notes 3-10 pre-romanesque, romanesque txt

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1. Pre‐Romanesque Period :

Historically Pre‐Romanesque period is significant as the predecessor of the Romanesque and Gothic periods. Many historians consider this period as early part of Romanesque period. Characterised with religious fervor and an attempt to revive the Latin letters, the politically turbulent pre‐Romanesque period contained the germs of scholarship, art, architecture, administration and politics in Western Europe for the next 800‐1000 years, depending on the geographical region.

Once the Goth ruler of Rome adapted Christianity, many other tribes followed. The Franks, under Merovingian king Clovis‐I, Christianised after 496AD were the first tribe to convert. With military support, Christianity was spreading fast and trying to maintain its predominance in West Europe, finally succeeding in 733 AD with the victory of the Christian army over the Spanish Muslim army in the battle of Tours. Christian theology i.e. religious philosophy and liturgy, i.e. Christian method of worship were becoming standardised due to the efforts of emperor Charlemagne. The Church architecture and liturgy of this period are the embryonic stage of those that we see now. Churches were built solidly, for permanence and grandeur (as much as the technology permitted at that time). The grander the church, the more devoutly Christian the builders / sponsors were thought to be. A great church was crucial for spreading the religion to the illiterate and “uncivilised” populace, and to the Christians, Christianity equalled civilisation. Christians were lead into a Christian way of living by the fear of hell and the lure of heaven after death. Thus a bigger and better church meant that its patrons were ensuring their afterlife in heaven.

The feudal system that was established its roots in this period was to remain the socio‐political system of Europe up to the industrial revolution.

The kings used to spend a lot of time in warfare in different parts of the continents, especially in the Crusades. It became customary to leave a favourite priest in charge of running the kingdom. By nature of their religious vows, the priests could not have taken the throne for himself, whereas a non‐religious person could usurp the throne during the long absence of the king and that was risky for the king. The high level clergy was the only educated class and were advisors to the kings. Thus, church and state were closely intertwined.

Intertribal marriages and inter‐tribe battles were both equally common. These two were the major influences in the cultural exchange that is clearly and abundantly evident in architecture.

There was a widespread belief that the world will end in 1000AD. The fear of death made the church sculpture of this period focus on death, afterlife and the effect of good or sinful life on afterlife.

1.1. General characteristics of pre‐Romanesque period

Architectural characteristics that were locally and haphazardly born in this period evolved to become standard characteristics of later periods. Hence all these characteristics are introduced

to the students in this chapter itself. Many of these characteristics became prominent in later period architecture only (marked in blue).

1.1.1. Building types :

Predominance of religious architecture and castle architecture. Among those, many churches are still extant though most castles fell in warfare and lack of maintenance. There are also lesser number of and less durable townhouses, manor houses etc. Only churches are discussed. Monastic buildings – Abbeys were built in countryside, self sufficient sprawling ensemble of buildings, focusing on the Church and cloister and often fortified as protection against fierce tribal attacks. The patron, usually king, also supplied land and labourers for construction and operation. (ref. ideal abbey plan found in St. Gallen church library). In the Merovingian period, 200 Irish monasteries and 600 in Merovingian kingdom flourished. By the end of Carolingian period, west Europe were dotted with thousands of monasteries of different scale and under different monastic orders. The earliest and most populated order was that of St. Benedict. Pilgrimage formed a major religious activity in Europe. People took long and arduous journeys across Europe to visit famous pilgrimage destinations. Design requirement of large pilgrimage churches proved the Romanesque technology insufficient and showed a need for better technology. Pilgrimage churches are the second among the church types appearing in this period. (See PPT for details) Churches with royal patronage. Especially the coronation churches and burial churches of kings were more important than others. Among them, Charlemagne’s palatine chapel‐cum‐burial church at Acchen, consecrated in AD804 is considered the fore‐runner of Romanesque architecture and Carolingian royal burial church St. Denise near Paris is considered the fore‐runner of the Gothic style in 1140s. Hierarchy in the administration of churches was developing. As a result, architecture of churches reflected their position in the hierarchy of Christian religion. Thus we see parish churches, abbey churches, royal churches and diocese level churches appear at the end of this period onwards.

1.1.2. Building design :

Most design elements appear haphazardly in different churches but during Romanesque and Gothic period these elements are present in a more organised manner in most churches with variations in combination :

1.1.2.1. Factors behind design : (see 2.2 : the factors behind church design under Romanesque architecture)

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The Latin cross plan was psychologically suitable for a place of veneration even in Neolithic period : An Irish passage grave from BC3500, built by Neolithic people shows the same axial approach to a place of veneration and branching out of the venerated space into side‐units

1.1.2.2. Form and planning :

Churches were built solidly, for permanence and grandeur (as much as the technology permitted at that time).

Classical proportions vanishing. Churches were becoming taller...Germanisicm. Taller central aisle, shorter side aisle(s). Transverse section resembles that of Roman triumphal arch.

One longitudinal axis in church plan preferred over central plan.

Two axis (one major) in church plan i.e. Latin cross plan. The major one perpendicular with the minor. Two parallel AND minor axes are seen as well. Some central plans are also seen but as liturgy was evolving with time number of central plan church was reducing.

