poetics chapter 20: the elements of language (papers in poetics 9)

7/29/2019 Poetics Chapter 20: The Elements of Language (Papers In Poetics 9)

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PoeticsChapter 20

Texts, Translations, and Commentaries

Bart A. Mazzetti

(c) 2013201! Bart A. Mazzetti

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TAB"# $% C$&T#&T'

.Poeticsch. 20 complete.

. The diision o* ocal so+nd into to and three.

. The s-llale as an intelli/ile ocal so+nd.

. $nPtosisor Case.

. The principal and secondar- parts o* lexis the *orms o* their de*initions.

. 'ome oserations on the name and speech.

. The name, the er, and the participle ith respect to si/ni*-in/ time.

. The seeral acco+nts o* speech in relation to names, ers, the de*inition, and the

s-llale.

4. The principles o* Aristotles treatment reealed - the *ore/oin/ inesti/ation.

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.POETICSC5. 20 C$M6"#T#.

1. Text and translation

C*. Aristotle,Poeticsch. 20 (17!8 2017!9a 39) (ed. :. ;assel1+nchan/ed< tr. B.A.M.)

[20] th=j de\ le/cewj a(pa/shj ta/d e)sti\ ta\me/rh, stoixei=on sullabh\ su/ndesmoj

o)/noma r(h=ma a)/rqron ptw=sij lo/goj

stoixei=on me\n ou)=n e)stin !wnh\a)diai/retoj, ou) pa=sa de\ a)ll e)c h(=jpe/!u"e sunqeth\ gi/gnesqai !wnh/#

"ai\ ga\r tw=n qhri/wn ei)si\n a)diai/retoi!wnai/, w(=n ou)demi/an le/gw [2!]stoixei=on

tau/thj de\ me/rh to/ te !wnh=en "ai\ to\h(mi/!wnon "ai\ a)/!wnon

=20> B+t o* lan/+a/e as a hole these are theparts element, s-llale, con?+nction,

name, er, article, case, speech.2

An element, there*ore, is an indiisile ocal

so+nd, +t not eer- one *rom hich an intelli

/ile ocal so+nd is nat+rall- apt to res+lt

(*or there are indiisile ocal so+nds elon/in/

to the easts none o* hich call =2!> an ele

ment),

+t the parts o* these are oel and semioel

and m+te =@ consonant>.

e)/stin de\ tau=ta !wnh=en me\n $to\%a)/neu prosbolh=j e)/xon !wnh\na)"ousth/n,

h(mi/!wnon de\ to\ meta\ prosbolh=je)/xon !wnh\n a)"ousth/n, oi(=on to\ & "ai\to\ ',

a)/!wnon de\ to\ meta\ prosbolh=j "aqau(to\ me\n ou)demi/an e)/xon !wnh/n,meta\ de\ [30] tw=n e)xo/ntwn tina\

!wnh\n gino/menon a)"ousto/n, oi(=on to\ "ai\ to\

B+t a oel is =an indiisile ocal so+nd>

hain/ an a+dile so+nd itho+t an addition,

s+ch as a and oocal so+nd hich neither impedes nor pro

d+ces one si/ni*icatie ocal so+nd o+t o* man-

ocal so+nds nat+rall- apt to e composed at the

extremes as ell as in the middle,

hich it does not s+it to place at the e/innin/

o* speech - itsel*, s+ch as me/n=on the onehand> or de/=on the other hand>.

$r else a nonsi/ni*icatie ocal so+nd hich

=!> o+t o* more than one si/ni*icatie ocal

so+nd is nat+rall- apt to prod+ce one si/ni*icant

ocal so+nd.

B+t an article is a nonsi/ni*icatie ocal so+nd

hich maes clear the e/innin/ or end or

diidin/point o* speech, s+ch as a)m./=ao+t> and peri/=concernin/> and the rest.

h)\ !wnh\ a)/shmoj h(\ ou)/te "wlu/ei ou)/tepoiei= !wnh\n mi/an shmanti"h\n e)"pleio/nwn !wnw=n pe!u"ui=a ti/qesqai "ai\[10] e)pi\ tw=n a)/"rwn "ai\ e)pi\ tou=me/sou

$r else a nonsi/ni*icatie ocal so+nd hich

neither impedes nor prod+ces one si/ni*icatie

ocal so+nd o+t o* man- ocal so+nds nat+rall-

apt to e placed at the extremes as ell as =10>

in the middle.

o)/noma de/ e)sti !wnh\ sunqeth\shmanti"h\ a)/neu xro/nou h(=j me/rojou)de/n e)sti "aq au(to\ shmanti"o/n#

e)n ga\r toi=j diploi=j ou) xrw/meqa w(j"ai\ au)to\ "aq au(to\ shmai=non, oi(=one)n tw=+ eo/dwroj to\ dwroj ou)shmai/nei

B+t a name is a =simple or> composite ocal

so+nd si/ni*icatie itho+t time, no part o*

hich is si/ni*icatie - itsel* as i*

it si/ni*ies - itsel*, *or example, in Theodore

doron =i.e. /i*t> does not si/ni*-.

r(h=ma de\ !wnh\ sunqeth\ shmanti"h\meta\ [1!] xro/nou h(=j ou)de\n me/rojshmai/nei "aq au(to/, w(/sper "ai\ e)pi\tw=n o)noma/twn#

to\ me\n ga\r a)/nqrwpoj h)\ leu"o/n ou)shmai/nei to\ po/te, to\ de\ badi/0ei h)\beba/di"en prosshmai/nei to\ me\n to\n

paro/nta xro/non to\ de\ to\nparelhluqo/ta

B+t a er is a =simple or> composite ocal

so+nd si/ni*icatie =1!> ith time no part o*hich si/ni*ies - itsel*, as is the case in names als or =he> has aled

consi/ni*-, the one present, the other, past time.

ptw=sij d e)sti\n o)no/matoj h)\ r(h/matojh( me\n "ata\ to\ tou/tou h)\ tou/tw+ [20]shmai=non "ai\ o(/sa toiau=ta,h( de\ "ata\ to\ e(ni\ h)\ polloi=j, oi(=on

B+t case elon/s to name or er, the one

si/ni*-in/ accordin/ to o* this =20> or to that

and hateer others =are> s+ch,

1As ar/+e elo, the de*initions o* the connecties sho+ld come afterthe acco+nt o* the +nit- o* speech.

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a)/nqrwpoi h)\ a)/nqrwpoj,

h( de\ "ata\ ta\ u(po"riti"a/, oi(=on "ate)rw/thsin e)pi/tacin# to\ ga\r e)ba/disen1

h)\ ba/di0e ptw=sij r(h/matoj "ata\ tau=tata\ ei)/dh e)sti/n

+t the other accordin/ to one or man-, *or

example, men or man,

+t this accordin/ to delier-, *or example,

accordin/ to E+estionin/, commandin/.

%or =he> has aled or =he> aled are cases

o* the er accordin/ to these species.

lo/goj de\ !wnh\ sunqeth\ shmanti"h\ h(=je)/nia me/rh "aq au(ta\ shmai/nei ti

2ou) ga\r [2!] a(/paj lo/goj e)" r(hma/twn"ai\ o)noma/twn su/g"eitai, oi(=on o( tou=a)nqrw/pou o(rismo/j, a)ll e)nde/xetaia)/neu r(hma/twn ei)=nai lo/gon, me/rojme/ntoi a)ei/ ti shmai=non e(/cei3

oi(=on e)n tw=+ badi/0ei 4le/wn o( 4le/wn

ei(=j de/ e)sti lo/goj dixw=j, h)\ ga\ro( e(\n shmai/nwn, h)\ o( e)" pleio/nwnsunde/smw+,

oi(=on h( )5lia\j me\n [30] sunde/smw+ei(=j, o( de\ tou= a)nqrw/pou tw=+ e(\nshmai/nein

B+t speech is composite si/ni*icatie ocal

so+nd some o* hose parts si/ni*- somethin/

- themseles eer- speech is composed *rom

names and ers< *or example, the de*inition o*

man, +t there is speech hich happens to e

itho+t ers,)

Fet a part =o* speech> ill ala-s hae si/ni*-

cance, *or example, in Cleon als, Cleon.

B+t speech is one in to a-s, *or it is either

that hich si/ni*ies one thin/ or that hich is

one *rom man- con?+nctions,

*or example, the Iliad is one - con?+nctions,

+t the de*inition o* man one - si/ni*-in/ one

thin/.

2. The de*inition o* the s-llale corrected

C*. Aristotle, Poet. 20 (17!8373!) (tr. Theodore B+cle-< re. B.A.M., ith the lastsentence tr. a*ter :oert Girin, ho *ollos the text as emended - H+deman)

B+t a s-llale =3!> is a nonsi/ni*icatie ocalso+nd composed *rom a m+te and one hain/

so+nd< *or /r itsel* itho+t a itsel* is a s-lla

le, and also ith a, *or example, /ra.

B+t a s-llale is a nonsi/ni*icatie ocal so+ndcomposed *rom a m+te, and an element hich

has so+nd =i.e. *rom a oel or semioel>. %or

g ritho+t ais &$T itsel* is a s-llale< +t ith

a, asgraT '.

3. The de*inition o* speech corrected

C*. Aristotle,Poet. 20 (17!9a 2729) (tr. B.A.M.)




names and ers in hich somethin/ is said o*

somethin/ else ill ala-s hae si/ni*-cance, *or example, in Cleon als, Cleon.

&ote that the reason *or moin/ the cla+se on de*inition is eident, since it comprises the

explanation o* Aristotles claim that Ithere is speech hich happens to e itho+t ersJ,

+t the ?+sti*ication *or the ords hae inserted in an/+lar races ill e eident *rom the*olloin/ side-side comparison ith the 6hilosophers acco+nt o* speech in his or

On Interpretation

.Aristotle,Poet.20 (17!9a 272)

(tr. B.A.M.)




names and ers ers in hich somethin/ is

said o* somethin/ else< +t there is speech

hich happens to e itho+t ers, L*or ex

ample, the de*inition o* manL ill ala-s hae si/ni*-

cance, *or example, in Cleon als, Cleon.

Aristotle,De Int., 7 (18 2831)

(tr. Nean T. $esterle, re.)

18 28 'peechJ is si/ni*icatie ocal so+nd,

some parts o* hich are si/ni*icatie separatel-,

i.e., as words but not as an affiration or a

negation.

=i.e. as an a**irmation or a ne/ation>

18 2 "et me explain. The ord IanimalJ si/

ni*ies somethin/, +t it does not si/ni*- that it is

or that it is not< it ill e an a**irmation or ne/a

tion, hoeer, i* somethin/ is added.

18 30 B+t one s-llale o* IanimalJ does not

si/ni*- an-thin/< similarl-, in the ord I*ol,J

IolJ does not si/ni*- an-thin/ in itsel*, +t is

onl- a ocal so+nd. n composite names, ho

eer, the part does si/ni*- somethin/, +t not in

itsel*, as has een said.

7. &ote on the *ore/oin/

The reader ill note that, ith respect to the de*inition o* the s-llale, the correc

tions are necessar- to aoid a mani*est contradiction, since H : itho+t A is nota s-llale,+t H:A is. B+t the second passa/e as it has reached +s *ails to mae clear the *orm o*

speech hich is opposed to the de*inition, hich is exempli*ied - an a**irmation, as

Aristotle maes clear in the correspondin/ disc+ssion in his or on interpretation. taeoth o* these corrections to e +nprolematic and +ncontroersial.

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The reader ill also note ho hae emended the de*inition o* the name and er,

inasm+ch as either one ma- e oth simple as ell as composite.

!. $n the order o* treatment o* the parts o* lexis.

