, Charles Matthews, CharlotteWebb, Chasingsol, Chip123456, Chochopk, Chris the speller, Christdk, Christian75, Chrisw404, Cjd614, Claush66, Clerks, Closedmouth, Cls14, Cocoma, Cohesion, Cometstyles, Connormah, Cooljdude90, Corpx, Courcelles, Cpicon92, Crazycomputers, Cryptic, Curps, Cwmhiraeth, Cyfal, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DBigXray, DGG, DVD R W, DVdm, DabMachine, Dalcanale, Dan D. Ric, Daniel Collins, DanielCD, Dannyboy7692, Daos1212, Darth Panda, Dave souza, Dave6, Davewild, DavidinKenai, Dbertman, Dcirovic, Ddsnowboarder93, DeadEyeArrow, Deagle AP, Debennett, Decltype, Deenoe, Deglr6328, Dekisugi, Den jen yas, Dentren, Deor, DerHexer, Dino, Discospinster, Dj Capricorn, Dj7amood, Dlae, Dlohcierekim, Docu, Doniago, Donner60, DoubleBlue, Doulos Christos, Downstream, Dreadstar, Dtierney786, DualHelix, Dysmorodrepanis, ESkog, EhsanQ, Ekrub-ntyh, Element16, Eliz81, Elliskev, Elockid, Emijrp, Emilio21, EmilyL123, Enbéká, Encuesta española, Enric Naval, Envirocorrector, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Escape Orbit, Euchiasmus, EvelinaB, Everyking, Ex nihil, Excirial, Exert, Extra999, Fang Aili, Fanghong, Faradayplank, Faris knight, Fatboy5866, Fatima4564, Favonian, FayssalF, Fieldday-sunday, FinalRapture, Finetooth, Firien, FisherQueen, Flewis, Fluffernutter, Fluri, Foochar, FordPrefect42, Fourdee, Foxj, FrankCostanza, Fred Bauder, Frood, Frymaster, Fubar Obfusco, Fvasconcellos, Fyyer, Fæ, GTZ-44-ecosan, Gaff, Gail, Galbitorix, Gardner.rw1, Ged UK, GeeJo, Gekedo, Geofferybard, Gfoley4, Gggh, Giftlite, Gilliam, Ginkgo100, Gjs238, Gladlyplaid, Glennscience, Go Phightins!, Godlord2, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, Grafen, GregAsche, Gsociology, Guoguo12, Gurch, Gurchzilla, Gwernol, H Padleckas, HJ Mitchell, HMSSolent, Haha2014, Haleylpiche, HammerHeadHuman, Hardyplants, Haza-w, Headbomb, Heathead, Heather12, Heimstern, Hiberniantears, Hobartimus, Hu12, Hut 8.5, I am the best7, IGeMiNix, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IRP, Ibbn, Icairns, Imiraven, Immunize, Ingolfson, Iridescent, Islander, Isnow, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JNW, Ja 62, Jackfork, Jackjimmy12345, Jaimieleigh, Jamesontai, Jamesooders, Japanese Searobin, Jarble, Jarkeld, Jarkeld.alt, Jason thenerd, Javert, JayC, Jaysweet, Jbergquist, Jeff G., Jeffrey Mall, Jeremiahbarrar, Jes029, Jfg284, Jim1138, JimVC3, Jimjamjak, Jitterro, JoanneB, JoeSmack, John Cline, Johnchiu, Johnmc, Jon186, Jonkerz, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josephhph, Josh Parris, Joth, Jsvcycling, Jusdafax, Just James, Justinfr, Jwkpiano1, KJD2011, Kaarel, Kakashi12341234, Kamsa, Katieh5584, Katmeister, Kenny95258, Kils, Kimmy91, King of Hearts, Kingpin13, Kirachinmoku, Kirrages, KnowledgeOfSelf, KokomoNYC, Kralizec!, Krenair, Kukini, Kuru, Kuyabribri, Kwdt2, Kwj2772, Kzukunft, L Kensington, L'Aquatique, Lankiveil, LeaveSleaves, Leebo, Leujohn, Lev lafayette, Lifebaka, Lights, LilHelpa, Llywelyn, Looie496, Look2See1, Loren.wilton, Lotje, Luk, Luna Santin, Lupo, MBTuser1, MD3&4, MER-C, MMS2013, MONGO, MZaplotnik, Madhero88, Magic.Wiki, Marek69, MarkSutton, Masky, Materialscientist, Mathonius, Matthew Yeager, Mattps3, Mbeychok, McSly, Meegs, Mentifisto, Merlion444, Mexicano318, Mharichandra, MichaelMaggs, Michaelbusch, Mifter, Mihir.kabani, Mikaey, Mike Rosoft, Mikeo, Mindmatrix, Minimac, Misza13, Mkns, Modernist, Moreau1, MrOllie, Mrfebruary, Mrs Trellis, Mttcmbs, Muchness, MusikAnimal, Mwtoews, Myanw, Myhlow, Mykaylababy, Napzilla, Nasnema, Nat682, NawlinWiki, Ndenison, NellieBly, NeoDude, NerdyScienceDude, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Nick Number, Nick240, Nivix, Nopol10, NorwegianBlue, NovaDog, Nposs, Nsaa, Nsaum75, NuclearWarfare, Nummer29, Nwwaew, Nyxaus, OOSCARR, Oda Mari, Ohconfucius, Oil Treatment International, OisinisiO, Okloster, Oliver202, Ollie the Magic Skater, Omicronpersei8, Onco p53, OnePt618, Onenonlyrup, Oortclouddomicile, Optakeover, Optional4000, OwenX, Oxymoron83, P.B. Pilhet, PAK Man, PFHLai, PGWG, PKT, PL290, Paleorthid, Papa November, Paul Erik, Paxsimius, Pearle, People19947475, Persian Poet Gal, Peter Karlsen, PeterSymonds, Petrb, Pgk, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, PhilKnight, Phoenix-wiki, Piano non troppo, Pickachu32, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Planwagon, Pleasantville, Pokaded, PoliticalJunkie, Pollinator, Poolback, Prattmic, Prechat, PrestonH, Pro bug catcher, Prolog, Promethean, Prunesqualer, Pumpmeup, Pyrrhus16, Qwertyuiop17, Qxz, R'n'B, R.steenhard, RA0808, RadiantRay, Ranjithsutari, Raven in