• Articulation of interior spaces into exterior form • Transept and crossing

1.1.2.3. Design elements ‐ structural

• Tall central aisle (height increasing to twice the width of central aisle) and flanking side aisles half the height to keep the central aisle upright. Second line of side aisles added for tallest churches. Aisles have dual function as circulation space.

• Stone buildings with thick walls with few windows. Among those few windows, most are at top part of the church. Lack of confidence in structure is seen by fear of opening up the walls with windows. Interior received little daylight. Lots of candles were involved in worship and thus provided light inside the church.

• Wooden truss roof. Pitched roof over nave and lean to roof over side aisles.

1.1.2.4. Architectural elements

Tower over crossing and / westwork Westwork and towers on westwork – a characteristic independent of Roman architecture and it originated from Normandy (i.e. present day Northern France), a place far away from Rome and that was fast developing its own culture and architecture.

Portals with recessed doorways Extended apse to accommodate a larger choir. Crypt or semi‐underground chapel below chancel for burial of the founders of the church or the rich and noble

Columns with Roman Corinthian capitals and variations of it. Many columns were salvaged from Romans ruins and used in new structures. With

Piers (late pre‐Romanesque introduction) – <enter definition of Pier> piers were required and introduced in buildings when lightweight wooden roof was replaced by heavyweight masonry vault. Piers were initially seen as thickening of external walls in form of strip buttressing a.k.a. pilasters.

Triforium ‐ an inwardly facing open wall‐passage, often arcaded, running above the nave arcade below clerestory level in a cathedral. the space between aisle arcade and clerestory was left blank or only painted with artwork. Where aisle was in two levels, i.e. a gallery is present, the blank space was taken up by the gallery that opened into the nave. From the late pre‐Romanesque period onward, the blank part of the facade was articulated by openings or blind arcade.

Buttresses (see PPT) Use of arches (early Romanesque onward) :

The Romans thought the Greeks to be a superior culture in comparison to themselves. So a Roman who wanted to show his intellectual superiority, incorporated Greek elements, most commonly columns, in his home or building. Similarly, in Medieval period, incorporating Roman elements were prestigious for a building. Just as arches were unavoidable for (a) structural reasons, the same arches were used for (b) articulation of space and (c) climatological reason and (d) decorative reason in churches and other buildings. For places close to Rome, the presence of arches in buildings came earlier than rest of Europe and number of arches is also more. This trend followed into Gothic period as well.

Structural arches are found as Arches in arcuated portals, arcades to articulate aisle and nave, diaphragm arches to articulate nave and crossing, crossing and sanctuary

Barrel or tunnel vaults often ribbed / reinforced with transverse arches

Groin vault Rib vault (late‐Romanesque period onwards – discussed under Gothic style)

Pointed arches and their variations (discussed later) Arches as architectural elements

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Blind arcades ‐ aesthetic use in interior and exterior wall. They also somewhat reinforced the continuous walls.

Wall passages with wall at one side and arcade in the other side (common in Italy where, in addition to beautification, it provides shading agains the bright Mediterranean sun).

Corbel plate with motifs and arches. ‐ Pre‐Romanesque onwards. Non‐arcuated corbels plates are also found.

1.1.2.5. Art

Majority of the art was sponsored by church or state and followed the religious guidelines. The famous Pope Gregory said “paintings can do for the illiterate what writing does for people who read”. Medieval painting and sculpture was meant to educate people. By the Christian doctrine realistic art was forbidden. The postures and facial expressions were shown to bless, judge or admonish the viewer. Most wall paintings and architectural sculpture depicted the virtues of Christianity, the lessons in sinful and pious life for common people and story of Christ, the saints and New Testament. The eyes were large because they reflected the soul. Last judgment, last supper, birth of Christ, crucifixion of Christ and saints were popular themes on prominent parts like tympanum and portal jambs. Free‐standing sculptures that were popular in the Classical periods were no more in fashion.

Medieval sculpture was always subordinate to structure which is why their dimensions were restricted by the dimensions of the architectural or structural members on which they were carved. Sculptures were used to enhance the architectural features all throughout the mediaeval period. Faces and figures of humans, demons, animals, mythical creatures from local culture, animals, geometrical patterns especially pleters were used to enhance architectural features such as cornices, friezes, brackets and corbel plates, horizontal and vertical angle rolls in the initial phases. In later periods columns, friezes, archivolts, tympanum, jambs were richly carved with religious themes and decorations. Stone inlay in geometric pattern was found on plain surfaces and piers. Early sculptures were crudely executed. The finesse increased with time. The sculptures were made off site and fitted in buildings, often sculpture or panel made for one building being used in another.

Paintings were found on blank walls inside the churches. Especially, Norman churches were richly painted on the interior. Before spaces were better articulated with arcades and triforium, rich in colour and subject were used to used to fill the blank space left between clerestory and gallery or aisle.

Illuminated manuscripts painstakingly made over centuries are valuable as artwork, scholarly work and historical document. Room(s) in the abbey was dedicated for manuscript preparation and monks toiled to make and copy then gospels in an extremely laborious manual process.