As man- commentators note, the order /ien *or parts o* lan/+a/e does not a/ree

ith the order *o+nd in the text hich *ollos, the article ein/ o+t o* place. n this re/ard,

compare the *olloin/ *rom Boethi+s second edition o* his commentar- on the Peri!ereneias(tr. B.A.M.) IB+t in the or ao+t the poetic art he did not diide lan/+a/ein the same a-, +t he laid don all the parts o* lan/+a/e in their entiret-, a**irmin/ them

to e eleents,s"llables, con#unctions, articles, naes, cases, $erbs, =and>speec%esJ.1

&o it is m- ie that the parts o* lexiso+/ht to hae een treated in the *olloin/

order %irst, its composin/ parts, the elements and the s-llales the- enter into, then the

parts hich are themseles composed o* the elements. 5ence, ri/ht a*ter element ands-llale, the name and the er sho+ld hae een treated< then case, as ein/ common to

the to< then speech, as ein/ composed o* them< then hat maes speech one hich,

inasm+ch as it introd+ces the ord con?+nction, this part o* lan/+a/e, a*ter hich thearticle o+ld hae een treated. ret+rn to this s+?ect in section elo.

no proceed to treat more closel- the diision o* ocal so+nd and the de*inition o* case.

1In opere uero de poetica non eode odo diuidit locutione sed ones onino locutionis partes apposuitconfirans esse locutionis partes eleenta, s"llabas, coniunctiones, articulos, noina, casus, uerba,

orationes

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1. $n the diision o* oiced so+nd

C*. Aristotle,Poeticsch. 20 (17!8 3739) (tr. B.A.M.)

e)/stin de\ tau=ta !wnh=en me\n $to\%a)/neu prosbolh=j e)/xon !wnh\n

a)"ousth/n,


a)/!wnon de\ to\ meta\ prosbolh=j "aqau(to\ me\n ou)demi/an e)/xon !wnh/n,meta\ de\ [30] tw=n e)xo/ntwn tina\!wnh\n gino/menon a)"ousto/n, oi(=on to\ "ai\ to\

&o a $owel indeed is =an indiisile ocalso+nd> hain/ an a+dile so+nd itho+t

application1, s+ch as aand o, lie / and d.

n s+m, an indiisile ocal so+nd either

(a) has an a+dile so+ndper seor not

() inolesprosboleor an application or not

(c) needs to e so+nded ith a oel in order to e made a+dile or not

has an a+dile so+ndper seitho+tprosbole the vowel

has an a+dile so+nd ithprosbole the semi-vowel

has no a+dile so+nd itho+tprosbole, +t needs to e so+nded ith a oel in

order to e made a+dile the mute or consonant

C*. I#idence *or the pron+nciation o* Ancient Hree R (eta) as =>J2

Hree /rammarians (e./., Oion-si+s Thrax) diide consonants into to primar- cate/ories

the ap%ona (beta, gaa, delta, &appa, pi, tau, t%eta, p%i, and c%i), and the %eip%ona

('eta, &si, psi, labda, u, nu, r%o, siga). n Aristotles Poetics (17!8) the ap%ona (o*

hich betais a memer) are descried as Ihain/ contactJ (@ I eta prosbolesJ), +t not

being pronounceable wit%out a $owel. n modern parlance e o+ld sa- that aphona are the

plosi$es, prono+nced instantaneo+sl-, hile hemiphona are fricati$es, and those other

consonants that can e prono+nced contin+o+sl-, itho+t the need *or a *olloin/ oel. *

eta ere *ricatie, it o+ld e classi*ied as one o* the hemiphona.

2. The diision o* consonants in s+m

the ap%ona (beta, gaa, delta, &appa, pi, tau, t%eta, p%i, and c%i) Ihain/

contactJ the plosies, hich reE+ire a *olloin/ oel

1'c. Io* the ton/+e, and clos+re o* the lipsJ, as Aristotle maes clear elsehere< c*. De Part. Anial., . 18

(880a 310). hae treated this s+?ect at len/th in m- precedin/ paper, I$n 'o+nd and oiceJ.2 (httpSS.*o+ndalis.comSlanSetapro.htm =11S23S09>)


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the %eip%ona ('eta, &si, psi, labda, u, nu, r%o, siga) Inot hain/ contactJ

the *ricaties, hich do not reE+ire a *olloin/ oel

3. ThePoeticson the element or letter and the s-llale as parts o* lan/+a/e

C*. Aristotle.Poeticsch. 20 (17!8 2039) (tr. Theodore B+cle-)

[20] th=j de\ le/cewj a(pa/shj ta/d e)sti\ ta\me/rh, stoixei=on sullabh\ su/ndesmojo)/noma r(h=ma a)/rqron ptw=sij lo/goj

$* all diction, hoeer, the *olloin/ are theparts< iz. the letter =i.e. element>, the s-llale,

the con?+nction, the name, the er, the article,

the case, and the sentence =i.e. speech>.

stoixei=on me\n ou)=n e)stin !wnh\a)diai/retoj,

ou) pa=sa de\ a)ll e)c h(=j pe/!u"esunqeth\ gi/gnesqai !wnh/#



The letter, there*ore, indeed, is an indiisile

=ocal> so+nd< -et not eer- s+ch so+nd, +t

that *rom hich an intelli/ile so+nd is adapted

to e prod+ced.

%or there are indiisile ocal so+nds o* r+tes,

no one o* hich call a letter.

B+t the parts o* this indiisile so+nd are,oel, semioel, and m+te.

e)/stin de\ tau=ta !wnh=en me\n $to\%a)/neu prosbolh=j e)/xon !wnh\na)"ousth/n,


a)/!wnon de\ to\ meta\ prosbolh=j "aqau(to\ me\n ou)demi/an e)/xon !wnh/n,meta\ de\ [30] tw=n e)xo/ntwn tina\!wnh\n gino/menon a)"ousto/n, oi(=on to\ "ai\ to\

And a oel, indeed, is that hich has an

a+dile so+nd, itho+t perc+ssion< s+ch as a

and o.

B+t a semioel is that hich has an a+dile

so+nd, ith perc+ssion< assand r.

And a m+te is that hich, een ith the

conc+rrence o* the ton/+e, has o* itsel*, indeed,no so+nd, +t ecomes a+dile in con?+nctionith the thin/s hich hae a certain so+nd< as g

and d.

tau=ta de\ dia!e/rei sxh/masi/n te tou=sto/matoj "ai\ to/poij "ai\ dasu/thti "ai\*ilo/thti "ai\ mh/"ei "ai\ braxu/thti e)/ti de\o)cu/thti "ai\ baru/thti "ai\ tw=+ me/sw+#peri\ w(=n "aq e(/"aston e)n toi=jmetri"oi=j prosh/"ei qewrei=n

B+t these di**er - the con*i/+rations o* the

mo+th, in the parts =o* the mo+th> - densit-

and ten+it- o* aspiration, - len/th and

shortness< and *+rther still, the- di**er -

ac+teness and /rait-, and the medi+m eteen

oth these< the theor- respectin/ each o* hich

pertains to the metrical art.

sullabh\ [3!] de/ e)stin !wnh\ a)/shmojsunqeth\ e)c a)!w/nou "ai\ !wnh\ne)/xontoj#

"ai\ ga\r to\ ' a)/neu tou= -sullabh\"ai\- meta\ tou= , oi(=on to\ '

B+t a s-llale is a so+nd itho+t si/ni*ication,

composed *rom a m+te, and an element hich

has so+nd =i.e. *rom a oel, or semioel>.

%org ritho+t ais a s-llale, and also ith a,

asg r a.1

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a)lla\ "ai\ tou/twn qewrh=sai ta\j dia!ora\jth=j metri"h=j e)stin

The st+d-, hoeer, o* the di**erences o* these,

pertains also to the metrical art.

C*. Aristotle,Poeticsch. 20 (17!8 2039) ("at. Qilliam o* Moeree< tr. B.A.M.)

"oc+tionis a+tem omnis hee s+nt partes

element+m, sillaa, coni+nctio, nomen, er+m,

artic+l+s, cas+s, oratio.

B+t o* lan/+a/e as a hole these are the parts

element, s-llale, con?+nction, name,

er, article, case, speech.#lement+m E+idem i/it+r ox indiisiilis, nonomnis a+tem sed ex E+a nata est *ieri intelli/i

ilis ox

(et enim estiar+m s+nt indiisiiles oces,

E+ar+m n+llam dico element+m),

h+i+s a+tem partes ocalis et semiocalis et

m+ta.

An eleent, there*ore, is an indiisile ocalso+nd, +t not eer- one *rom hich an intelli

/ile ocal so+nd is nat+rall- apt to res+lt

(*or there are indiisile ocal so+nds elon/in/

to the easts none o* hich call an element),

+t the parts o* these are oel and semioel

and m+te =@ consonant>.

#st a+tem ocalis E+idem sine adiectionehaens ocem a+diilem and

=an element> hain/ so+nd.

C*. ide, (ed V tr. B-ater)

stoixei=on me\n ou)=n e)stin !wnh\a)diai/retoj, ou) pa=sa de\ a)ll e)c h(=j

pe/!u"e suneth\ gi/gnesqai !wnh/#



The "etter is also an indiisile so+nd o* a

partic+lar ind, one that ma- ecome a *actor in

an intelli/ile so+nd.

ndiisile so+nds are +ttered - the r+tes also,

+t no one o* these is a "etter in o+r sense o* the

term.

These elementar- so+nds are either oels,

semioels, or m+tes.

C*. n/ram B-ater,Aristotle on t%e Art of Poetr", Commentar-, pp. 282283

b

23

suneth\

The alternatie readin/ sunqeth\has een accepted - seeral editors,as also - 'teinthal (Hesch. d. 'prachissenscha*t2, p. 2!3) and Oiels (#lement+m p. 33).The main ar/+ment in *ao+r o* sunqeth\ is that, as de*ined in 37, the s-llale is a !wnh/sunqeth\, and that the s-llale is ieed in s+ndr- Aristotelian passa/es (Bon. nd. 902

3D) as a s-nthesis o* stoixei=a. This is tr+e eno+/h. B+t it has to e rememered on theother side that Aristotle o*ten speas o* the stoixei=a !wnh=j(Bon. nd. 902 3!)Where!wnh/means the same thin/ as !wnh/suneth\o* the present passa/e. And i* e ass+mesunqeth\to e the ori/inal readin/, the exceptin/ cla+se (ou) pa=sa de\ "te(), hich p+tsthe indiisile so+nds o* the r+tes in a di**erent cate/or-, is irreleant. Aristotles

ar/+ment here seems to e somethin/ lie this n the +tterances o* the r+tes there are

indiisile so+nds, +t these noises o* theirs are directl- si/ni*icant in themseles (Oe

interpr. 2, 18 a2D) =and see alsoPol. . 2, 12!3a 91D (B.A.M.)>< the- are not stoixei=a!wnh=j, eca+se the- do not comine as elements to *orm a !wnh/suneth\. The indiisileso+nds, on the other hand, in h+man speech exist as elements o* speech, and the- hae no

meanin/ in themseles< the meanin/ in h+man speech is in the ords and propositionsWnot

in the elements hich anal-sis reeals in them (comp. ahlen, Beitr. 3 p. 220). !wnh/suneth\is perhaps the nearest Aristotelian eE+ialent *or o+r term ord. t ma- e taenas incl+din/ not onl- the !wnh/ a)/shmojWords lie a)m., peri/ me/n, de/, etc.(Aristotles a(/qra and su/ndesmoi), hich stand *or nothin/ - themseles, tho+/h the-hae a certain si/ni*icance in their place in intelli/ile h+man speech.

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C*. ibid., pp. 28D290

At this point Aristotle passes *rom the constit+ents o* ords (letters and s-llales) to act+al

ords< and he e/ins - notin/ this distinction some ords are !wnh\ a)/shmoj, and others!wnai\ shmanti"ai/< these latter ein/ no+ns and ers in lan/+a/e, hich hae a meanin/o* their on and stand *or somethin/ een hen +ttered - themseles. The su/ndesmoiand a)/rqra, hoeer, are said to e !wnai\ a)/shmoi< i.e. the- cone- no meanin/ hen+ttered - themseles.