Article Sources and Contributors 163

Orbit, Raymondwinn, ReDigit, Red58bill, RedWolf, Redvers, Remi0o, RenamedUser01302013, Reportpol, Retired user 0001, Rettetast, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richard D. LeCour,Rivertorch, Rmosler2100, Rockyron, Rocroyal320, Ronhjones, Ronz, Rorrers-McCaulman, Roux-HG, RoyBoy, Royboycrashfan, Rrburke, Rsalazar12, Rudjek, RussellGunn1456, Ruxion94,Ryan Postlethwaite, RyanGerbil10, S h i v a (Visnu), S sriram89, SCEhardt, SJP, ST47, SWAdair, SYSS Mouse, Sabarna, Saberclaw, Sadads, Saddhiyama, Saebjorn, Safewater, Sahar Dua,Sandcherry, Sarfa, Savant13, Sc0ttkclark, ScaldingHotSoup, Sceptre, SchfiftyThree, Schlüggell, Schumi555, Scilit, Semperf, Sesu Prime, Several Pending, Sfoskett, Shadowjams, Shanel, Shanes,Shangrilaista, Shannon1 (usurped3), Shaunus4, Shellfishbiologist, Sherurcij, Shirik, Shivankvishnoi, Shotwell, Shuipzv3, Siddhant, Silencedmajority, Silverxxx, Simeon H, SineWave, SirNicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sixtennis, Sjones22, Skarebo, Skater, SkerHawx, Skew-t, Skizzik, Slakr, Snek01, Snowmanmelting, Snowolf, Snpoj, Snydale, Sohamjava, Solarra,Someguy1221, Sophus Bie, Soumyadeep2208, Soundthebugle, SpaceFlight89, Sparkzy, Special-T, Speeddemon2992, Spiffy sperry, SpuriousQ, SpyMagician, Srirangaram, Srtxg, Ssjdemonfox,Stemonitis, Stephanehadadik, Sterling Scott, Steven Weston, Sulfis, Sunshard, SuperEel22, Superman1111, Swarm, Sylent, Syrthiss, TFOWR, Taelus, Tanzania, Tariqabjotu, Taskinen,TastyPoutine, TeaDrinker, Teammm, Tearlach, Tecsie, Tedmund, Teleomatic, Tellyaddict, Templationist, Tezeti, Thatguyflint, The Halo, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Rambling Man, TheThing That Should Not Be, The Utahraptor, The wub, TheDoctor10, TheGrimReaper NS, TheKMan, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Thedjatclubrock, Thewhitebeaner, Thingg, Think outside the box,Thorell, Thunderstix, Thunk, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Time3000, Tinctorius, Tinkerbell26, Toastr, Tobby72, Todd Vierling, Tom harrison, Tombaa, Tomer T, Tommy2010, Toohool, Tpbradbury,TrueBlueWolverine, Trusilver, Ttttttttttrrrrrrrrrrhhhhhhhhhh, Twinsday, Tyuityui, Ulric1313, Uncle Dick, Unionhawk, Utcursch, Uyanga, Valentin Zahrnt, Veinor, Velella, Venkateshshastri,Versageek, Versus22, Vipinhari, Viriditas, Volleybabe16, Vrenator, Vsmith, WCFrancis, WadeSimMiser, Wagino 20100516, Warlord DX, Warut, Waterpollution, Watprojects, Wavelength,Wavemaster447, Wayward, Weregerbil, West.andrew.g, Whangarei4life, Why Not A Duck, Widr, WikHead, Wikidenizen, Wikiman9779, Wikipelli, Wilfredor, WillMak050389, William M.Connolley, Wilochka, Wimt, Winedrinker12345, Wiseknowledge, Woohookitty, Worfasdgi, Workbytes, Wraith0, Wtmitchell, Xdenizen, Xscreamxitxoutx, Xue hanyu, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yintan,YixilTesiphon, Yuckfoo, ZacBowling, Zachery15, Zain7789, Zariquiegui, Zidonuke, Zoicon5, ΙωάννηςΚαραμήτρος, АлександрВв, 2669 anonymous edits