Last Judgment theme, Saint Trophime at Arles, France 12‐15th C

St Peter's church, Northampton, Saxon capital

Ornamentally sculpted angle roll in Norman church, Britain

Relief from France

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1.1.2.6. Cultural influences

Visigothic influence Originated in Visigothic Spain. Spread in Holy Roman Empire by connections of marriage. o Chequered arches (originally Muslim character. Seen extensively in great mosque at Cordoba. Neighbouring Visigoths adapted

this style) o Stone relief showing animal and vegetation. These non‐religious or pagan reliefs were used with religious connotation when

used in Churches Anglo Saxon influence

o Mostly found in Britain after Anglo‐Saxon tribes from Saxony (of Germany) migration to Britain 5th century o Grotesque and abstract heads of animal, bird and human moulded on corbel plate, cornice and column capitals.o Bas relief of animals, birds, plants in bands on building surface.

Muslim influence in structure and decoration o Originated in Caliphate of Cordoba and Parts of Italy that was under Muslim occupancy. The elements are as follows o Surface decoration and stone cladding, especially geometric patterns. o Chequered arches – later pre‐Romanesque period. o In Romanesque period and later : Pointed arches

Byzantine influence o Found mostly in Ottonian empire, by connectins of marriage. It was prestigious to

bring daughters of the Greek Byzantine (Byzantines were basically Greek, driven out of Greece during attacks on Rome) Royal families into the Germanic royal families as wives. With the daughter came a part of the culture : scholars, priests, artisans, craftsmen.

o Domes (beyond the technical ability of non‐Byzantines of that period and for 400 years after that)

o Mosaics, frescos, icons. 1.1.2.7. Buildings of significance : o Germany, Aachen, Palatine Chapel (completion 800) o Germany, Corvey, Abbey Church o Germany, Hildesheim, St. Michael o Ideal Abbey plan found in library of Monastery St. Gallen, Switzerland.

Norman art, Britain, Bird beakheadsfrom Old Sarum cathedral andSherborne Castle

Mosque in Church of light, Toledo, Spain,10C : Mudejar architecture

Visigoth capital features acanthusleaves at Mosque in Church of light, Toledo, Spain, 10C

Animal column ‐ German Romanesque

Romanesque twisted columns and mosaics at the cloister in San Giovanni in Laterano, Rome

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1.2. Important monarchies pre‐Romanesque period

1.2.1. Merovingian period (approx 500 AD, modern day France) :

1.2.1.1. Architectural significance :

• Architectural remains are few and apparently insignificant but the developments starting in this period paved the way for Carolingian revival and later, Romanesque and Gothic.

• Germanisicm : Once the Germanic tribes had absorbed the architectural traditions of the Romans (or rather what remained of those traditions following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire), they dramatically transformed them with intricacy and verticality. ("Verticality" simply means that a structure is tall relative to its width.) These two qualities in medieval architecture are often referred to collectively as Germanicism. Germanisicm started occurring in Merovingian period but was becoming evident in Carolingian period.

1.2.1.2. Political Significance :

• High. Franks were one of the Germanic tribes which were active since 300BC and threatened the Western Roman empire. The segmented tribes and dukedoms united for the first time into something of a kingdom under Merovingians (literally meaning Sons of Merovech) in 500 AD.a

• The Franks united and was Christianised under Clovis‐I (465 – 511). The Frankish state consolidated its hold over large parts of Western Europe by the end of the eighth century, developing into the Carolingian Empire under the Carolingian family. This empire would gradually evolve into the state of France and the Holy Roman Empire. The last Merovingian king was deposed by the then Pope Stephen II, who confirmed and anointed Pepin the Short in 754, beginning the Carolingian monarchy in 754. This shows the Pope had the power to decide the political fate of a kingdom.

• This period is marked by the decline of classical knowledge , continuation of Early Christian style with local influence. Absorption of abstract and brilliantly ornamental style of the barbarian tribes (seen as vine and animal motifs in buildings). The art of these tribes was confined to small and portable objects because of their nomadic way of life. Merovingian architecture, monumental sculpture, and painting were dependent upon the legacy of the classical and Early Christian traditions.

1.2.1.3. Building types :

• Unification of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis I (465 – 511) and his successors, corresponded with the need for the building of churches, and especially monastery churches, as these were now the power‐houses of the Merovingian church. Two hundred monasteries existed south of the Loire when St Columbanus, an Irish missionary, arrived in Europe in 585 and only 100 years later by the end of the

7th century, over 400 flourished in the Merovingian kingdom alone. The building plans often continued the Roman basilica tradition.

• Required an architectural symbol of power, which was Church. No other institutional had comparable central authority or standardised administration like church. Monastery churches came into being with the need to spread Christianity among people and the need of monastic life (seclusion, self‐supporting lifestyle, scholarship). From beginning of 6th century to end of 7th century, 600 churches flourished in Merovingian kingdom alone.

1.2.1.4. Architectural Characters :

• The most original aspect of Gallic (now Southern France) churches was their use of a bell tower. The life of monks in abbeys was becoming increasingly organised and a time keeping device was required to in every church to help the monks adhere to their daily routine. Thus a bell tower became necessary in each abbey and church. Constructions of Merovingian date have been found in Auxerre, Jouarre, Lyons, and Poitiers. The churches are simple stone structures, resembling a fortress rather than a place of worship. The objective was in protecting the church from the attacks and evil from outside.

• Art : Merovingian stone sculpture was characterized by a simplification of antique forms, sometimes culminating in rather crude graphic shorthand. Animal motifs, especially birds and lambs disposed in rows or within geometric patterns, were tirelessly repeated on sarcophagi. The human figure became an abstract sign. Illumination of manuscripts was almost entirely restricted to the elaboration of colorful initial letters based on animal forms, notably bird and fish motifs.