3. &ote on the *ore/oin/

The /losses ?+st cited are so *+ll o* matter essential to o+r treatment o* the hole

E+estion o* the connectie parts o* speech in Aristotle that e m+st /o thro+/h them part

- part in order to appl- their concl+sions to those s+?ects here it proides con*irmationor ill+mination. n the *irst o* these passa/es, the essential point B-ater maes is that one

sho+ld read suneth\instead o* sunqeth\at 23,1the ar/+ment he maes ein/ comprisedo* the *olloin/ points (1) That to read !wnh/ sunqeth\ (Icoposed ocal so+ndJ)instead o* !wnh/suneth\ (Iintelligibleocal so+ndJ) maes the exception o* the r+tespointless, since the- do not +tter composed ocal so+nds< *or hich reason indiisile

ocal so+nds are to e +nderstood as intelligible, in relation to hich oseration heexplains that, 2) hile the indiisile ocal so+nds in h+man speech that are as elements in

it hae no meanin/ in themseles2Wdi**erin/ in this *rom the cries o* eastsWthe-

neertheless hae a certain si/ni*icance in their place in intelli/ile h+man speech< +t that

3) some nonsi/ni*icatie ocal so+nds, as ith the a*orementioned particles, si/ni*- onl-in relation to other, si/ni*icatie, ocal so+nds. n s+m, the elements composin/ h+man

speech are intelligible $ocal sounds hich signif" not%ing b" t%esel$es. A/ain, hile

there are some ocal so+nds, namel-, names and ers, w%ic% signif" b" t%esel$es, thereare others, hich e call particles, into hich s+ch so+nds enter, and w%ic% signif" onl"

in relation to ot%er, significati$e, $ocal sounds. And note that the di**erence eteen the

cries o* the easts, hich si/ni*- immediatel- and - themseles, and the indiisile ocal

so+nds o* men, hich (apart *rom certain inter?ections) si/ni*- onl- as enterin/ into ords,lies at the root o* Aristotles +nderstandin/ o* lan/+a/e, ein/ the principal doctrine

concernin/ its eleents. B+t, as e shall see *rom texts to e cited *+rther elo, at its

+pper limit lies the oseration o* 6lato that speech consists o* a er intertined ith aname or no+n - irt+e o* hich a complete tho+/ht is expressed and the tr+e or the *alse

cone-ed.

. $&PTOSIS$: CA'#.

1. Accordin/ to Aristotle Texts and Translations.

1And note that Qilliam o* Moerees readin/ intelligibiliss+pports suneth\.2#xceptin/, o* co+rse, inter?ections.

13


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C*. Aristotle,Poeticsch. 20 (17!9a 1D23) (ed. :. ;assel< tr. B.A.M.)

ptw=sij d e)sti\n o)no/matoj h)\ r(h/matojh( me\n "ata\ to\ tou/tou h)\ tou/tw+ [20]shmai=non "ai\ o(/sa toiau=ta, h( de\"ata\ to\ e(ni\ h)\ polloi=j, oi(=ona)/nqrwpoi h)\ a)/nqrwpoj,

h( de\ "ata\ ta\ u(po"riti"a/, oi(=on "ate)rw/thsin e)pi/tacin# to\ ga\r e)ba/disen1

h)\ ba/di0e ptw=sij r(h/matoj "ata\ tau=tata\ ei)/dh e)sti/n

B+t case elon/s to name or er, the onesi/ni*-in/ accordin/ to o* this =20> or to that

and hateer others =are> s+ch, +t the other

accordin/ to one or man-, *or example,

men or man,

+t this accordin/ to delier-, *or example,

accordin/ to E+estionin/, commandin/.

%or =he> has aled or =he> aled are cases


C*. Aristotle,Poeticsch. 20 (17!9a 1D23) (ed. :. ;assel< tr. Theodore B+cle-)

ptXsis d estin onomatos Y rhYmatos

hY men ata to to+to+ Y to+tXi =20> sYmainon ai

hosa toia+ta,

hY de ata to heni Y pollois, hoion anthrXpoi Y

anthrXpos,

hY de ata ta h+poritia, hoion at erXtYsin

epitaxin

to /ar eadisen< Y adize ptXsis rhYmatos ata

ta+ta ta eidY estin.

B+t case pertains to no+n or er.

And one case, indeed, =in no+ns> si/ni*ies that

somethin/ is said ofthis thin/, or is attri+ted to

this thin/, and the lie. The

'toics held that een the nominaties ere cases (ith hich the /rammarians a/ree),

eca+se the- *all, i.e., proceed *rom the interior conception o* the mind< and the- said the-

ere also called erect =+pri/ht> eca+se nothin/ preents a thin/ *rom *allin/ in s+ch a a-

that it stands erect, as hen a pen *alls and is *ixed in ood.2

1dicuntur etia $erba praeteriti $el futuri teporis rationabiliter casus $erbi, /uod consignificat praesens

tepus /uia praeteritu $el futuru dicitur per respectu ad praesens. est eni praeteritu /uod fuitpraesens, futuru aute /uod erit praesens. cu aute declinatio $erbi $arietur per odos, tepora,

nueros et personas, $ariatio /uae fit per nueru et persona non constituit casus $erbi+ /uia talis

$ariatio non est ex parte actionis, sed ex parte subiecti sed $ariatio /uae est per odos et tepora respicit

ipsa actione, et ideo utra/ue constituit casus $erbi. na $erba iperati$i $el optati$i odi casus

dicuntur, sicut et $erba praeteriti $el futuri teporis. sed $erba indicati$i odi praesentis teporis nondicuntur casus, cuiuscu/ue sint personae $el nueri.2deinde cu dicit+ catonis aute $el catoni etc., excludit casus noinis et dicit /uod catonis $el catoni et

alia %uiusodi non sunt noina, sed solus noinati$es dicitur principaliter noen, per /ue facta est i0positio noinis ad ali/uid significandu. %uiusodi aute obli/ui $ocantur casus noinis+ /uia /uasi

cadunt per /uada declinationis origine a noinati$o, /ui dicitur rectus eo /uod non cadit. stoici aute

dixerunt etia noinati$os dici casus+ /uos graatici se/uuntur, eo /uod cadunt, idest procedunt ab

interiori conceptione entis. et dicitur rectus, eo /uod ni%il pro%ibit ali/uid cadens sic cadere, ut rectustet, sicut stilus /ui cadens ligno infigitur. 't. Thomas dependence on Ammoni+s here ill e clear *rom an

excerpt /ien elo.

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8. C*. A. A. "on/ V O. &. 'edle-, T%e !ellenistic P%ilosop%ers. ol. 1. Translations o* the6rincipal 'o+rces ith 6hilosophical Commentar- (Camrid/e, 1D9), pp. 1D91D

KAmmoni+s, On Aristotle*s De interpretatione73.D1!

The 'toics repl- that the nominatie case itsel* has *allen *rom the tho+/ht hich is in the

so+l. %or hen e ish to exhiit the tho+/ht o* 'ocrates hich e hae ithin o+rseles,

e +tter the name 'ocrates =i.e. 'ocrates in the nominatie case>. N+st as a pen is said oth tohae *allen and to hae its *all +pri/ht i* it is released *rom aoe and stics +pri/ht, so e

claim that the nominatie case =literall- the direct case> =1D91D>*alls *rom the tho+/ht, +t

is +pri/ht eca+se it is the archet-pe o* lin/+istic +tterance.

L'cholia on Oion-si+s Thrax, 230,27

* the nominatie is +pri/ht, h- is it a case Beca+se it has *allen *rom hat is incorporeal

and /eneric into hat is speci*ic. B+t it is +pri/ht eca+se it has not -et een altered into an

oliE+e =case>, or eca+se it is the *o+ndation o* hat the 'toics call +pri/ht, that is actie,ers, e./. 'ocrates stries.

&otes - "on/ and 'edle-. p. 1DD

Le&taare explained in ario+s a-s. "in/+isticall-, the- are the meanin/s o* *inished

sentences lie 'ocrates rites (F3), or o* ers itho+t a speci*ied s+?ect (andSor o?ect,

in the case o* transitie ers), e./. rites ith no indication o* hom. The *ormer t-pe is

called complete, the latter incomplete. Qhat completes a sa-ale is its ein/ attached to

a nominatie case (G) (or a datie o* the person, ith impersonal ers) and, in the +sa/e

o* transitie ers, the *+rther addition o* the oliE+e case (c*. in ol. 2). Case (pt1sis)

pics o+t the s-ntactical relation o* a no+n to the other constit+ents o* a sentence. n the

complete sa-ale this s-ntactical relation seems to hae een re/arded as a component o*

the sentences meanin/.

p. 201

A ord o* arnin/ m+st added ao+t case. ts most *amiliar modern meanin/ is the

in*lection o* a no+n or other s+stantial *orm, e./. nominatie, /enitie. n its standard+sa/e, hoeer, it desi/nates not the in*lection itsel* +t the in*lected ord. A nominatie

case is a ord in*lected in the nominatie. A conseE+ence o* this is that, hen not speci*ied

as e./. nominatie, a case simpl- means a ord in some case, or a s+stantial *orm U a

/eneric term *or those /rammatical items, s+ch as no+ns (!" 30# e" 3$% &), prono+ns, and

een no+ncla+ses (55'), hich in Hree decline thro+/h the cases. Qhen s+?ects are

called nameearers (B), the Hree ord th+s translated ( tunc%anonta) strictl- stands *or

caseearers, indicatin/ that the- are the items standardl- desi/nated - no+ns and pro

no+ns.

Aristotle had excl+ded the nominatie *rom the cases o* no+ns (De interpretatione1832

**.). n his +sa/e all the cases are oliE+e, in*lections o* the nominatie *orm. The 'toics

extended the term case (literall- *allin/) to the nominatie, and *anci*+l explanations

ere /ien to ?+sti*- this terminolo/- (K( L). Behind them proal- lies the notion that

predication is most *+ndamentall- exempli*ied - attri+tin/ an actiit- to a s+?ect, e./.

'ocrates rites.

9. The case o* a no+n in Aristotles +sa/e.

1


19/49

C*. Al*red Mollin and :oert Qilliamson,An Introduction to Ancient 2ree&, ol. Hrammar (Annapolis, MO 't. Nohns Colle/e, 1DD7), p. 18

&ote. Qe hae *olloed /eneral practice in re*errin/ to the nominatie *orm as a IcaseJ

amon/ *o+r other cases. 5oeer, some modern /rammarians hae deeloped an acco+nt

hich /oes ac to Aristotle (On Interpretation, 2) and accordin/ to hich the term Ino+nJ

(o)/noma) sho+ld e resered *or the nominatie *orm, hich names ( o)noma/0ein)simpl-, ith no indication o* a relation to other elements in the sentence. %rom its ase (orI+pri/htJ or Istrai/htJ 6or)qh/, eu)qei=a) *orm and *+nction, a no+n ma- +nder/o a I*allJ(ptw=sij, "atin casus, *rom hence #n/lish case) or IinclinationJ ("li/sij, *rom "li/nw)toard other elements ithin the sentence. The roster o* s+ch *allin/s o** is called a

declension. Altho+/h it is conenient to incl+de the nominatie *orm amon/ the IcasesJ, e

shall occasionall- re*er to the other *o+r as the obli/ue cases.

. Mollin and Qilliamson on case in s+m.

the nominatie *orm o* the name is called a no+n

the no+n is the +pri/ht or strai/ht *orm *rom hich a name ma- +nder/o a *all1

the *all or inclination hich a name ma- +nder/o (sc. *rom its +pri/ht orstrai/ht *orm) is called is its case (hence the nominatie is not a case)

its declension is the roster o* s+ch *allin/s o**

n li/ht o* the *ore/oin/ oserations, the case o* a name co+ld e de*ined as t%e wa" inw%ic% it )falls* or )leans toward* anot%er word or words in t%e construction of a sentence

allowing it to perfor its function t%erein.