Waste  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568496322  Contributors: 16@r, 1q0p, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2D, 2T, 2over0, 6tate, A Softer Answer, A. 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Environmental management  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427072118  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Alanadexter, Alchimista, Alkazzi, Angela GP, Arthur Rubin,Auccl799, Avitius, Bonbayel, Brastein, Carollaruba, Cassbeth, Chris the speller, Clemifornia, Colonel Warden, Courcelles, DASonnenfeld, Danmaier, Dbfirs, Dj Capricorn, E Wing, EDM843HR,Esanih, EurekaLott, Fanghong, Feralfeline, Gabriel Kielland, Gilliam, Hdynes, Ingmar.lippert, IronGargoyle, JHunterJ, Joaquín Martínez Rosado, Johnfos, Jrecinto, Jü, Kadaniel, Karthikndr,Kengbeng, Kevin Bricknell, KirilyS, Knutls, Kuru, MER-C, Magnetiks, Mahoff, Mandarax, Mdd, Meco, Mokshafunk, Mr Accountable, MrOllie, Mrg3105, Nasnema, Natox, Newell Post, NickNumber, Pearle, Pinethicket, Polinizador, Prof C, Quaeler, RDBrown, RJP, Reatlas, Redddbaron, Richard001, Rjwilmsi, Robbiee 88, Robtrob, Samulili, Segobi, Shiftchange, Shivani666, Slakr,Spiffy sperry, ThjPhD1981, Txuspe, Vamilgandhi, Vortexrealm, Vsmith, Wavelength, WereSpielChequers, Wywin, Zheezhoul, 115 anonymous edits

Regulation and monitoring of pollution  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=513448259  Contributors: Adavidb, Alan Liefting, Ground Zero, Headbomb, Kravior, LilHelpa,Moreau1, Nopetro, R'n'B, Tim!, Wavelength, Woohookitty, 4 anonymous edits

Pollution prevention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=564448230  Contributors: 2602:306:CD55:D830:713A:121:3D93:812B, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Andrewpmk,Bobo192, Bovineone, C777, Cactus.man, Carax, Ckatz, Clerks, Donner60, Escape Orbit, Explicit, Fuzzywallaby, Headbomb, Hu Gadarn, Humbabba, Insaniac99, Keaux, Kilo-Lima, MER-C,Moreau1, Mr3641, NeilN, NewEnglandYankee, Noah Salzman, Northamerica1000, Paste, PedR, Reengler, Rockfang, Sahale, Sinned, SmartyBoots, Sriharsh1234, Sunray, Thusz, Troy 07,Tuck1234, Tvinson, Walkerma, Wavelength, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Wtfily, Zad68, 81 anonymous edits

Waste management  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=570004852  Contributors: - ), -Midorihana-, 10metreh, 7, A8UDI, A930913, Aaron Schulz, Abraham, B.S., Absolutecaliber, Accuruss, AdamWalker, Adumoul, Aetb, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, Alan Liefting, Alan ffm, Alansohn, Alchimista, Alex.muller, AllanWaller, Allmightyduck, Allstarecho, Amakuha, Ando1017, Andrewsuthy, Andrij Kursetsky, Angela, Ankit Maity, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, Anthere, Anthony Appleyard, Apothecia, Arctic Kangaroo, Arshak93, Arthurlo, Atripodi, Avalokiteshvara777, Avoided, Baa, Bbpen, Beineix, BeverlyCrusher, Bharbara, Bill.matthews, Bit Lordy, BjörnF, Blah3, Blathnaid, Bobo192, Bonadea, Bookandcoffee, BozMo, Bruce1ee, Bryan Derksen, CSumit, Camille stevenson, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Captainamerica90, Carchuleta, Casper2k3, Catgut, Cgd8d, Challenge me, Chefallen, Chrisdab, Chumribbidychum, Chuunen Baka, Chzz, Cmcnicoll, Correogsk, Courcelles, Creativninnovativ, Creidieki, DAJF, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DASonnenfeld, DMahalko, Daedelus, Darkildor, Darkwind, Davelane, David Biddulph, David from Downunder, Dbtbandit67, Deashunboi, DeeJayDragon, Denis, Denisarona, Devilinhell, DiggyG, Discospinster, Dizzydoozy, Dj Capricorn, Docu, Donner60, Download, DrDeke, Drstuey, E8, ESkog, Edderso, Eddie tejeda, Eeee, Eekerz, Egmontaz, Elite782, Enviro Services, Enviroboy, Environmentalservicesassociation, EoGuy, Euchiasmus, Euroscience, Evil Monkey, Excirial, Excite the Living, FT2, Falcon8765, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Flewis, Flyer22, For editting only, Fraggle81, FutureData, Fuzheado, G.A.S, GTZ-44-ecosan, Gail, Galaxhanter, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gingerlard, Giri pop, Gobstopperdesigns, Gogo Dodo, GrahamDo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Greennews, Grenavitar, Grim23, Grumpyyoungman01, Guanaco, Gurchzilla, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Hallows AG, Hard Raspy Sci, Harry the Dirty Dog, Harsh.bill, Haveapk, Hawesinsky, Headbomb, Heimstern, Heracles31, Hfcom, Hle37, Hu12, Hut 8.5, Ibsilliyas, Icairns, Iknowtrash, Illogicalpie, Immunize, Incinerator2.0, Infrogmation, Interrexconsul, Intershark, Iridescent, Iris lorain, Irishmeadow, J.delanoy, JForget, JLMadrigal, JRN Pigpen, JRR Trollkien, Jackelfive, Jackloko1092, Jake Wartenberg, Jamiemgbell, Jayc, Jeremy12201986, JimVC3, Jjustinjj77, Joan Cornish, John Foley, Johnfos, JohnnyRush10, Jojalozzo, Jonathan.25463880, Joostvandeputte, Jorfer, Jp347, Jujutacular, Juliancolton, Justin W Smith, KGV, KPBB, Karakas-design, Kashmiri, Katanada, Katoa, KellyCoinGuy, Kendal Ozzel, Kennyquator, Kevin Bricknell, Khalid hassani, Kingpin13, Kingturtle, Kjk2.1, Kjkolb, Knowledge Seeker, Knulclunk, Kodi.robertson, Krash, Kratos10, Kungfuadam, LWV Roadrunner, La goutte de pluie, Lamro, Landon1980, Lateg, Lawrence Waterhouse, LeaveSleaves, Lensi, Leoghanta2002, Linkspamremover, Longhair, Loren.wilton, Lotje, Luk, Luna Santin, MECU, MER-C, MJCdetroit, Maimai009, Malcolm123321, Manalipop, Marek69, MariMaticWPP, MarshallKe, Martin451, Master William On Carlton,