• Large stone buildings like monastery churches and palaces. Few remains.

• Plan inspiration was Roman basilica i.e. rectangle with an apse : functional, versatile and simple to adapt. Technology ‐ Rectangular plans, stone buildings, wooden truss roof.

1.2.2. Carolingian period :

• Rulers of this period were also Frankish tribes and devout Christians.

• This is the period when liturgy (i.e. process and rituals of Christian worshipping) was standardised, the monks, priests, abbots, novices were systematically educated.

• Architectural significance : high. Carolingian architecture is practically synonymous with pre‐Romanesque architecture. Geographic spread : broad, including modern day France, Germany, Switzerland and Britain. Influences of Roman semicircular arch appear. Carolingian style is the fore‐runner of Romanesque style.

1.2.2.1. Carolingian Architecture :

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• Medieval architecture truly emerged under the Carolingian Empire (ca. 750‐900), which produced many basilica churches and Latin cross churches. Once again, however, few works survive, and these have often been subject to major restoration or modification.

• Carolingian period standardised liturgy i.e. the method of Christian worship and hence the architecture of churches were also standardised. The elements of church architecture that are seen in the greatest churches of history and In a somewhat unsystematic manner, all elements of church design developed in thus period in different locations.

• Under the Carolingians, church architecture received its first major injection of Germanicism, in the form of boosted verticality. The Carolingians broke with classical proportions, (as seen in the original Roman basilica they evolved from) increasing the height of their churches relative to their horizontal dimensions, and establishing towers as a standard element of church design. Please note that many tall towers seen today on Carolingian period churches may have been added later, even in as late as 19th century.

• A monumental church facade is known as a westwork. (Traditionally, churches were built with the entrance facing west; hence the name "westwork". Details are given later) By introducing towers to church design, the Carolingians pioneered the standard facade of the Western cathedral.

• The typical westwork may be roughly generalized according to a three‐by‐three grid. The bottom level comprises the main entrance (aligned with the nave), flanked by two sub‐entrances (aligned with the aisles); the aisles are one level high, while the nave is two levels high. This differential is masked by the towers, however, which rise up above the aisles to the third level of the grid. The entrance to the church is called a portal and it is meant to transport the believer to the dome of god. The western portals used to be more and more adorned in Romanesque period. By Gothic period, the portals, west, south or north depending on the church, were used as a major place for putting up religiously significant stone reliefs. Up to Carolingian period, portal was found on the west façade and it was unadorned or little adorned with sculptures.

• Shift from centralized plan to axial plan (see PPT for the suitability of axial plan. Roman basilica plan easily identified in later churches. Introduction of transept made the basilica plan appear like a Latin cross in plan. Nave façade was composed of arcade of semicircular arches, gallery, triforium and celerstory.

• Bigger buildings, symmetrical. Transverse section came close to equilateral triangle. The section was remiscient of a Roman triumphal arch, with a high central arch and two symmetrical flanking shorter arches.

• Roman ruins supplied many building materials and building elements, especially monolithic columns.

• Churches, though bigger, still appeared like castles with solid, rectangular massing. There were very few windows.

Most windows were at clerestory level and very few below. Walls were thick, reinforced with pilasters or strip buttresses.

• Unadorned facades with blind arches and symmetrical towers. With the exception of the portals, rest of the façade in westwork was comparatively unadorned.

• Introduction of extended apse in the late pre‐Romanesque period. The extended apse now accommodated not only the alter but a choir of abbots / monks behind the alter. Further extension of apse behind the main alter a.k.a. high alter led to the creation of a retrochoir. Retrochoirs were common in English Gothic churches. Retrochoirs was almost as long as the nave.

• Westwork : Introduction of westwork with window of appearance. Westwork later became more elaborate with addition of recessed and sculptured portals ‐ usually three in number.

Westwork : The Carolingian architecture, inspired by the forms of antiquity, abandoned the small boxlike shapes of the Merovingian period and used instead spacious basilicas often intersected by vast transepts. In some churches, such as Fulda and Cologne, the central nave ended in semicircular apses. An innovation of Carolingian builders, which was to be of incalculable importance for the later Middle Ages, was the emphasis given to the western extremity of the church. The western facade was present on one end of the longitudinal axis, directly opposite the alter, the most important part of the church. It had an elevation of several stories, the lowest a central vaulted vestibule (a derivative of the narthex) to the church proper, and above, a room reached by spiral staircases, which may have served as a chapel reserved for high dignitaries.

It was a period when church and monarchy was closely related. The monarch not only funded churches, he even put his favourites in high positions in churches and abbeys, even though they were not ordained (i.e. officially authorized to perform religious duties). The king often acted as priest. Priests often performed imperial duties under the king’s instruction and authority. The visit of king to the church was frequent and important. He made appearances to the populace from the church’s west façade through the “window of appearances”. All these combined, the west façade became quite important. The façade, flanked symmetrically by towers, or simply the exterior of a massive complex (westwork), became the focal point of the structure.

• Interior :

o Clear articulation of space started but did not mature. With arches, colonnades, cornices and friezes, roof levels the different parts of the church was easily identifiable. However, the interior and exterior surface was smooth and bay division was umprominent.

o Use of columns and other building salvaged elements from Roman ruins.