D. Accordin/ to certain Hree /rammarians.

C*. C.5.M. erstee/h, 2ree& Eleents in Arabic Linguistic T%in&ing("eiden Brill, 1D99),

p. 23

Kand a text in the scholia on Oion-sios Thrax here a /rammatical case is de*ined as a

moement that occ+rs at the end o* a no+n (on1atos &ata t1 t3los gino3n3 &in3sis).2

2'cholia O.T. 33, 37< c*. alsopraefatio, 4", 2, and 2raatici 2raeci, , 44, 12K. 2

N.B. Ptosisor case, then, means the chan/e that happens at the end o* a no+n (tr.

B.A.M.), as the s in the *olloin/ example

The do/ is arin/. (s/.)< The do/sare arin/. (pl.) &ote ho the chan/e *rom sin/+lar

to pl+ral in the er alters the constr+ction o* the sentence< s+ch chan/e ein/ an example

o* hat e call an in*lection. Compare the *olloin/ acco+nts1Compare 't. Thomas remars excerpted aoe IThe nominatie alone is principall- called a name, *or the

imposition o* a name as made in order to si/ni*- somethin/. $liE+e expressions o* the ind cited arecalled cases o* the name eca+se the- *all aa- *rom the nominatie as a ind o* so+rce o* their declension.J

n other ords, the *orm o* name in E+estion here, ein/ that hich has een imposed +pon a thin/ in order

to si/ni*- it, is that hich is called (the) nominatie or namin/ ordparexcellence.2erstee/h /oes on to remar (p. 27) IThe Hree ord &ineist%aiis +sed in the sense o* to e declined, 2D

and the ord a&in4tossometimes has the meanin/ o* +ndeclined.30J (*ootnotes omitted). 5ence, e ma-

translate the scholion as *ollos ICase is a declining(or declension) that occ+rs at the end o* a no+n.J

1D


20/49

C*. Merriam Qester $nline Oictionar-, s.. Iin*lectionJ.

3 a the chan/e o* *orm that ords +nder/o to mar s+ch distinctions as those o* case,/ender, n+mer, tense, person, mood, or oice a *orm, s+**ix, or element inoled in s+ch

ariation.

C*. 5istorical 6rel+de, p. 2.1

0.2. 6lato and Aristotle.

...'econd, all morpholo/ical di**erences eteen asic and in*lected ord shapes,

irrespectie o* hether it as an onomano+n or a rhemeer, ere coered - the same

cate/or- o* ptosis. Th+s, the notion o* ptosis applied to oliE+e nominal cases,

comparatie and s+perlatie *orms o* ad?ecties,2dead?ectial aders,3nonpresent eral

tenses and other eral in*lections.....7

0.3. The 'toics

The in*lectional criterion *or deriin/ ord class distinctions as ro+/ht into pla- - the

'toic /rammarians. Their ma?or theoretical achieement as to restrict the meanin/ o* the

term ptosis to that o* #n/lish case. B- restrictin/ ptosis to case and case to no+ns, the

'toics made case the *+ndamental distinction eteen no+ns and ers and eteen, on the

one hand, the /ro+p o* case in*lected prono+ns and articles and, on the other, the /ro+p o*

inariant prepositions and con?+nctions.!'toic case coered all the *orms o* casein*lectedords (asic nonin*lected and in*lected) and so a diision as made eteen nominatie

and oliE+e cases.8$ne conseE+ence o* tain/ case to e the asis *or distin/+ishin/ no+ns

*rom ers as that ad?ecties in Hree (and, later, "atin) ere treated as a s+class o*

no+ns (and contin+ed to e treated so +ntil the ei/hteenth cent+r-). 9n /ro+pin/ ad?ecties

to/ether ith no+ns the 'toics di**ered *rom 6lato and Aristotle ho /ro+ped ad?ecties

to/ether ith ers.

A*ter ptosis as restricted to nominal ords, eral cate/ories reE+ired separate

terminolo/-. nterestin/l-, the diisions in the eral domain ere also casemotiatedactie, transitie, passie and intransitie ers ere reco/nized and their di**erent s-ntax

as taen to e closel- lined ith di**erences o* case ith hich the- constr+cted.

10. 'ome /rammatical terms pertainin/ to case.

C*. Miriam Qester $nline Oictionar-

1 (httpSS.lotp+lications.nlSp+lishSarticlesS00119Soopart.pd*. =02S0!S08>) (no a+thor /ien) IThis

section is a s-nopsis ased mostl- on :oins (1D88< 1DD0) and, in addition, "-ons (1D8) and ;od+ho

(1D97).J C*. :. 5. :oins (1D88), IThe Oeelopment o* the Qord Class '-stem o* the #+ropean Hrammatical TraditionJ. n5oundations of Language2 3 .1D.

The reader ill note that this o+tline is indeted to :. 5. :oins (1D88), IThe Oeelopment o* the QordClass '-stem o* the #+ropean Hrammatical TraditionJ. n5oundations of Language2 3 .1D.2#./. si*ter, si*test.3#./. si*tl- as said *rom si*t.7C*. the examples o* the cases o* a er, s+ch as mat+res etc. cited aoe.!%or an ar/+ment that this is act+all- Aristotles diision, see *+rther elo.8$n the treatment o* the nominatie as a case, c*. the passa/es to cited infra*rom "on/ and 'edle-, and*rom Mollin and Qilliamson on Aristotles (dier/ent) practice in this re/ard.9#./. the distinction eteen the s+stantial and the ad?ectial name.C*. Aristotles treatment o* ad?ecties lie pale or hite as predicates, and hence r%eata.

20


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accidence. #t-molo/- Middle #n/lish, *rom Middle %rench, *rom "atin accidentia

in*lections o* ords, nonessential E+alities, pl+ral o* accident0, accidens, n. a part o*

/rammar that deals ith in*lections.

in*lection. 3 a the chan/e o* *orm that ords +nder/o to mar s+ch distinctions as those o*

case, /ender, n+mer, tense, person, mood, or oice a *orm, s+**ix, or element inoled in

s+ch ariation c ACCO#&C#

case. a an in*lectional *orm o* a no+n, prono+n, or ad?ectie indicatin/ its /rammatical

relation to other ords s+ch a relation hether indicated - in*lection or not.

con?+/ation. 1 a a schematic arran/ement o* the in*lectional *orms o* a er er

in*lection c a class o* ers hain/ the same t-pe o* in*lectional *orms the ea

con#ugation d a set o* the simple or deriatie in*lectional *orms o* a er especiall- in

'ansrit or the 'emitic lan/+a/es the ca+satie con#ugation

2 the act o* con?+/atin/ the state o* ein/ con?+/ated

declension. 1 a no+n, ad?ectie, or prono+n in*lection especiall- in some prescried order

o* the *orms a class o* no+ns or ad?ecties hain/ the same t-pe o* in*lectional *orms

C*.Enc"clopedia(Col+mia Pniersit- 6ress)

in*lection, in /rammar. n man- lan/+a/es, ords or parts o* ords are arran/ed in *ormall-similar sets consistin/ o* a root, or ase, and ario+s a**ixes. Th+s wal&ing, wal&s, wal&er

hae in common the root wal&and the a**ixes 0ing, 0s,and 0er.An in*lectional a**ix carries

certain /rammatical restrictions ith it< *or example, ith the pl+ral in*lection 0s,a chan/e

*rom sin/+lar to pl+ral in the no+n tree6treesreE+ires a concomitant chan/e in the er *orm*rom sin/+lar to pl+ral Ithe tree is /reen,J Ithe trees are /reen.J $ther examples o* #n/lish

in*lectional s+**ixes are the er tenses. Man- lan/+a/es hae *ar more extensie in*lection

than #n/lish, e./., "atin, #simo, Araic. n "atin /rammar the t-pical no+n and ad?ectie

are in*lected *or case and n+mer, and the ad?ectie is additionall- in*lected *or the /ender o*the no+n. "atin ers hae oerlappin/ cate/ories o* in*lection mood, oice, tense, person,

and n+mer. &o+n in*lection is called declension, and the in*lection o* ers is called

con?+/ation.

To e distin/+ished *rom in*lectional a**ixes are those o* deriation. Oeriation is the

process o* *ormin/ ords *rom other ords or roots - the addition o* a**ixes that in

themseles either hae meanin/ or denote ord *+nction.1Oeriational a**ixes in #n/lish

ma- e either pre*ixesWe./., de0press, un0coon7or s+**ixesWe./., wor&0er, retire0ent,

%appi0ness.The name stem is /ien to a root to/ether ith its deriational a**ixes< th+s in

rac&et0eer0s, rac&etis the root, rac&eteerthe stem, and 0sthe pl+ral in*lection. Be/innin/ in

the 1Dth cent., the modi*ication o* a root or ase - the amo+nt o* in*lection or deriation ina lan/+a/e as +sed as a asis *or classi*ication. An isolatin/ lan/+a/e is one in hich there

are onl- roots, ith no deriation or in*lection, s+ch as Chinese.

$n the other hand, in*lected lan/+a/es, e./., #n/lish and "atin, +se roots, stems, and a**ixes,+t the amo+nt o* in*lection is not as /reat as in a//l+tinatie lan/+a/es here roots and

a**ixes are readil- identi*iale, e./., T+rish babaI*ather,J babaIm- *ather,J babaaIto

1C*. Aristotle on composite names the process +nder disc+ssion /iin/ rise to s+ch names. Also, *or the

classical *o+ndation o* the distinction eteen in*lectional and deriational morpholo/-, c*. Marc+s arro,

De Lingua Latina, Boo 4, hich /ie next.

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m- *ather.J The old elie* that a//l+tinatie lan/+a/es ere the most primitie and isolatin/

lan/+a/es the most ciilized is no lon/er held, it ein/ reco/nized that eer- lan/+a/e is ?+st

as expressie as another and can deelop ne oca+lar- to *it ne sit+ations. 'ee ala+t or to that and hateerothers =are> s+ch, +t the other accordin/ to one or man-, *or example, men or man,

+t this accordin/ to delier-, *or example, accordin/ to E+estionin/, commandin/. %or

=he> has aled or =he> aled are cases o* the er accordin/ to these speciesJ (Aristotle, Poet. 20, 17!9a 1D23)< or a/ain, in /rammar, in a more restricted sense, (2) Ia

moement (or decliningor declension) that occ+rs at the end o* a no+n (on1atos &ata t1

t3los gino3n3 &in3sis). ('cholia O.T. 33, 37< c*. alsopraefatio, 4", 2, and 2raatici

2raeci, , 44, 12)< that is to sa-, (3) Ithe a- in hich a no+n or name *alls or leans

toard another ord or ords in the constr+ction o* a sentence, alloin/ it to per*orms its

*+nction thereinJ (orded - B.A.M. a*ter Mollin and Qilliamson,supra)< hence, (7) /en

erall- speain/, in*lection in /rammar ma- e de*ined as I3 a the chan/e o* *orm that

ords +nder/o to mar s+ch distinctions as those o* case, /ender, n+mer, tense, person,mood, or oice a *orm, s+**ix, or element inoled in s+ch ariationJ (Merriam Qester

$nline Oictionar-, s.. Iin*lectionJ).