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Waste minimisation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=566235171  Contributors: ACR+ pmn, Alan Liefting, Andrewpmk, AnthonyPA, Apoorva Kadu, Arichnad, Beland,Betterusername, Bkell, Bob, Bsea, Canjth, Chendy, Curb Chain, D.h, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DASonnenfeld, Diannaa, Drstuey, Ebyabe, ElliotThomas, ErkinBatu, Gzkn, Headbomb, Hectorthebat,ImperfectlyInformed, Intershark, JTURI, January2007, Jared Preston, Jarry1250, Jimjamjak, Jorcoga, Kathleen.wright5, Kizor, L Kensington, Letsplaydrums, LilHelpa, M4gnum0n,Materialscientist, Mceder, Melchoir, MichaelBillington, Misterx2000, Mmberney, Mr3641, Mrs Trellis, Nimbulan, Northamerica1000, Openstrings, Orphan Wiki, Outlook, Pgan002, Psml bhor,R'n'B, Radagast83, Razorflame, Rifleman 82, Rintrah, Rlsheehan, SCEhardt, Safemariner, Skaterdoode93, Stannered, Supposed, Tbmum, The Strategist, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Titodutta,Trulystand700, Vortexrealm, Wavelength, Winhunter, Zharradan.angelfire, 63 anonymous edits

Montreal Protocol  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569609979  Contributors: 2001:558:6008:4:1DC0:E03D:91CA:6783, 2over0, Aboalbiss, Addshore, Agradman,Airconswitch, Akrokerama, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alexwcovington, Ali'i, Alinor, Alistair1978, Anomalocaris, Anton Sri Probiyantono, Arthur Rubin, Astrofreak92, Az1568, Bbold, Bearcat,Bejnar, Beland, Bentaboo, Bento00, Bletch, Bobo192, Borgx, Bovineone, Bracodbk, Brian0918, Bryan Derksen, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalElll, Chadlupkes, Chromega, Cl br,Clement Cherlin, Cmp don, Conversion script, CortalUX, Crazycomputers, Cst17, Cybercobra, Danny, Dave6, David Kernow, Deglr6328, DerBorg, Digital paintball, Docu, Dori, Duncharris,Duxkgh, Eastlaw, Ed Poor, Ellywa, Eltanin, Enviro2009, Epicadam, Error792, Fanra, Firsfron, Fitzhugh, Fyyer, George Burgess, Good Olfactory, Graham87, Grim23, Ground Zero, Gscshoyru,Heavyweight Gamer, Hede2000, Houshuang, Howcheng, Hpfeil, Immunize, Information Ecologist, Iridescent, Jdhammer, Jesse V., Jiang, Jonadin93, Jonathunder, Jonel, Joseph Solis inAustralia, Josh the Nerd, Julesd, JustAGal, Ketiltrout, Khitomer, Kinema, Kruusamägi, L.tak, Light618, Littlenuccio, Mandarax, MangoChicken, Marek69, Materialscientist, Matthewmayer,Matty16894, Mb1000, Melicans, Mister.bryan.kelley, Montrealais, Montrealers, Mrfebruary, NawlinWiki, Neutrality, Nils Simon, Nsaa, Nuno Tavares, Nuttycoconut, Ohconfucius, OlivierGalibert, Ollycity, Oneac, Originalwana, Ovideon, OzTruth, Party, Paul A, Petteri Aimonen, Pinkunicorn, Pinky sl, Polonium, Poltair, QEDquid, Qaubp12 g5asp, RJFJR, Rails, Ramble4hours,Rick Block, Rjwilmsi, RockMFR, Rory096, Rparson, Rsduhamel, Ruscientist, SEWilco, SHIMONSHA, Sam Hocevar, Sbharris, Scalethinker, Schaddm, Shawn in Montreal, Shimmin, SimonP,Slightsmile, Spearhead, Stahnkethedonkey, Syndicate, Template namespace initialisation script, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheMindsEye, Theme97, Themightyquill,Tide rolls, Time3000, TomTheHand, Travelbird, Tronno, UNAVL, UninvitedCompany, Uusitunnus, Wackywace, Warfreak, Wavelength, Wcfios, WebDTE, Wik, Will Beback, William M.Connolley, WookieInHeat, Xaosflux, Xrchz, Yanksox, Zachlipton, 377 anonymous edits

Kyoto Protocol  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569488480  Contributors: 0zymandias, 101090ABC, 159753, 1dragon, 1exec1, 2406:3003:200D:BC:BE3B:AFFF:FE10:6FEE, 2over0, A-giau, A. 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Article Sources and Contributors 165