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o Arches and tunnel vaults were rare. In later building, where they are found, voussoires were made of blocks of stones in two different colours, used alternately. These chequered arches were in seen in Spain and Burgandy, i.e. regions where Muslim influence was strong.

o The interior had suitable places to accommodate numerous relics brought from Rome. These relics required more than one alter or a separate chamber inside the church. It was common to find more than one alter in large churches.

1.2.2.2. Examples

The outstanding structure of the Carolingian period still in existence is Charlemagne’s palatine chapel at Aachen, dedicated by Pope Leo III in the year 805. It is centralised in plan and surmounted by an octagonal dome. The design of the palatine chapel appears to have been based in part on the 6th‐century Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. Even though it has a 16‐sided polygonal plan, it has an emphatic longitudinal axis (San Vitale has no pronounced longitudinal axis). Its interior is horizontally and vertically clearly demarcated using piers, friezes, cornices and arcades. With the semicircular arches and clear articulation of spaces, this church is a famous fore‐runner of Romanesque style. The ceiling mosaics are from 12th C.

1.2.3. Ottonian period :

• This period is often referred to as early Romanesque period. Ottonian churches exemplify German Romanesque.

• The eastern part of the former Carolingian empire (now central Germany) was consolidated in the middle of the tenth century under the rule of the Ottonians and a period of cultural renewal ensued, though with less fervor because an able ruler like Charlemagne did not appear in this period. Carolingian empire boundary, part of which known as the Holy Roman Empire, shrunk during Ottonian period.

• The first outstanding examples of German painting and sculpture were created (c.960–c.1060) during the Ottonian dynasty. Splendid manuscripts, enriched by illuminations remarkable for their force of linear expression, issued from the school of Reichenau.

• Architecturally it was a continuation and further development of Carolingian period styles. The buildings increased in size, they became higher, building masses become more complex, elaborate with addition of one or more transepts, towers and westwork was present and ore elaborate. A highly rational system was devised of dividing the church into a series of separate units and sub‐units, a method that was to be of consequence in Romanesque design. The roofs were still made of

wooden truss because the technology and confidence to build barrel vaulted and groin vaulted roof was not yet revived. Churches were taking up the basilica form more frequently. With addition of transept it was taking the Latin cross plan shape. The doubles‐apsed church plan was popular and common. Entrance could be from side and / or western apse. this design continued in the German homeland well into the end of Romanesque period even though church plan and technology changed with time and need in other regions.

• Examples : St. Michaels church at Maria Laach, St Michael's church at Hildesheim.

1.3. Regional Pre‐Romanesque

• France : Northern France and west of Rhine river in Germany are the homeland of pre‐Romanesque Romanesque architecture. The characters of these architectural styles are applicable to this region with some particularities of both these regions. After the demise of the Carolingian Empire, France split into a number of feuding provinces, so that lacking any organized Imperial patronage, French art of the 10th and 11th centuries became localised around the large monasteries, and lacked the sophistication of a court‐directed style.

• Germany – Northern France and west of Rhine river in Germany are the homeland of pre‐Romanesque Romanesque architecture. The characters of these architectural styles are applicable to this region with some particularities of both these regions. Evolution of Romanesque was most continuous and dynamic in Rhineland. It is home to many new developments. For example, Westwork started in Germany. The double‐apsed church‐plan and church with double transept, wooden roof were popular in Germany for a longer period, being present in later Romanesque churches as well. Ottonian churches are typical examples of German Romanesque churches.

• Spain & Portugal ‐ The first form of Pre‐Romanesque in Spain and Portugal was the Visigothic art. After the Arab invasion, Pre‐Romanesque art was first reduced to the Kingdom of Asturias, the only Christian realm on the country at the time which reached high levels of artistic depuration. Arab influence in architecture is evident in the use of horse‐shoe arches, stone inlays and geometric patterns and chequered arches scattered in Europe. The Christians who lived in Moorish territory, the Mozarabs, created their own architectural and illumination style, Mozarabic art. The Visigothic influence is seen in columns and animal and plant patterns. Santa Maria del Naranco (see PPT) of mid 9th century has barrel vault roof reinforced with with transverse arches even though the apseless church plan is nothing like a basilican or latin cross church plan. Brick structures more common than stone.

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• Italy ‐ Southern Italy benefited from the presence and cross fertilization of the Byzantines, the Arabs, and the Normans, while the north was mostly controlled first by the Carolingians. The Normans in Sicily chose to commission Byzantine workshops to decorate their churches such as Monreale and Cefalù Cathedrals where full iconographic programmes of mosaics have survived. Important frescos and illuminated manuscripts were produced. Roman influence, soil, knowhow of brick manufacturing, climate ruled the style in Italy. For details check PPT AND CLASS LECTURE.

• Croatia – Croatian Pre‐Romanesque art and architecture or Old Croatian Art is Pre‐Romanesque art and architecture of Croats from their arrival at Balkans till the end of the 11th century when begins the dominance of Romanesque style in art; that was the time of Croatian rulers (Croatian dukes and Croatian Kingdom). Stone buildings with surface decoration on stone, especially alter rails and windows. The Croatian interlace or Croatian wattle, known as the pleter or troplet in Croatian, is a type of interlace, most characteristic for its three‐ribbon pattern. It is found on and within churches as well as monasteries built in early medieval Kingdom of Croatia between the 9th and beginning of the 12th century. The ornamental strings were sometimes grouped together with animal and herbal figures.