12. Additional- remars on case

the case o* a name or er is the modi*ication or chan/e it +nder/oes alloin/ it to

per*orm a /ien *+nction in speech

in Hree and "atin, the chan/e occ+rs in one or more letters at the end o* the ord

The notion o* case pres+pposes an +nderstandin/ that there is a asic *orm o* a name orer o* hich the seeral cases are ariations /oerned - the *+nction the- are meant toper*orm in a phrase or sentence.

name and erthe asic *orm

the ariation (or ariations) o* that *orm

the asic *orm o* the name the nominatie

the asic *orm o* the er

C*. Oale A. Hrote,Latin 2raar and S"ntax. (Commentar- on Qheeloc, Chapter 1).I%irst and 'econd Con?+/ation ers ndicatie, mperatie, and n*initieJ

#:B' T5# BA'C' $% C$&NPHAT$&

KFo+ can see that the er Ito seeJ has a basic )orm, hich is ein/ modi*ied sli/htl- tosho that the er is ein/ +sed in a di**erent a-. *his mo+i)ication o) a verb to show

+i))erent as,ects or con+itions o) the action is calle+ conu/ation 1ahn uh G#

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23/49

shun4( an+ a verb is sai+ to conu/ate 1K#N uh /ate4 when it6s mo+i)ie+ to e7hibit

these +i))erent con+itions.A er, there*ore, has a asic *orm or set o* *orms, hich then

con?+/ate in order to chan/e the a- its meanin/ is to e +nderstood in a partic+lar context.

These asic *orms contain the core meanin/ o* the er, +t the a- the action is ein/

applied and the circ+mstances +nder hich the action is chan/in/. (emphasis added)

$n root and stem

The root is the asic *orm, the stem is a principal part

see, sa, seen @ three stems comprisin/ the principal parts o* the er Ito seeJ

23


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D. A morpholo/ical diision o* "atin ords accordin/ to arro.

C*. 9arro+ De Lingua Latina4. . 11 =n Oaniel N. Ta-lor, 9arro : De Lingua Latina4

(Nohn Ben?amins, 1DD8), p. 83 (tr. sli/htl- re. B.A.M.< N.B. the "atin has een taen *rom

T%e Latin Librar"+t it is identical to Ta-lors text)

[+ar+m similit+din+m si esset ori/o recte captaet inde orsa ratio, min+s erraret+r in

declinationi+s eror+m.

[+ar+m e/o principia prima d++m /ener+m

sola aritror esse, ad E+ae similit+dines exi/i

oporteat

e E+is +n+m posit+m in eror+m materia,

alter+m +t in materiae *i/+ra, E+ae ex declin

atione *it.

11. * the asis o* these /rammatical similaritieshad een correctl- +nderstood and i* their s-ste

matic arran/ement had ori/inated *rom there,

there o+ld no e *eer misconceptions in the

declensions o* ords.

maintain that inso*ar as declensions are con

cerned there are onl- to t-pes o* essential ele

ments inoled in the determination o* simil

arities

one o* these is represented in the morpholo/ical

s+stance o* ords, the other, as it ere, in the

phonolo/ical con*i/+ration o* that s+stance,

hich is a prod+ct o* declentional ariation.1

C*. 9arro+ De Lingua Latina4. . ( 1718 tr. B.A.M.< the remainder tr. Oaniel N. Ta-lor)

6rima diisio in oratione, E+od alia era

n+sE+am declinant+r, +t haec ix mox, alia

declinant+r, +t a lima limae, a *ero *eream,

et c+m nisi in his eris E+ae declinant+r non

possit esse analo/ia, E+i dicit simile esse mox et

nox errat, E+od non est ei+sdem /eneris+tr+mE+e er+m, c+m nox s+ccedere deeat

s+ cas++m rationem, mox neE+e deeat neE+e

possit.

'ec+nda diisio est de his eris E+ae declinari

poss+nt, E+od alia s+nt a ol+ntate, alia a nat+ra.

ol+ntatem appello, c+m +n+s E+iis a nomine

aliae rei imponit nomen, +t :om+l+s :omae as i* it si/ni)ies b= itsel)()or e7am,le, in

Theodore doron =i.e. /i*t> +oes not si/ni)=.

8erb? For man, in *act, or hite +o notsi/ni*- hen, but =he> als or =he> has

aled consi/ni)=, the one present, the other,

past time.

'ase?)or e7am,le, men or man< +t another

accordin/ to delier-, *or example, accordin/ to

E+estionin/, commandin/.

For=he> has aled or =he> aled are cases


A,eech?)or not=2!> eer- speech is composed*rom names and ers in hich somethin/ is

said o* somethin/ else< +t there is speechhich happens to e itho+t ers,)

)or e7am,le, the de*inition o* man,

2


29/49

a ne/ationJ (c*.DeInt. 18 29)

B+t s,eechis one in to a-s< *or it is either

that hich si/ni*ies one thin/ or that hich (is

one) *rom man- conunctions conunc-

tions, +t the de*inition o* man (one) - si/ni-

)=in/ one thin/.

'onunction?)or [not].... =not *o+nd>

For e7am,le(.... =not *o+nd>

\ As Aristotle explains in theDe Interpretatione, as ith birdand blac&birdin #n/lish, names ma-

e either simple or composite, necessitatin/ a *+rther emendation o* the text here.

&o inasm+ch as the s+riin/ de*initions o* the sundesos and art%ron

mani*estl- do not con*orm to this template, there is a need to restore the de*inition to a

comparale *orm. n s+pport o* this emendation, let +s consider the elements o+t o* hich

the s+riin/ de*initions are composed

1. The elements o* the de*initions

(a) The principal parts o* the *ore/oin/ de*initions

(1) si/ni*icatie itho+t time, no part o* hich is si/ni*icatie - itsel* the name(2) si/ni*icatie ith time no part o* hich si/ni*ies - itsel* the verb(3) some o* hose parts si/ni*- somethin/ - themseles s,eech(7) hich is not si/ni*icatie - itsel*, =+t (missin/)>1the conunction

() The di**erences determinin/ the *ore/oin/ parts o* lexistaen in order

(1) #ither si/ni*icatie itho+t time or ith it

(a) si/ni*icatie itho+t time the name

() si/ni*icatie ith time the verb

(2) #ither no part o* hich is si/ni*icatie - itsel* or a part o* hich is

(a) no part o* hich is si/ni*icatie - itsel* the name an+ the verb() part o* hich is si/ni*icatie - itsel* s,eech

(3) #ither si/ni*icatie - itsel* or not si/ni*icatie - itsel*

(a) si/ni*icatie - itsel* (as a hole or in part) the name( the verb( an+ s,eech

() not si/ni*icatie - itsel*, +t hich si/ni*ies(1) =hen con?oined to names or ers> the conunction

1nasm+ch as it is an o?ectie o* this paper to proe that, hile the /eneric part o* the de*inition is mani*est,

its di**erence has een lost *rom the text and so m+st e restored, ill proceed to ar/+e that the missin/

cla+se is Ihich si/ni*ies hen con?oined to the othersJ. 'ee the Appendix to this paper.

2D


30/49

(2) secundu /uidas part o* a do+le or composite name the s=llable

!. '+pplement $n the to a-s in hich a logosma- e one.1

B- si/ni*-in/ one thin/ B- con?+nctions

Aristotle,De Int. ! (19a 1317)(tr. Nean T. $esterle)

19a 13 (+t then the E+estion arises as to h-

the de*inition Iterrestrial iped animalJ is some-

thin/ one an+ not man=)or clearl- it ill

not e one b= reason o) the wor+s bein/ sai+

in u7ta,ositionW+t this elon/s to another

s+?ect o* inE+ir-).2

ersion on the con?+nction(assemled - B.A.M.)

B+t then the E+estion arises as to h- the

speech, ICleon als, +t 'ocrates sitsJ, is

somethin/ one an+ not man=)or clearl- it

ill not e one b= si/ni)=in/ one thin/, +t b=

reason o) the wor+s bein/ sai+ in u7ta,ose-

ition.

C*. Aristotle, On t%e Parts of Anials, . 3 (873 1328)

(tr. Qilliam $/le)

The method o* dichotom- is either impossile

(*or it o+ld p+t a sin/le /ro+p +nder di**erent

diisions or contrar- /ro+ps +nder the same

=1!> diision),

or it onl- *+rnishes a sin/le +ltimate di**erentia

*or each species, hich either alone or ith its

series o* antecedents has to constit+te the

+ltimate species.

*, a/ain, a ne di**erential character e intro

d+ced at an- sta/e into the diision, the necessar- res+lt is that the contin+it- o* the diision

ecomes merel- a +nit- and contin+it- o*

a//lomeration, lie the +nit- and contin+it- o* a

series o* sentences co+pled to/ether - con

?+nctie particles.

%or instance, s+ppose e hae the i*+rcation

=20> %eathered and %eatherless, and then diide

%eathered into Qild and Tame, or into Qhite

and Blac.

Tame and Qhite are not a di**erentiation o*

%eathered, +t are the commencement o* an

independent i*+rcation, and are *orei/n to the

series at the end o* hich the- are introd+ced.

As e said then, e m+st de*ine at the o+tset -

(tr. #. '. %orster)

B- dichotom- (a) either these /ro+ps cannot e

arried at all (eca+se the same /ro+p *alls

+nder seeral diisions and contrar- /ro+ps

+nder the same diision)

or else there ill e one differentia onl-, and

this either sin/l- or in comination ill

constit+te the +ltimate species.

B+t (b) i* the- do tae the differentia o* the

differentia, the- are *orced to *ollo theexample o* those people ho tr- to /ie +nit- to

their prose - a *ree +se o* con?+nctions there

is little contin+it- ao+t their diision.

5ere is an example to sho hat happens.

'+ppose the- mae the diision into Iin/lessJ

and Iin/ed,J and then diide Iin/edJ into

ItameJ and IildJ or into IpaleJ and IdarJ

&ote. n the *ore/oin/ text, Aristotle sa-s that i* the adherents o* the method o* dichotom-tae the differentiao* the differentia, the- m+st mae their diision itho+t contin+it-, lie

those persons ho mae their disco+rse one - means o* connectie particles. &o a

diision is contin+o+s hen it is made accordin/ to the same principle (*or hich reason it

isper se), and this hen it is taen ith respect to the di**erences o* thin/s inso*ar as the-are s+ch thin/s, +t discontin+o+s hen it is not. %or example, i* one ere to tae a /ro+p

o* persons and *irst diide them into male and *emale, then into old and -o+n/, then

into Conseratie and "ieral, his diision o+ld hae onl- an accidental +nit- inso*aras he o+ld e sa-in/ Ithe- are t%is, and t%is, and t%isJ, there ein/ no essential

connection eteen the memers o* the diision. B+t the same is tr+e o* a nominal

de*inition, inasm+ch as one composes names *or a thin/ hich hae no essentialconnection to one another in order to mae it non in the asence o*, or prior to, arriin/

at, its real de*inition (on this point, see *+rther elo). 'peech, conersel-, is made

contin+o+s - the +se o* con?+nctions, the +nit- o* hich, hoeer, is per accidensratherthanper se. 5ence, the *ore/oin/ text is sa-in/ that the +nit- /ien to disco+rse - the +se

o* connectie particles is somethin/ other than the essential +nit- mani*ested - ade*inition. B+t as Aristotle explains, this m+st not e +nderstood to mean that s+chdisco+rse lacs an- +nit- at all, +t onl- a certain ind. C*. the *olloin/ acco+nts

C*. Coentar" on Aristotle*s >etap%"sics- Thomas AE+inas (translated - Nohn 6.