Pilotguy, Pinkadelica, Pinnecco, Pishogue, Plasma east, Plasticup, Plazak, Podex, Polemarchus, Politicslvr, Polysophia, Ponder, Pop don, PoptartKing, Populus, Porterjoh, Postdlf, Postglock,Premeditated Chaos, Prester John, Price to Pay, Promethean, Pschemp, PseudoSudo, Psy guy, Puceron89, Puglet, Puissant001, PuzzletChung, Pwd, Quibik, Qxz, Radagast, Raghith, RalfSchmelter, Random Passer-by, Rarelibra, Raven1977, Ravensfire, Ravenswing, RayAYang, Raymond Ellis, Raymondwinn, Rd232, Rds865, Rdsmith4, Reconsider the static, Redrose64,Redthoreau, Reedy, Regancy42, Renata3, RevolverOcelotX, RexNL, Reywas92, Rhinokitty, Ribbit, Rich Farmbrough, Rider kabuto, Ridinlow333, Rjtrick, Rjwilmsi, Rlevse, Rmhermen,Robertvan1, Robgregory2302, Robin klein, Robomura, Robth, Robweiller, Rogpyvbc, Rohan ahlawat, Roleplayer, Romanm, Rory096, RossPatterson, Rossenglish, Rotiro, Rowan Adams,Rrburke, Rrloomis1, Rtol, Rupertslander, Russellkanning, Ruy Pugliesi, Ryulong, S0458241, SEWilco, SNIyer12, Sade, Saippuakauppias, Saksham, Saleems, Salvio giuliano, SamJohnston,Samuel Rosenbaum, SandryMM, SandyGeorgia, Sannse, Sarah, Sarichkaa, Satori, Savidan, Sbandrews, SchuminWeb, Scipius, Sciurinæ, ScottyBerg, Scroteau96, Seamar31, Seba5618, Semperdiscens, Senseitaco, Seraphimblade, Shadowjams, Shadowlink1014, Shanel, Shanes, Shinmawa, Shinpah1, Shonry21, Shushruth, Sillybilly, Sillydragon, Silverback, Singhalawap,Sinmiedoanada, Sinolonghai, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sirfrankomac, Siroxo, Sjakkalle, Sjoffutt, Skidlix, Skizzik, Sky Harbor, Skyemoor, Sloane, Slowking Man, Sluzzelin, Sm8900,Smith Jones, Smithbrenon, Smitz, Smyth, Snailtree, Snigbrook, Sobolewski, Sodium, Solar Kermit, Soliloquial, Solitude, Songthen, Spartaz, Spiffy sperry, SpinyNorman, Splash, Spliffy,Squiddy, Ssolbergj, Sssuuuzzzaaannn, StaticGull, Steel, Stemonitis, Stephan Schulz, Stj6, Stonewhite, Storm Rider, Struway2, Sun Creator, Super cyclist, SuperHamster, Susan Mason,SvenAERTS, TBrandley, TFCforever, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TShilo12, Ta bu shi da yu, Tagishsimon, Tamás Kádár, Tanuki-Dori, Tanvir Ahmmed, Tarquin, Tarret, Tassedethe, Tawker,Taxman, Taxninja2012, Tboger, Tcrow777, TeaDrinker, TedE, TehPiGuy, Tellyaddict, Tempest115, Tentinator, Terence, Teryx, That-Vela-Fella, Thatguyflint, The Aviv, The Cunctator, TheEphialtist, The Evil IP address, The Lord Of The Dance, The Original Juggernautical, The Rambling Man, The Red, The Storm Surfer, The Thing That Should Not Be, The clean r, The greatgrape ape is straight out of the know, The last username left was taken, The lorax, The machine512, TheKMan, TheNewPhobia, Thehelpfulone, Theo Pardilla, Thewikipedian, Thewonderidiot,Thingg, Thiseye, Thompson.matthew, Threlicus, TimR, Timwi, Tiptoety, Tirralirra, Titoxd, Tkessler, Tktktk, Tkynerd, Tnxman307, Tokek, Tom harrison, TomJonesIII, Tommy2010,Tompettyfan, Tomtom1540, Tono-bungay, Tony Sidaway, Tony1, Torchwoodwho, ToughLuckMeadow, Townmouse, Toytoy, Tpbradbury, Travia21, Trekkie4christ, Trevor Bekolay,Tripple^C^, Tristan Schmelcher, Troyeebarua, Trusilver, Tyler, Tzartzam, UBeR, UNAVL, Ubreth, Ucanlookitup, Uch01, Ugajin, Uhai, Ulric1313, Uncle Milty, Uranographer, Urdna,Username314, V i s n a v a, VMS Mosaic, Vaibhav.dkm, Varco, Vc100, Velvetsmog, Verloren, Viajero, Vinny Burgoo, Vinodpotter, Violetriga, Voidvector, Vortexrealm, Vsmith,Vulgarurbanism, WJBscribe, WaitingForConnection, Waitsian, Walkeradam, Walton One, Wanzaidi, Watti Renew, Wavelength, Wayward, Werd, Weser, Wesley, West.andrew.g, Widr, Wikialf, Wiki-bob2, Wikibofh, Wikipedian1234, Wildstar2501, William M. Connolley, Wimt, Wing Nut, Wisco, Wisden17, Wixiedoodle, Wizardman, Wizofaus, Wknight94, Wolfman, Wonglijie,Woohookitty, WookieInHeat, Woood, WpZurp, Wragge, Wrderijke, Wrenelhai, Wtmitchell, Wwoods, Xdenizen, Xerocs, Xiner, Xosmileback, Xtra, Xue hanyu, YAZASHI, Yamamoto Ichiro,Yandman, Yonatan, Yossiea, Ysangkok, Ytrewqt, Yunshui, ZenSaohu, Zepheus, Zigger, Zinjixmaggir, Zoney, Zorxd, Zundark, Zxcvbnm, صادق تابعی, と あ る 白 い 猫, 3129 anonymous edits