• Britain & Ireland – Architecture of Britain & Ireland in medieval period is a little different from that of the continents i.e. mainland Europe. Ireland, home to the Celtic tribes, became civilised much before the England. Christianity flourished in Ireland before it was well established in the continent and in Britain. By 5th century abbyes were established like fortresses of Christianity in Ireland. Celts later populated Britain as well. Britain has seen cultural infusions by 1st century Romans, 4th century Christian Roman emperor, Anglo‐Saxon tribes from North Germany in 5th century, Normans in 11th century. In the period between invasions, the invading cultures and the local tribes i.e. Celts, Anglo‐Saxons influenced each other to produce certain architectural styles that showed strong tribal influence like wattle and daub houses, single room churches, thatched roofing etc.. After Norman invasion, architectural style in Britain started to show continuous influence of the continental style interjected with some British modifications.

Julias Caeser conquered Britain in 1st century BC. Off and on, it was under Roman Rule. The earliest evidence of Christianity in Roman Britain is the site of a basilican plan church in Silchester, Hampshire dated to about AD200, while Christians were still being persecuted by Romans for their religious belief. The first Christian Roman emperor Constantine was ruling Britain (or Brittany) in the 330s and he was liberal as far as religion was concerned. So,

churches appear in England long before they appear freely in rest of West Europe.

After Romans, the Celts adopted Christianity in early fifth century. Early Celtic Christianity was based mainly around monks. These monks were not used to the idea of collective worship but initially adopted the pagan idea of a single‐roomed small building whose inner space was holy and entered only by the monk or priest. Simultaneously, the others natives of the island from Anglo‐Saxon tribes were building pagan worship places which were small closed places but without any other typical design or permanent material. Anglo‐Saxon secular buildings in Britain were generally simple, constructed mainly using timber with thatch for roofing, single roomed or consisting only nave and chancel but without aisle or transept. No universally accepted example survives above ground. Christianity, although not dead, was in retreat. All together, Romans, Celts and Anglo‐Saxons ruled England and its church architecture until 772 AD.

The Anglo Saxon churches were built by purifying the existing pagan places and using the same structure. The tribal symbols, reliefs were left unmodified in church façade, door jambs, cornice and interior and were given Christian religious significance. The monasteries were of Benedictine order.

The major infusion of Christianity came to England in 1066 when William the Conqueror from Normandy conquered and started to spread Christianity in Britain with great effort. He started building huge churches and cathedrals in England to impress the locals and establish the superiority of Christians over pagan religious. Cathedrals were being built in grand scale, some becoming as long as the largest Romanesque church (Cluny‐III) of that period. New 5th century monks from the continental orders like Cluniac, Cistercian and Augustines came to England to join the alredy existing Benedictine order. The church sculptures were made in a mixture of local and Christian style. They were used to ward off evil, to educate people about sin and good work, about Christianity and about the afterlife with which Christian life was pre‐occupied the most. The scultprurs depicting daily life also has some moral lesson attached to it.

1.4. Transition from Carolingian to Romanesque:

Among the numerous buildings in different regions that show some signs of the coming Romanesque period, Charlemagne’s palace chapel (800AD) at Aachen is an accepted forerunner of Romanesque style for the presence of these characteristics :

1. the building was made of masonry though conventional building material of the period was wood, even for palaces.

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The masonry was clad in stone, many brought from Roman ruins.

2. Groin vaulted and barrel vaulted ceilings

3. Westwork

4. Emphasis on walls and flat piers instead of round columns.

5. Separation or Articulation of spaces

6. Two staircase towers flanking the entrance that later develop in German Romanesque characteristics.

7. Axiality (though longitudinal axis is an older architectural feature seen in earlier churches, it is seen here for the first time in this period, in combination with a centralized plan, just like Hagia Sophia. Romanesque churches are all characterized by strong longitudinal axis. Is fact, Romanesque churches all follow basilican plan.

1.5. Some pre‐Romanesque and Romanesque churches that were architecturally ahead of their time :

• St. Riquier, now destroyed : first fully developed westwork.

• Abbey church at Corvey (873‐885) : window of appearances on the westwork for the monarch or emperor to appear in. Imperial association. Upper part of this westwork was added later.

• Ideal Monastery Plan found in the library of St. Gall, Switzerland c820 : Ideal monastery plan – self sufficient. Made in modules. Dominant building in terms of location and size is the church. The church has multiple entries, approaching from different parts of the abbey. It has double ended church ( a very popular plan type in Germany). Plan is centered on cloister. Plan is made such that the abbey could be fortified if need of security was felt.

• Speyer Cathedral, Germany (1027‐1060) : First groin vaulted ceiling.

• St. Sernin (1060‐1120) : Largest extant (after Cluny`s church III was destroyed) Romanesque Church in Europe with almost 60m long nave and 100m length from vestibule to east chapel., A pilgrimage church consecrated in 1090 and

completed in 1180. Tall octagonal crossing tower built in Romanesque and Gothic period rest on squinches. This church is evidence of ambition regarding scale of churches. The have had to be supported by two side aisles

• Third abbey church at Cluney, : Longest Romanesque church. Long axis was 190m. Was destroyed in 19th century.