:oan. Chica/o, 1D81 =sli/htl- re. B.A.M.>), nn. 133D1371

133D. Now it is evi+ent (!7). 'econd he proes the sol+tion hich as /ien. 5e sa-s that

it is eident that de*inition and essence elon/ primaril- and +nE+ali*iedl- to s+stances, -et

not to s+stances alone since in a sense accidents also hae a de*inition and essence, tho+/h

not in the *irst a-. This is made clear as *ollos not ever= logosb= which a wor+ is

e7,laine+ is the same as a +e)inition( nor is the wor+ e7,laine+ b= each logosalwa=s

somethin/ +e)ine+" but it is ,ro,er that there shoul+ be a +e)inition o) an= +eterminatelogos( namel=( o) one that si/ni)ies one thin/. For i) C sa= that Aocrates is white an+

musical an+ curl=-hea+e+( this logos+oes not si/ni)= one thin/( e7ce,t ,erha,s acci-

+entall=( but si/ni)ies man=" an+ there)ore such a logosis not a +e)inition.1

1deinde cu dicit illud aute probat secundo posita solutione dicens, illud pala esse /uod definitio et

/uod /uid erat esse, prio et sipliciter est substantiaru, non taen solu et substantiaru, cu etia

accidentia ali/uo odo %abeant definitione et /uod /uid erat esse, non taen priu. et %oc sic patet. noneni onis ratio, /ua noen per ratione exponitur, ide est /uod definitio nec noen expositu per

/uacu/ue ratione, seper est definitu sed alicui deterinatae rationi copetit /uod sit definitio illi

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1370. 5oeer, it is not eno+/h that the thin/ si/ni*ied - a logossho+ld e one thin/ *rom

the iepoint o* contin+it- in order that there ma- e a de*inition o* it< *or then the Iliad,J

i.e., the poem ao+t the Tro?an ar, o+ld e a de*inition, eca+se that ar as a/ed oer

a contin+o+s period o* time.1 &or a/ain is it eno+/h that the thin/ sho+ld e one -

connection< *or example, i* ere to sa- that a ho+se is stones and mortar and ood, this

logoso+ld not e a de*inition o* a ho+se. But a logosthat si/ni)ies one thin/ will be a

+e)ini-tion i) it si/ni)ies in some one o) those senses in which the term one is ,re+icate+

ess-entiall=< *or the term one is +sed in as man- senses as ein/ is. And in one sense ein/

si/ni*ies this partic+lar thin/, and in another, E+antit-, and in another, E+alit-, and so on *orthe other cate/ories. Fet it is predicated primaril- o* s+stance and secondaril- o* the other

cate/ories. There*ore the term one in an +nE+ali*ied sense ill appl- primaril- to s+stanceand secondaril- to the other cate/ories.2

1371. *, then, it is characteristic o* the notion o* de*inition that it sho+ld si/ni*- one thin/, it

*ollos that there ill e a de*inition o* hite man, eca+se hite man is in a sense onethin/. B+t the logos o* hite ill e a de*inition in a di**erent sense than the logos o*

s+stance, eca+se the logoso* s+stance ill e a de*inition in a primar- sense, and the

logoso* hite ill e a de*inition in a secondar- sense, ?+st as the term one is predicated o*

each in a primar- and in a secondar- sense.3

A. $n the notion o* +nit-.

C*. Michael A+/ros, 'crapoo.!J

3!) CAP'# $% P&TF. I'i enim diersa in aliE+o +niant+r, necesse est h+i+s +nionis

ca+sam esse aliE+am non enim diersa sec+nd+m se +ni+nt+r.J7'+mma [8! A1 C.

38) P&TF $% MA&F. %rom Oe Anima ([1 A11 C, p 323 Oe 6otentia) I#x pl+ri+s

enim act+ existenti+s non *it +n+m simpliciter, nisi sit aliE+id +niens et aliE+o modo li/ans

ea ad inicem.J!

This is an important principle *or +nderstandin/ ho the so+l and the od- are one, lie the

ax candle and its shape. t is also important *or +nderstandin/ ho a n+mer is onen+mer, and not a +ndle o* +nits.

Also, *rom 'CH B; , Ch 1 In eer- composed thin/ there m+st e act and ailit-. %or

scilicet /uae significat unu. si eni dica /uod socrates est albus et usicus et crispus, ista ratio nonsignificat unu, sed ulta, nisi forte per accidens, et ideo talis ratio non est definitio.1n tr+th, theIliadis one - the ords o* hich it consists ein/ ?oined - con?+nctions.2 non taen sufficit /uod sit unu in continuitate illud /uod per ratione significatur, ad %oc /uod sit

definitio. sic eni ilias, idest poea de bello troiano esset definitio, /uia illud bellu in /uada continuitateteporis est peractu. aut etia non sufficit /uod sit unu per colligatione sicut %aec ratio non esset

definitio dous, si dicere, /uod dous est lapides et ceentu et ligna. sed tunc ratio significans unu

erit definitio, si significet unu ali/uod illoru odoru, /uoru /uoties unu per se dicitur. unu eni

dicitur ultipliciter sicut et ens. ens aute %oc /uide significat %oc ali/uid, aliud /uantitate, aliud

/ualitate, et sic de aliis et taen per prius substantia et conse/uenter alia. ergo sipliciter unu perprius erit in substantia, et per posterius in aliis.3si igitur ad ratione definitionis pertinet /uod significet unu, se/uitur /uod erit ratio albi %oinis

definitio, /uia albus %oo est /uodaodo unu. sed alio odo erit definitio ratio albi, et ratiosubstantiae /uia ratio substantiae erit definitio per prius, ratio albi per posterius, sicut unu per prius et

posterius de utro/ue dicitur.7I%or i* dierse thin/s e +nited in somethin/, there m+st e some ca+se o* this +nion *or dierse thin/s arenot +nited - themseles.J (Sua T%eol., a, E. 8!, art. 1, c., tr. B.A.M.).! I%or *rom man- thin/s existin/ in act one thin/ does not come to e simpl-, +nless there e somethin/

unitingand in some a- bindingthem to each other.J (De Pot., E. 1, art. 11, c., tr. B.A.M.).

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seeral thin/s cannot ecome one simpl- speain/ +nless amon/ them somethin/ is act and

somethin/ is ailit-.J

B. $n the to inds o* +nit-.

C*. Michael A+/ros,1&o hite and m+sical are not related to each other in this a-< and th+s

'ocrates inso*ar as he is hite and m+sical is man-, indeed not simpl-, +t in a certain

respect.2This is eca+se it is accordin/ to accidents that somethin/ is said to e in a certain

respect, and not simpl-. B+t somethin/ that is a ein/ is called one or man- simpl-,

accordin/ to s+stance.1

1Praeterea, secundu P%ilosop%u, in $iii >etap%., ex pluribus /uoru unu est in potentia et aliud non,non fit ali/uid unu, sed ulta. 8nde cu dico+ %oo est anial bipes, praedicatur de %oine ali/uid

unu non aute cu dicitur, Socrates est albus usicus. Sed %uanitas et di$initas non se %abent ut

potentia et actus. Ergo cu dicitur, C%ristus est Deus et %oo, non ponitur unu, sed ulta et ita C%ristus

non est unu, sed duo.

@uod eni anial bipes, /uod praedicatur de Socrate, sit unu et non ulta, ex %oc contingit, /uia unu

eoru coparatur ad alteru ut potentia ad actu, ut dicitur in $iii >etap%. Albu aute et usicu non

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1(i.e. ein/ to*ooted is a a- o* ein/ an animal, hereas ein/ hite is not a a- o*

ein/ m+sical. C*. AE+inas,In >etap%. Marietti, , lect. !, 19!! A. C*. o?. 10.-s).2 (C*. o?. 10).

n s+m

%or to thin/s to e one simpl-, one m+st e related to the other as potenc- to act,

as in the de*inition Ito*ooted animalJ as applied to man, animal is in potenc- to thedetermination to*ooted, ith the res+lt that their composition prod+ces one thin/, s+ch

a de*inition ein/ a +nit- per se. B+t hen it is said o* 'ocrates that he is Ihite and

m+sicalJ no s+ch +nit- arises inasm+ch as hite is not a a- o* ein/ m+sical, nor is

one per*ectie o* the other. 5ence e osere the root o* the distinction Aristotle maeseteen speech that is one I- con?+nctionsJ and speech that is one - si/ni*-in/ one

thin/ %or to tae the di**erentia o* the di**erentia, rather than *o+ndin/ a diision on the

a- in hich thin/s di**er precisel- inso*ar as the- are s+ch thin/s, res+lts in an accidentalcomination o* names hain/ no more +nit- than a strin/ o* ords ?oined - nothin/ more

than connecties< s+ch thin/s ein/ Ione - con?+nctionsJ. And note that the +nit- o* a

er intertined or comined ith a name is lie that o* the /en+s and di**erentiacomposin/ a de*inition< *or, as a passa/e e hae met ith aoe explains,

I=?>+st as there are ships made o* one piece o* ood onl-, Ksimilarl- there are =speeches>

hich need no indin/, e./. &w"ra/thj peripatei=, &w"ra/thj u(giai/nei 'ocrates=als>, 'ocrates *lo+rishes (22.3, !1!, 22D). There is a certain nat+ral +nion eteen

the no+n and the er, it is claimed, comparale to that eteen *orm and matter< this is h-the- do not need indin/J.1

sic se %abent ad in$ice et ideo Socrates, in /uantu est albus et usicus, est ulta, non /uide

sipliciter, sed secundu /uid. Sicut et secundu accidentia dicitur ali/uid esse secundu /uid, et non

sipliciter. Secundu substantia aute dicitur ali/uid unu et ulta sipliciter sicut ens. Sed secundu

P%ilosop%u, in $ >etap%., substantia secundu duos odos dicitur, scilicet+ suppositu, /uod de alio non

praedicatur et fora, $el natura speciei, /uae de supposito praedicatur. Et %aec /uide in creaturis purisnon sunt siul unu et ulta. anifestu est ergo /uod C%ristuspotest dici ali/ualiter unu, /uia est unu supposito et ali/ualiter ulta, $el duo, /uia est %abens duas

naturas. >ulto aplius /ua Socrates, de /uo praedicatur unu, in /uantu est unu subiecto ulta, in

/uantu est albu et usicu.1Anneli "+htala, 2raar and P%ilosop%" in Late Anti/uit"(Amsterdam V 6hiladelphia Nohn Ben?amins

6+lishin/ Co., 2007), p. 137. &ote ho hae had to chan/e "+htalas Iis alin/J to IalsJ in order to

aoid the inconsistenc- o* incl+din/ the cop+la, since it con?oins in a manner similar to a con?+nction.

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. '$M# $B'#:AT$&' $& T5# &AM# A&O '6##C5.

1. Comparison o* texts

(Poet. 20. 17!9a 1113) (tr. B.A.M.)

B+t a name is a =simple or> composite ocal

so+nd si/ni*icatie itho+t time, no part o*

hich is si/ni*icatie - itsel* as i*

it si/ni*ies - itsel*, *or example, in Theodore

doron =i.e. /i*t> does not si/ni*-.

=N.B.'ee the next text cited *or a parallel to thisexception.>

(De Int.2 18 1D2!) (tr. Nean T. $esterle, re.)

18a 1D A name, then, is a ocal so+nd si/ni*-

catie - conention ="ata\ sunth/"hn>, ith

o+t time, no part o* hich is si/ni*icatie separatel-

18a 21 *or in the name ICampellJ the partIell,J as s+ch si/ni*ies nothin/, altho+/h in theexpression Icamp ellJ it does.

C*. Aristotle,Poeticsch. 21 (17!9a 32W17!9 38) (tr. B.A.M.)

B+t o* the *orms o* name =onoatos eide>, some in *act are sin/le =%aploun>Wand -

sin/le mean hat is not composed *rom thin/s si/ni*-in/, lie ge=@ earth, cp. #n/l.

dirt>W+t some do+le =diploun>. $* the latter, hoeer, some are either composed o*

thin/s si/ni*-in/ and thin/s not si/ni*-in/ (altho+/h ithin the name there is no si/ni*-in/

and not si/ni*-in/),1or o* oth si/ni*-in/.2 B+t there ma- e a triple =triploun> and a

E+adr+ple =tetraploun> name, and =3!> a m+ltiple =pollaploun>, lie man- Massalian

expressions,3e./., 5ermocaicoxanth+s.

C*.. Aristotle,De Int. ch. 2 (18 1D2!)

(tr. #. M. #d/hill)

B- a no+n e mean a so+nd si/ni*icant -

conention, hich has =20> no re*erence to time,

and o* hich no part is si/ni*icant apart *rom

the rest.

n the no+n %airsteed, the part steed has no

(tr. Nean T. $esterle)

18a 1D A name, then, is a ocal so+nd si/ni*-

cant - conention, itho+t time, no part o*

hich is si/ni*icant separatel-.

n composite names, hoeer, the part does si/

ni*- somethin/, +t not in itsel*, as has een

said.