CLRTAP  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568587674  Contributors: Alan Liefting, AndrewRT, Angrense, Avala, Bryan Derksen, Bsea, Conversion script, DASonnenfeld,Dawn Bard, DerBorg, Docu, Finn Bjørklid, Good Olfactory, Hu Gadarn, IUCN-ELC, Jonathunder, Lalalalaaaaaa, Leyo, Mbeychok, Meclee, NJA, Paul A, Pinkadelica, Qertis, Rich Farmbrough,Ronline, Sumivec, Sysin, Vasil, Wavelength, Wik, 14 anonymous edits

OSPAR Convention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=555603197  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Anilocra, Cgingold, DASonnenfeld, DerBorg, Dthomsen8, Gilliam, GoodOlfactory, Headbomb, Hmains, InspectorTiger, Japinderum, Ospar, Smallman12q, Sting, Sumivec, 5 anonymous edits

Stockholm Convention  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569472445  Contributors: 4v4l0n42, A.Ou, Alan Liefting, Andrewrp, Antandrus, Art LaPella, BorgQueen, Cícero,D.h, Dancter, Decltype, Delirium, DerBorg, Envepidoc, Evaa, Fayenatic london, Feministo, Gabbe, George Burgess, Giraffedata, Good Olfactory, H Padleckas, Headlessness, HenkBouwman,Ilnyckyj, Justina.environment, Kbrose, LeadSongDog, Lejman, Leyo, Lofor, Ltilbu, Magioladitis, McSly, Mikael Häggström, Nwbeeson, Ohconfucius, Olag, Oldfox2003, Pganas, Physchim62,Plumbago, Punchi, RHaworth, Rjwilmsi, Smyth, Stone, Stormy56, Sumivec, Terrace4, The Thing That Should Not Be, Trevor MacInnis, Urielx2020, Vanished user 2340rujowierfj08234irjwfw4,Wavelength, Wtmitchell, Yerpo, Yilloslime, 63 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 166

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Litter.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Litter.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Nils AllyFile:Air-pollution-taiwan.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Air-pollution-taiwan.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Johntarantino1File:Canal-pollution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canal-pollution.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:AarchibaFile:Ship Tracks Reveal Pollution's Effects on Clouds.ogv  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ship_Tracks_Reveal_Pollution's_Effects_on_Clouds.ogv  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: NASAFile:Yangzhou - industrial area west of Wenfeng Temple - P1130239.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yangzhou_-_industrial_area_west_of_Wenfeng_Temple_-_P1130239.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: User:VmenkovFile:Health effects of pollution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Health_effects_of_pollution.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mikael HäggströmFile:Litter trap.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Litter_trap.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Biatch3File:Dust collector kosovo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust_collector_kosovo.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Kristoferb (talk). Original uploader was Kristoferb at en.wikipediaImage:Vapor Recovery Device.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vapor_Recovery_Device.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: McapdevilaFile:PollutionCheck Banner.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PollutionCheck_Banner.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:HindustanilanguageImage:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CO2-by-country--1990-2025.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:wikipedia:en:user:Onceler (original uploader)File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Runoff_of_soil_&_fertilizer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lynn BettsImage:AlfedPalmersmokestacks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlfedPalmersmokestacks.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alfred PalmerFile:Cumulus clouds in fair weather.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Conscious, Pierre cb, Twinsday, Yarnalgo, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, 1 anonymous editsImage:Air .pollution 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Air_.pollution_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: High Contrast, Quadell, SCEhardt, TrilliumzFile:Air Pollution-Causes&Effects.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Air_Pollution-Causes&Effects.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:Luftverschmutzung-Ursachen&Auswirkungen.svg: chris 論 derivative work: Matt Fitzpatrick (talk)File:Smoke Above Sintagma.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Smoke_Above_Sintagma.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:ЮкатанImage:Dust Storm Texas 1935.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust_Storm_Texas_1935.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAA George E. MarshAlbum, theb1365, Historic C&GS CollectionImage:BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BurningOffFieldsInTheEveningInSouthGeorgia.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Original uploader was Richardelainechambers at en.wikipediaFile:Industrial-pollution.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Industrial-pollution.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Johntarantino1File:New Delhi Met Office, India 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_Delhi_Met_Office,_India_02.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:FredericknoronhaImage:Cairo in smog.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cairo_in_smog.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Sturm58at en.wikipediaFile:Global air pollution map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Global_air_pollution_map.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:KVDPFile:Deaths from air pollution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deaths_from_air_pollution.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:KVDPImage:Gaussian Plume.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaussian_Plume.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader wasMbeychok at en.wikipediaFile:Empire State Building Night.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Empire_State_Building_Night.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: Beyond My Ken, Charliebrown7034, Duesentrieb, Fred J, Lamiot, Man vyi, Quasipalm, Skeezix1000, TwoWings, Wst, Xnatedawgx, Überraschungsbilder, 2 anonymouseditsFile:Light pollution country versus city.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_country_versus_city.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Jeremy StanleyFile:Skybeamer-uniqema-640.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skybeamer-uniqema-640.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AlanLiefting, Skatebiker, 1 anonymous editsFile:HPS-lamps.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HPS-lamps.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: KlaasFile:Las Vegas Strip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Las_Vegas_Strip.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader wasBrendelSignature at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Pavuk94 at en.wikipedia.File:México City at Night 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:México_City_at_Night_2005.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Ardfern,FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, Gunnex, Infrogmation, Leoboudv, MECU, Ruberyuka, Sealight, Spangineer, Steschke, Victor 1295, Zaqarbal, 2 anonymous editsFile:Effect of light pollution on clouds.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Effect_of_light_pollution_on_clouds.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: Ckyba, 2 anonymous editsFile:Light pollution europe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_europe.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Albester, Hertz1888, MaBaker, 2 anonymous editsFile:Earthlights dmsp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earthlights_dmsp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Data courtesy Marc Imhoff of NASA GSFC andChristopher Elvidge of NOAA NGDC. Image by Craig Mayhew and Robert Simmon, NASA GSFC.File:Christmas in Dublin, CA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christmas_in_Dublin,_CA.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: V SmootheFile:Lichtverschmutzung in Kastelruth.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lichtverschmutzung_in_Kastelruth.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: MoroderFile:Light pollution It's not pretty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_pollution_It's_not_pretty.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:Jeremy StanleyFile:Milky Way Shines over Snowy La Silla.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Milky_Way_Shines_over_Snowy_La_Silla.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:ESO/José Francisco SalgadoFile:Effect of light pollution on sky polarization.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Effect_of_light_pollution_on_sky_polarization.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:CkybaFile:LED Droplight.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LED_Droplight.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: RintojiangFile:Flat-lens cobra luminaire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat-lens_cobra_luminaire.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: Man vyi, SolipsistFile:Drop-lens cobra luminaire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drop-lens_cobra_luminaire.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: HuBar, Man vyi, Solipsist, Tintazul