• St. Etienne (English : St. Stephen) at Caen, France : First angle roll. Commonly a.k.a. angle shaft (circular shafts on arris to protect the edges of piers and edge between wall and soffit).

• Durham Cathedral, England, (Norman, (1093‐1133) – all the essential elements of the coming Gothic style, i.e. the pointed arch, the flying buttress (in the form of quadrant arch separating timber roofed gallery), and the level rib vault.

• Lorche Gateway, France (late 8th century) – combined the northern and classical traditions. Corinthian engaged columns. Coloured marble inlays (reminiscent of barbarian metalwork). The massing is reminiscent of a Roman triumphal arch.

• Charlemagne’s palace chapel (Aachen, present day Germany) ‐ see writeup above.

• St. Cyriakus at Gernrode, Germany, built in 969/960‐965 (Ottonian Church) : Triforium gallery was first used in Western Europe in this church. Gallery or tribunes in churches opened both inward and outward. In this church, the semi‐blind arcades in galleries on the nave are seen as a predecessor of true triforium. Triforium developed in a different fashion in Gothic period By closing all the external openings and by reducing the depth of the gallery. To be discussed later.

2. Romanesque

Romanesque, a word not coined until the 18th century, was first used to describe the architecture of Western Europe from about the 9th to 12th century. It means “like Roman”. In reality, Romanesque architecture takes only the circular arch, barrel / tunnel vaults and basilican church plan from Roman Architecture, the remains of which were now abundant in the now decaying western Roman Empire in Europe. The profile of the triumphal arch was seen in the transverse section of churches. However obvious it may

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appear, it was not replicated to copy the profile but it happened due to the structural requirement : aisles butteressed the nave double the height if the aisles. Other characteristics of Roman Civilisation and architecture (like academics, administration & bureaucracy, city and town planning, concrete, road construction, public life) were not revived. In fact, there is a strong and evident influence of Local tribal arts and Muslim architecture on Romanesque and later period (even Italian Renaissance) art and architecture. However, it was always prestigious to link a civilization to that of the Romans and hence the nomenclature was done in 18th century.

2.1. Life and time during Romanesque period :

• Church and State were intertwined as far as authority was concerned. They were frequently feuding over political and religious authority.

• Boundaries or nation, kingdom or empire changed frequently and central political authority was lacking. Western Europe was a collection dukedoms and city‐states who were in frequently alternating states of conflict and peace. Warfare between tribes was frequent and defense was the primary concern for architecture. Abode of king was not the openly design palace but the fortified castles.

• The Crusades had started. Many a time the king left with family for the Crusades for years together, sometime never coming back.

• In absence of a stable, knowledgeable and central political authority, in absence of social and administrative institutions, the religious institution was the only stable, central, standardised and knowledgeable institution found in this period. The churches received finances from not only the kings and nobility but from believers (more on pilgrimage economy in later sections) and they invested their income to increase it manifold. Thus churches were self‐sufficient in all senses. Hence church building was abundant and remain as the only major architectural evidence of this period. There are few castles but their number is small in comparison.

• Religious architecture was a domain of research in construction technology, art, manuscript writing and scholarship and the legacy was carried forward in Gothic period.

2.2. Factors deciding architectural characters (mostly continuation of pre‐Romanesque trends) :

• Roman arch and structures (triumphal arch elevation is seen in the transverse section of churches)

• Standardised liturgy : The central high space was symbolised as a ship (the term nave, derived from the Latin word navis, was coined in 17th century) carrying the congregation towards lord. The axial planning of neolithic European passage graves were psychologically appropriate for this concept of walking up a long straight path to meet

God at the end of the axis. This plan was also in sync with the Roman house plan placing the congregation and alter face to face. These beliefs lead to the finalisation the Latin cross plan of Christian churches that we still see today.

• Standardised church administration and hierarchy : As a result bishoprics and cathedrals appear.

• Pilgrimage (continued from pre‐Romanesue period) ‐ see PPT

• Monastic life (continued from pre‐Romanesue period) ‐ see PPT

• Competition between churches for patronage and pilgrims and big business of fake relics.

• Royal patronage and favouritism.

• Islamic influence from Spain and Southern Italy.

• End of this period “cult of the virgin” appear. Most medieval churches henceforth are dedicated to the Virgin.

• Amalgamation of tribal and Christian art and development of architectural sculpture.

• Building technology – wooden truss roof replaced round arch, tunnel vault (ribbed or plain), piers and buttresses, masons and artisans guild

• Materials – availability of freestone in France and Germany, Brick and marble in Italy.

• Geology – building scale and size

• Climate – size of openings and colour

• Local culture – decoration and elements.

2.3. Architectural characters

2.3.1. Building types (see PPT) :

• Churches and self‐sufficient monasteries in abundance, usually outside locality and by water

• Monasteries are self sufficient, like a small town. Patron king or noble used to make gifts of land and labour

• Churches designed to cater not only for sacrament but to accommodate a continuous flow of pilgrims through the day who attended masses and visited the relics.

2.3.2. Building design :

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• No particular design template or standard that corresponds to “Romanesque style”. Some characteristics are typical of Romanesque style with great regional variation.