C*. 't. Thomas AE+inas,In I Peri !er., lect. 7, nn. 10 (tr. Nean T. $esterle)

. The *i*th part is the *o+rth di**erence, no part of w%ic% is significant separatel", that is,

separated *rom the hole name< +t it is related to the si/ni*ication o* the name accordin/ asit is in the hole. The reason *or this is that si/ni*ication is a E+asi*orm o* the name. B+t no

separated part has the *orm o* the hole< ?+st as the hand separated *rom the man does not

hae the h+man *orm. This di**erence distin/+ishes the name *rom speech, some parts o*

hich si/ni*- separatel-, as *or example in I?+st man.J

D. Qhen he sa-s, *or in the name ICampellJ the part IellJ as s+ch si/ni*ies nothin/, etc.,

he explains the de*inition. %irst he explains the last part o* the de*inition< secondl-, the third

1C*. here o+r additions to the de*inition o* speech in the text o* thePoetics/ien aoe.

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37/49

part, - conention. The *irst to parts ere explained in hat preceded, and the *o+rth part,

itho+t time, ill e explained later in the section on the er. And *irst he explains the last

part - means o* a composite name< then he shos hat the di**erence is eteen simple

and composite names here he sa-s, 5oeer the case is not exactl- the same in simple

names and composite names, etc.

%irst, then, he shos that a part separated *rom a name si/ni*ies nothin/. To do this he +ses a

composite name eca+se the point is more striin/ there. %or in the name ICampellJ the

part IellJ per se si/ni*ies nothin/, altho+/h it does si/ni*- somethin/ in the phrase Icampell.J The reason *or this is that one name is imposed to si/ni*- one simple conception< +t

that *rom hich a name is imposed to si/ni*- is di**erent *rom that hich a name si/ni*ies.%or example, the name Ipedi/reeJ, is imposed *rom pedis andgrus=cranes *oot> hich it

does not si/ni*-, to si/ni*- the concept o* a certain thin/. 5ence, a part o* the composite

nameWhich composite name is imposed to si/ni*- a simple conceptWdoes not si/ni*- a

part o* the composite conception *rom hich the name is imposed to si/ni*-.1'peech, on theother hand, does si/ni*- a composite conception. 5ence, a part o* speech si/ni*ies a part o*

the composite conception.2

10. Qhen he sa-s,!owe$er, t%e case is not exactl" t%e sae in siple naes and coposite

naes, etc., he shos that there is a di**erence eteen simple and composite names in

re/ard to their parts not si/ni*-in/ separatel-. 'imple names are not the same as compositenames in this respect eca+se in simple names a part is in no a- si/ni*icant, either

accordin/ to tr+th or accordin/ to appearance, +t in composite names the part has meanin/,

i.e., has the appearance o* si/ni*-in/< -et a part o* it si/ni*ies nothin/, as is said o* the name

Irea*ast.J

The reason *or this di**erence is that the simple name is imposed to si/ni*- a simple concept

and is also imposed *rom a simple concept< +t the composite name is imposed *rom a

composite conception, and hence has the appearance that a part o* it si/ni*ies.3

1&ote that these ar/+ments leae +nto+ched the *act that parts o* ords are nonetheless eaningful, as ein/

indicati$eo* somethin/, as certain so+nds o* oice as parts o* names si/ni*- the pl+ral, or the /enitie or

acc+satie cases, and the lie. 'ee *+rther elo.2/uinto, ponit /uarta differentia cu subdit+ cuius nulla pars est significati$a separata, scilicet a totonoine coparatur taen ad significatione noinis secundu /uod est in toto. /uod ideo est, /uia signif0

icatio est /uasi fora noinis nulla aute pars separata %abet fora totius, sicut anus separata ab

%oine non %abet fora %uana. et per %oc distinguitur noen ab oratione, cuius pars significat

separata ut cu dicitur, %oo iustus. deinde cu dicit+ in noine eni /uod est etc., anifestat praeissadefinitione. et prio, /uantu ad ultia particula secundo, /uantu ad tertia ibi+ secundu $ero

placitu etc.. na priae duae particulae anifestae sunt ex praeissis tertia aute particula, scilicet sine

tepore, anifestabitur in se/uentibus in tractatu de $erbo. circa priu duo facit+ prio, anifestat

propositu per noina coposita secundo, ostendit circa %oc differentia inter noina siplicia etcoposita ibi+ at $ero non /ueadodu etc.. anifestat ergo prio /uod pars noinis separata ni%il

significat, per noina coposita, in /uibus %oc agis $idetur. in %oc eni noine /uod est e/uiferus, %aec

pars ferus, per se ni%il significat sicut significat in %ac oratione, /uae est e/uus ferus. cuius ratio est /uod

unu noen iponitur ad significandu unu siplice intellectu aliud aute est id a /uo iponitur

noen ad significandu, ab eo /uod noen significat sicut %oc noen lapis iponitur a laesione pedis,/ua non significat+ /uod taen iponitur ad significandu conceptu cuiusda rei. et inde est /uod pars

noinis copositi, /uod iponitur ad significandu conceptu siplice, non significat parte

conceptionis copositae, a /ua iponitur noen ad significandu. sed oratio significat ipsaconceptione coposita+ unde pars orationis significat parte conceptionis copositae.3 deinde cu dicit+ at $ero non etc., ostendit /uantu ad %oc differentia inter noina siplicia et

coposita, et dicit /uod non ita se %abet in noinibus siplicibus, sicut et in copositis+ /uia in siplicibus

pars nullo odo est significati$a, ne/ue secundu $eritate, ne/ue secundu apparentia sed incopositis $ult /uide, idest apparentia %abet significandi ni%il taen pars eius significat, ut dictu est

de noine e/uiferus. %aec aute ratio differentiae est, /uia noen siplex sicut iponitur ad significandu

39


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C*. 't. Thomas AE+inas (In I Peri !er., lect. 8, n. 3, tr. B.A.M.)

B+t second, he p+ts don that in hich speech di**ers *rom the name =or no+n> and the

er, hen he sa-s,soe parts of w%ic% are significati$e separatel". %or he said aoe that apart o* a name does not si/ni*- somethin/ separate - itsel*, +t onl- that it =i.e. s+ch a

name> is con?oined *rom to parts. B+t he si/ni*icantl- does not sa- w%ose part w%en

separated is significati$e of soet%ing, +t of w%ic% soe part is significati$e, on acco+nt o*

ne/ations and other s-ncate/orematic terms, hich in and o* themseles do not si/ni*-

somethin/ asol+te, +t onl- the relationship o* one thin/ to another.1

C*. 't. Thomas AE+inas,In I Peri. !er., lect. 8, n. 8 (tr. B.A.M.).

A*terard hen he sa-s,ut one s"llable of )%oinis Bant%ropos*, etc., he excl+des a *alse

+nderstandin/. And this can e re*erred to hat he has ?+st said, so that the sense is that a

name is an a**irmation or a denial i* somethin/ is added to it, +t not i* one s-llale o* a

name is added to it. B+t since this sense does not *it ith the *olloin/ ords, one m+st re*er

it to that hich as said e*ore in the de*inition o* speech, namel-, that some part o* it e

si/ni*icatie separatel-. B+t eca+se that is properl- called a part o* some hole hich

immediatel- enters into the constit+tion o* the hole, +t not the part o* a part< there*ore,

this m+st e +nderstood ao+t the parts *rom hich speech is immediatel- constit+ted,

namel-, *rom the name and the er, +t not ao+t the parts o* the name or the er, hichare s-llales or letters.

And there*ore he sa-s that a part o* speech is si/ni*icatie hen separate, not, neertheless,

s+ch a part hich is one s-llale o* a name. And he mani*ests this in s-llales hichsometimes can e expressions =dictiones> si/ni*-in/ per se ?+st as this ord sa-, rex,

hich sometimes is one expression si/ni*-in/ per se. B+t inasm+ch as it is taen as one

certain s-llale o* this namesorex, soricis, it does not si/ni*- somethin/per se, +t is onl- a

ocal so+nd. %or a certain expression =/uaeda dictio> is composed *rom man- ocalso+nds, neertheless it has a simplicit- in si/ni*-in/, inasm+ch, namel-, as it si/ni*ies a

simple +nderstandin/. And there*ore, inasm+ch as ocal so+nd is composed, it can hae a

part hich is a ocal so+nd< hoeer, inasm+ch as this is simple in si/ni*-in/, it cannot hae

a si/ni*icatie part. And so s-llales are ocal so+nds, +t the- are not ocal so+ndssi/ni*-in/per se.

&eertheless, one m+st no that in composed names, s-llales hich can e expressions,

comin/ to the composition o* a name, si/ni*- somethin/, namel-, the composed thin/ in

itsel*, and accordin/ to this the- are expressions< +t the- do not si/ni*- somethin/

accordin/ to themseles, inasm+ch as the- are parts o* this ind o* name, +t in another a-,

as as said aoe.2

conceptu siplice, ita etia iponitur ad significandu ab ali/uo siplici conceptu noen $ero

copositu iponitur a coposita conceptione, ex /ua %abet apparentia /uod pars eius significet.1secundo aute ponit id, in /uo oratio differt a noine et $erbo, cu dicit+ cuius partiu ali/uid

significati$u est separati. supra eni dictu est /uod pars noinis non significat ali/uid per seseparatu, sed solu /uod est coniunctu ex duabus partibus. signanter aute non dicit+ cuius pars est

significati$a ali/uid separata, sed cuius ali/uid partiu est significati$u, propter negationes et alia

s"ncategoreata, /uae secundu se non significant ali/uid absolutu, sed solu %abitudine unius adalteru.2deinde cu dicit+ sed non una %oinis etc., excludit falsu intellectu. Et posset %oc referri ad iediate

dictu, ut sit sensus /uod noen erit affiratio $el negatio, si /uid ei addatur, sed non si addatur ei una

noinis s"llaba. sed /uia %uic sensui non con$eniunt $erba se/uentia, oportet /uod referatur ad id, /uodsupra dictu est in definitione orationis, scilicet /uod ali/uid partiu eius sit significati$u separati. sed

/uia pars alicuius totius dicitur proprie illud, /uod iediate $enit ad constitutione totius, non aute pars

3


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. T5# &AM#, T5# #:B, A&O T5# 6A:TC6"# QT5 :#'6#CT T$

'H&%F&H TM#.

C*. Aristotle,Poet. ch. 20 (17!9a 20) (tr. B.A.M.)

%or man, in *act, or hite do not si/ni*- hen, +t =he> als or =he> has aled

consi/ni*-, the one present, the other, past time.

C*. 6riscian, Inst. gra. 2L , !7D, 21!!0, 3 (n Anneli "+htala, 2raar andP%ilosop%" in Late Anti/uit". Amsterdam V 6hiladelphia Nohn Ben?amins 6+lishin/ Co.,

2007), p. 131

The- (i.e., the participles) are in t+rn preented *rom ein/ no+ns - the *act that the- sho

tense distinctions - means o* similar *orms s+ch as ers hae. B+t i* someone sho+ld sa-

that een man- no+ns si/ni*- time, e ill anser that the di**erence eteen the participle

and the temporal no+n is s+ch that the latter si/ni*ies nothin/ +t time - itsel*, e./., -ear,

month, da-, noon, (...) and that it does not si/ni*- time thro+/h its declensional *orms.

n contrast, participles do not express time as s+ch +t rather action or +nder/oin/ action as

occ+rrin/ at di**erent times< and the- are =131132>constr+ed ith the same cases as ers,

*rom hich the- derie. The- hae the si/ni*ications o* ers and are +sed instead o* ers,none o* hich is a propert- o* the no+n.1

C*. 't. Thomas AE+inas,In I Peri !er. (@ Boo , "esson 7) (tr. Nean T. $esterle)

9. The *o+rth part is the third di**erence, i.e., wit%out tie, hich di**erentiates the name

*rom the er. This, hoeer, seems to e *alse, *or the name Ida-J or I-earJ si/ni*ies time.