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 167

File:110101 LightPollution Italian Regional bills specs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:110101_LightPollution_Italian_Regional_bills_specs.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: GiancarloGottaFile:110213 LED vs Sodium vs Mercury.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:110213_LED_vs_Sodium_vs_Mercury.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:GiancarloGottaFile:Obvious water pollution.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Obvious_water_pollution.jpeg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jrockley, Juliancolton, Komencanto,4 anonymous editsFile:MARPOL 73-78 signatories.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MARPOL_73-78_signatories.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: JrockleyFile:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nrborderborderentrythreecolorsmay05-1-.JPG  License: Public Domain Contributors: CNRCFile:Rio tinto river CarolStoker NASA Ames Research Center.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rio_tinto_river_CarolStoker_NASA_Ames_Research_Center.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Carol Stoker, NASAFile:Ship pumping ballast water.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ship_pumping_ballast_water.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Coast GuardFile:Barbadosdustgraph.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barbadosdustgraph.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MECU, ThegreatdrFile:Maldives - Kurumba Island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PalawanOzFile:Aguas del lago de Maracaibo contaminadas por Lemna 03.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aguas_del_lago_de_Maracaibo_contaminadas_por_Lemna_03.JPG  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: Wilfredo R. Rodriguez H.File:Scheme eutrophication-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scheme_eutrophication-en.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hans HillewaertFile:Pollution swan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pollution_swan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BeatrixBelibaste, Jrockley, Kersti Nebelsiek,Saperaud, Thue, 3 anonymous editsFile:Laysan albatross chick remains.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laysan_albatross_chick_remains.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Forest & KimStarr (USGS)File:Kamilo Beach2 Courtesy Algalita dot org.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kamilo_Beach2_Courtesy_Algalita_dot_org.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Algalita.orgFile:Aerosolcan pullution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aerosolcan_pullution.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: T3rminatrImage:Qantas b747 over houses arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qantas_b747_over_houses_arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arpingstone,Bidgee, Denniss, Lobo, MB-one, Tangopaso, YarlFile:Show 028.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Show_028.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Relena, RobsonhrImage:TullamarineFwy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TullamarineFwy.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AtlanticaFile:AVONDALE SHIPYARD WORKER WEARS SPECIAL EAR MUFFS FOR PROTECTION FROM THE HEAVY LEVEL OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE POLLUTION - 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Potrero Power Plant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Unit_3_-_Potrero_Power_Plant.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Dragons flightFile:Coal power plant Knepper 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coal_power_plant_Knepper_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: ArnoldiusFile:McDonalds Beaupre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:McDonalds_Beaupre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: SaffronBlazeFile:Ganges river at Varanasi 2008.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ganges_river_at_Varanasi_2008.jpeg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: JM SuarezFile:Jacuecanga Angra dos Reis Rio de Janeiro Brazil Brasfels.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jacuecanga_Angra_dos_Reis_Rio_de_Janeiro_Brazil_Brasfels.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Rio BrazilFile:Sewer overflow RI EPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sewer_overflow_RI_EPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgencyFile:muddy USGS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muddy_USGS.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moreau1File:Garbage Collector In Oakley Creek.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Garbage_Collector_In_Oakley_Creek.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Uploader.File:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Cls14File:Research- water sampling equipment.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Research-_water_sampling_equipment.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University (www.agron.iastate.edu)File:Deer Island MA.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deer_Island_MA.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Fletcher6File:REDOX DAF unit 225 m3-h-1000 GPM.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:REDOX_DAF_unit_225_m3-h-1000_GPM.jpg  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: user:SmileJohn (enWP)File:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG License: Public Domain  Contributors: USDA

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 168

File:Confined-animal-feeding-operation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Confined-animal-feeding-operation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Originaluploader was SlimVirgin at en.wikipediaFile:Silt fence EPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silt_fence_EPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)File:Trounce Pond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trounce_Pond.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Drm310File:Payatas-Dumpsite Manila Philippines02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Payatas-Dumpsite_Manila_Philippines02.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: KounosuFile:European legal definition of waste.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:European_legal_definition_of_waste.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Cmdrjameson, MithrandirMage, Rotor DB, Zidane2k1, 1 anonymous editsFile:Aral Sea 1989-2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aral_Sea_1989-2008.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA, derivative work by Zafiroblue05 aten.wikipediaFile:TerracesBuffers.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TerracesBuffers.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lynn Betts, USDA Natural ResourcesConservation ServiceFile:Gibraltar East Side Water Catchments in 1992.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gibraltar_East_Side_Water_Catchments_in_1992.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Jim LinwoodFile:Juvenile fish bypass.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Juvenile_fish_bypass.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Army Corps of EngineersFile:Cloture grande faune A73A.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cloture_grande_faune_A73A.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: CephasFile:Southern Appalachian bog May 2010.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Southern_Appalachian_bog_May_2010.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GaryPeeples/U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceImage:Polluted Ditch by David Shankbone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polluted_Ditch_by_David_Shankbone.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: David ShankboneFile:Kathmandu-Müllabfuhr.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kathmandu-Müllabfuhr.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Sigismund vonDobschützFile:Sophämtning 2010.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sophämtning_2010.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Holger.EllgaardFile:Landfill Hawaii.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landfill_Hawaii.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Eric GuintherFile:Landfill compactor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landfill_compactor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RopableFile:District heating plant spittelau ssw crop1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:District_heating_plant_spittelau_ssw_crop1.png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 2.5  Contributors: Croped by Gralo from a self-taken image by ContributorFile:Steel recycling bales.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steel_recycling_bales.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: blahedoFile:Compost Heap.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Compost_Heap.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic  Contributors: Photograph© Andrew Dunn, http://www.andrewdunnphoto.comFile:Haase Lubeck MBT.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Haase_Lubeck_MBT.JPG  License: Creative 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trends.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ozone_cfc_trends.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Liftarn, Maksim, Robert Skyhawk, Skamon, 5anonymous editsFile:PD-icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex.muller, Anomie, Anonymous Dissident, CBM, MBisanz, PBS,Quadell, Rocket000, Strangerer, Timotheus Canens, 1 anonymous editsFile:Kyoto protocol parties and 2012-2020 commitments.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyoto_protocol_parties_and_2012-2020_commitments.svg  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:L.takFile:wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur,Rocket000File:Kyoto Parties with first period (2008-2012) greenhouse gas emissions limitations targets and the percentage change in 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Dowlatabadi, M. Henrion, D. Keith, R.Lempert, S. McBride, M. Small, T. Wilbanks (eds.)). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington D.C., USA.file:Indicative probabilities of exceeding various increases in global mean temperature (relative to the pre-industrial level) for stabilization levels of 400, 450, 500, 550, 650 and 750ppmv carbon dioxide equivalent.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indicative_probabilities_of_exceeding_various_increases_in_global_mean_temperature_(relative_to_the_pre-industrial_level)_for_stabilization_levels_of_400,_450,_500,_550,_650_and_750_ppmv_carbon_dioxide_equivalent.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Enescotfile:Projected global carbon dioxide emissions from fossil and other industrial sources between 2000-2100 using MiniCAM emissions scenarios from Clarke et al 2007.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Projected_global_carbon_dioxide_emissions_from_fossil_and_other_industrial_sources_between_2000-2100_using_MiniCAM_emissions_scenarios_from_Clarke_et_al_2007.png License: Public Domain  Contributors: Clarke, L., J. Edmonds, H. Jacoby, H. Pitcher, J. Reilly, R. RichelsFile:CO2emissions1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CO2emissions1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:L.takFile:Carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion of Annex I Kyoto Protocol Parties 1990-2009.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carbon_dioxide_emissions_from_fuel_combustion_of_Annex_I_Kyoto_Protocol_Parties_1990-2009.png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Enescotfile:Annual per capita carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990-2009 for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex I Parties.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Annual_per_capita_carbon_dioxide_emissions_from_fuel_combustion_between_1990-2009_for_the_Kyoto_Annex_I_and_non-Annex_I_Parties.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Enescotfile:Annual carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion between 1990-2009 for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex I Parties.png  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Annual_carbon_dioxide_emissions_from_fuel_combustion_between_1990-2009_for_the_Kyoto_Annex_I_and_non-Annex_I_Parties.png  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: EnescotFile:Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution.png License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndrewRT

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Image:OSPAR Convention.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OSPAR_Convention.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:JapinderumImage:OSPAR Commission area map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OSPAR_Commission_area_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Eric Gaba (Sting - fr:Sting)File:Map of Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.svg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Stockholm_Convention_on_Persistent_Organic_Pollutants.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gabbe, by trivially changingmap by Canuckguy

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