B+t there are three thin/s that can e considered ith respect to time< *irst, time itsel*, as it is

a certain ind o* thin/ or realit-, and then it can e si/ni*ied - a name ?+st lie an- otherthin/< secondl-, that hich is meas+red - time, inso*ar as it is meas+red - time. Motion,

hich consists o* action and passion, is hat is meas+red *irst and principall- - time, and

partis ideo %oc intelligendu est de partibus ex /uibus iediate constituitur oratio, scilicet de noine et$erbo, non aute de partibus noinis $el $erbi, /uae sunt s"llabae $el litterae. et ideo dicitur /uod pars

orationis est significati$a separata, non taen talis pars, /uae est una noinis s"llaba. et %oc anifestat in

s"llabis, /uae /uando/ue possunt esse dictiones per se significantes+ sicut %oc /uod dico rex, /uando/ue est

una dictio per se significans in /uantu $ero accipitur ut una /uaeda s"llaba %uius noinis sorex, soricis,non significat ali/uid per se, sed est $ox sola. dictio eni /uaeda est coposita ex pluribus $ocibus, taen

in significando %abet siplicitate, in /uantu scilicet significat siplice intellectu. et ideo in /uantu

est $ox coposita, potest %abere parte /uae sit $ox, in/uantu aute est siplex in significando, non

potest %abere parte significante. 8nde s"llabae /uide sunt $oces, sed non sunt $oces per sesignificantes. sciendu taen /uod in noinibus copositis, /uae iponuntur ad significandu re

siplice ex ali/uo intellectu coposito, partes secundu apparentia ali/uid significant, licet non

secundu $eritate. et ideo subdit /uod in duplicibus, idest in noinibus copositis, s"llabae /uae possunt

esse dictiones, in copositione noinis $enientes, significant ali/uid, scilicet in ipso coposito et secundu

/uod sunt dictiones non aute significant ali/uid secundu se, prout sunt %uiusodi noinis partes, sed eoodo, sicut supra dictu est.1Sed rursus pro%ibet ea esse noina teporu di$ersoru assuptio, /uae fit in propriis transfigurationi0

bus ad siilitudine $erboru. Sed si /uid dicat, /uod noina /up/ue ulta in$eniuntur tepussignificantia, respondebius, /uod %oc interest inter participia et noina teporalia, /uod noina illa ni%il

aliud significant nisi ipsu tepus per se, ut )annus*, ensis*, )dies*, )eridies*, )%odiernus* )%esternus*,

)crastinus*, nec in propriis sunt transfigurationibus, principia $ero actione $el passione ali/ua in

di$erso fieri tepore deonstrant, non tepus ipsu per se, et /uod eos, se/uuntur casus, /uos et $erba, ex/uibus nascuntur, et /uod $erboru significationes %abent et /uod pro $erbo ponuntur, /uoru ni%il est

suu noinis.

3D


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there*ore the er, hich si/ni*ies action and passion, si/ni*ies ith time. '+stance

considered in itsel*, hich a name or a prono+n si/ni*-, is not as s+ch meas+red - time, +t

onl- inso*ar as it is s+?ected to motion, and this the participle si/ni*ies. The er and the

participle, there*ore, si/ni*- ith time, +t not the name and prono+n. The third thin/ that

can e considered is the er- relationship o* time as it meas+res. This is si/ni*ied - aders

o* time s+ch as Itomorro,J I-esterda-,J and others o* this ind. 1

=N.B.&ote here that 't. Thomas examples are m+ch more in*ormatie than Aristotles,

and that his explanation m+ch more detailed than 6riscians.>

'+pplement 6eter o* 'pain on the mode o* si/ni*-in/ o* the participle.

C*. 6eter o* 'pain, Tractatus S"ncategoreatu (ap. 6eter o* 'pain, Tractatus

S"ncategoreatu and Selected Anon"ous Treatises. Translated - Noseph 6. M+llale-,

6h.O, p. 20)

'imilarl- in the case o* a participle there is a composition o* a +nited act ith a +nited

s+stance, as *or example, Ireadin/J onl- si/ni*ies the same as Iho reads.J Qhence IhoJ

a**irms s+stance< it a**irms inde*inite s+stance and IreadsJ a**irms a determinate act. %rom

this it is clear that a er and a participle do not di**er so *ar as the si/ni*ied is concernedeca+se each si/ni*ies an act con?oined ith an intrinsic s+stance. There*ore 6riscian3sa-sthat a participle has re*erence to that hich is si/ni*ied - a er +nder the accidents o* a

no+n. 5oeer, er and participle di**er in the mode o* si/ni*-in/. A er si/ni*ies an act

or moement in the manner o* /oin/ o+t o* a s+stance in the case o* action or in the manner

o* /oin/ into a s+stance in the case o* passion, - irt+e o* hich it si/ni*ies in the mode o*

predicale o* another and it implies an act in a mode o* ein/ distinct *rom an exterior

s+stance and *or this reason it implies the composition hich elon/s to a proposition. A

participle si/ni*ies an act in a mode impl-in/ s+stance, +t not in the sense o* /oin/ into a

s+stance or o* /oin/ o+t o* a s+stance.

36riscian, Institutiones 2raaticae. Boos to xiii are edited - 5enr- ;eil *rom an edition -Martin 5ertz ("eipzi/ B. H. Te+ner, 1!!), ol+me . Boos xiii to xiii are edited - Martin 5ertz

("eipzi/ B. H. Te+ner, 1!D), ol+me . All re*erences are to these editions o* 6riscian, ix, . D.

. T5# '##:A" ACC$P&T' $% '6##C5 & :#"AT$& T$ &AM#', #:B',

T5# O#%&T$&, A&O T5# 'F""AB"#.

1/uarto, ponit tertia differentia, scilicet sine tepore, per /uod differt noen a $erbo. sed $idetur %oc

esse falsu+ /uia %oc noen dies $el annus significat tepus. sed dicendu /uod circa tepus tria possuntconsiderari. prio /uide, ipsu tepus, secundu /uod est res /uaeda, et sic potest significari a

noine, sicut /uaelibet alia res. alio odo, potest considerari id, /uod tepore ensuratur, in /uantu

%uiusodi+ et /uia id /uod prio et principaliter tepore ensuratur est otus, in /uo consistit actio etpassio, ideo $erbu /uod significat actione $el passione, significat cu tepore. substantia aute

secundu se considerata, prout significatur per noen et pronoen, non %abet in /uantu %uiusodi ut

tepore ensuretur, sed solu secundu /uod subiicitur otui, prout per participiu significatur. et ideo

$erbu et participiu significant cu tepore, non aute noen et pronoen. tertio odo, potestconsiderari ipsa %abitudo teporis ensurantis /uod significatur per ad$erbia teporis, ut cras, %eri et

%uiusodi.

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1. 'peech in relation to names and ers, mani*estin/ that it does not necessaril- inole a

er, as ith a de*inition,1altho+/h it ma-, as ith a statement

K(*or not =2!> eer- speech is composed *rom names and ers< *or example, the de*initiono* man, +t there is speech hich happens to e itho+t ers,) Fet a part =o* speech> ill

ala-s hae si/ni*icance, *or example, in Cleon als, Cleon. (Poet. 20 17!9a 272)

.e. the de*inition o* manWlet +s sa- it is Iterrestrial iped animalJ (c*.De Int. 7, 19a 13)Wis speech, +t it has no er, as hen one sa-s, IA terrestrial iped animal isJ (or Iex

istsJ).

2. The name in relation to a lar/er hole speech in the *orm o* an en+nciation.

The ord IanimalJ si/ni*ies somethin/, +t it does not si/ni*- that it is or that it is not< itill e an a**irmation or ne/ation, hoeer, i* somethin/ is added. (De Int. 7, 18 2D)

.e. to sa- IanimalJ is to sa- somethin/ si/ni*icant, +t it is not the same as sa-in/ IAn

animal isJ< the latter ein/ an a**irmation in irt+e o* the er ein/ added. "ieise the

er +ttered - itsel* does not sa- an-thin/ o* an-thin/. t then remains to distin/+ish the

name as ord *rom a smaller hole, namel-, the s-llale, hich Aristotle does next.

3. The name in relation to a smaller hole the s-llale.

B+t one s-llale o* IanimalJ does not si/ni*- an-thin/< similarl-, in the ord I*ol,J IolJ

does not si/ni*- an-thin/ in itsel*, +t is onl- a ocal so+nd. (De Int., 18 30)

.e. some names are lie animal (in #n/lish), s+ch that no part, ere it to occ+r - itsel*,

is *o+nd to e a ord - itsel*. B+t some names are lie *ol here a part o* it, namel-,ol, is si/ni*icant hen it occ+rs - itsel*< +t as part o* the i//er ord it does not si/

ni*-, as the next excerpt explains.

B+t o* the *orms o* name =onoatos eide>, some in *act are sin/le =%aploun>Wand -

sin/le mean hat is not composed *rom thin/s si/ni*-in/, lie ge=@ earth, cp. #n/l.

dirt>W+t some do+le =diploun>. $* the latter, hoeer, some are either composed o*

thin/s si/ni*-in/ and thin/s not si/ni*-in/ (altho+/h ithin the name there is no si/ni*-in/

and not si/ni*-in/), or o* oth si/ni*-in/. (Poet. 21 17!9a 323!)

.e. in a name lie lacird, its parts are thin/s si/ni*-in/, namel-, lac and ird, o* hich the s-llales as

s-llales si/ni*- nothin/ at all.ut con#unctions in fact can consignif", but signif" not%ing

b" t%esel$es. n this oo, hoeer, he has estalished the name and er as parts o* an

interpretation, hich, o* co+rse, si/ni*- - themseles. And neertheless it cannot e denied

that speech is interpretation hich, since it is ocal so+nd ?oined *rom parts hich are

si/ni*icatie, does not lac si/ni*ication. Qhere*ore not o* speec% alone, +t also o* the

naeand the $erb, and not o* locution alone, +t also o* significati$e locution, hich is

interpretation, are treated - Aristotle in this oo, and as the name interpretationdesi/nates ers, names, and si/ni*icatie +tterances as ell, this oo is entitled On

Interpretation*rom the common name o* the thin/s hich are treated in this oo< that is,interpretationK.1

#identl- Boethi+s ne thePoeticsin a ersion hich ta+/ht the *olloin/ that hereas

the s-llale a/rees ith the con?+nction in ein/ a nonsi/nicatie component o* lan/+a/e,

the latter di**ers *rom the *ormer - si/ni*-in/ hen ?oined to the other, si/ni*icatie partso* speech, the name and er. Qe ma- there*ore concl+de ith a *air de/ree o* con*idence

that a de*inition o* the con?+nction alon/ the *olloin/ lines once elon/ed to the text

IB+t a con?+nction is a ocal so+nd hich is not si/ni*icatie - itsel*, +t si/ni*ies hen

con?oined to the othersJ.2

As *or the de*initions o*sundesosand art%ronhich are there- s+pplanted, elieethose hich s+rie in the text to e (/arled) ersions o* de*initions treated in a

s+seE+ent section o* thePoetics. hae accordin/l- resered their treatment *or a separate

paper,3+t the 6eripatetic tradition preserin/ Aristotles teachin/ on the con?+nction inrelation to the other socalled parts o* speech ill e /ien as an Appendix to this one.7

. The de*inition o* the con?+nction a con?ect+ral reconstr+ction.

C*. o+r schematization o* the text

>e)initions? @7,lanations an+ e7am,les?

1Interpretatio na/ue est $ox articulata per seipsa signifcans. @uocirca non onis $ox interpretatio est,

sunt eni caeteroru anialiu $oces, /uae interpretationis $ocabulo non tenentur.

7/29/2019 Poetics Chap

poetics chapter 20: the elements of language (papers in poetics 9)

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