• Great amount of regional variation with respect to material, surface treatment, roofing, sculpture and building scale.

• Larger buildings, baptistery and bell tower becoming more prominent, often separate building. In Italy they were almost invariably separate from the church building.

• Replacement of wooden roof truss with less fire‐prone, stronger and heavier masonry varrel vault with or without transverse arch.

• Thick walls, completely load‐bearing.

• Aisles added as structural support of nave as well as for accomodationg and directing growing number of pilgrim traffic. Large pilgrimage churches have two side aisles. The central aisle the tallest, its height 1.5 to 2 times the span. Side aisles half the span and half the height of central aisle and usuallysurmounted by a gallery or tribune. Second side aisle where present was same or lesser height than the first side aisle and was not surmounted by a gallery.

• In early periods, a gallery without external window was present above the side aisle. Its roofing evolved from level wood to lean to roof, intercepted by quadrant arches at the joining of bays.

• Small windows. Few windows at level. Lighting coming mainly from clerestory level (absent in pilgrimage churches). Dim interior. Extensive use of candles and bejeweled decorations on the interior.

• Introduction of triforium gallery. (first seen at St. Cyriakus at Gernrode, Germany, built in 969/960‐965, Ottonian Church)

• Interior of churches designed keeping in mind the order of Christianity. Some are heavily decorated and bejeweled (Benedictine) and some plain interior (Cistercians).

• Articulation of space in interior and exterior : Monotonous and continuous interior and exterior tend to become boring, disorienting, intimidating and confusing. As buildings grew larger, dividing them in rhythmic parts was a design necessity. With the use of ribs and the resultant piers, structurally a rhythmic division and subdivision as per hierarchy was unavoidable. These two combined, the first interior articulation appeared in clear demarcation of bays with the used of strip buttressing on piers (the space for sanctuary and congregation was articulated from the very beginning of church design). Bay division became clearer

with use of transverse arch, compound piers with a basic rectangular section and groin vault. Each part of building is clearly articulated in the plan, elevation, internal and external massing. An increase in number of apses and the more complicated and innovative piers used to this end.

• Elements used in articulation :

o Vaulting and corresponding piers ‐ simple to complex :

Roofing Corresponding Pier section(1) wooden roof (pre‐

Romanesque) Rectangular section.

(2) barrel vault (few pre‐Romanesque and early Romanesque)

Rectangular section. Alternation of support had

(3) transverse arch T‐section (4) transverse arch of

both nave and side aisle,

Cruciform section

(5) quadripartite rib vault Half column on rectangular (6) sexpartite and higher

ribbed vault Compound or clustered column section

o Series of alternating column and pier in nave elevation. Piers always denoted the junction of bays. As load of wall and roof grew, number of columns between piers reduced from two to none.

o Groin vault : in early periods only in aisles and later in have. To construct level groin vaults, groin vaulted aisles were of 1x1 and accompanying barrel vaulted naves in 1x2 dimensions. Groin vaulted naves were in 2x2 dimension.

• Latin cross plan achieved by addition of transept to basilican plan.

• Ambulatory and common occurrence of two side aisles

• Subdividing space : Multiple alters. Main alter in chancel and other ones in transept and chapels.

• Subdividing space : Multiple chapels

• Common occurrence of two side aisles double storeyed aisles for circulation and structural stability

• Tower on crossing

• Apse further extended to accommodate larger choir. In Britain led to introduction of retro‐choir in Gothic period.

• Recessed portal, heavily sculptured. 2.4. Romanesque Revival (19th Century)

Following the early nineteenth century Greek and Gothic Revival movements in American architecture (and also in Europe), a number of American architects started a

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Romanesque Revival trend. The earliest of these was James Renwick (1818‐95), whose design for the Smithsonian Institute ("the castle") in Washington DC (1847‐55) made it the first American public building in that style. Another architect influenced by the Romanesque was Richard Upjohn (1802‐78).

The greatest exponent, however, of 19th century Romanesque revivalist architecture was Henry Hobson Richardson (1838‐86) who was responsible for masterpieces like Trinity Church, Boston (1872‐77) and Marshall Field Wholesale Store (1885‐87) Chicago.

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Questions :

1. What are the major time periods in Medieval periods? What are the most common architectural character / building type found in all these periods? Why?

2. What is pre‐Romanesque architecture? Why is it called so?

3. What is Romanesque architecture? Why is it called so?

4. How is pre‐Romanesque architecture differentiated from Romanesque architecture?

5. Why is it difficult to assign and time period, geographical location or characteristics to pre‐Romanesque architecture?

6. What are the pre‐dominant buildings types in Pre‐Romanesque period? Why are such buildings so great in number? (10‐15)

7. Draw the plan and section of a typical medieval church, label each part and explain its function.

8. What are the major characteristics of Pre‐Romanesque structures? (10‐20)

9. What buildings features appear in pre‐Romanesque period but become prominent characters of later period buildings?

10. What are the reasons behind the prevalence of cruciform church plan over centralised plan? When did this occur?

11. What us articulation of space? How is articulation of space achieved in (a) Palatine chapel, Aachen, (b) St. Michaels at Hildesheim, (c) Westwork of Abbey church at Corvey (d) church exterior in pre‐Romanesque church and

12. What is the role of pilgrimage in forming medieval architecture? What were the design requirements of a pilgrimage church? How were those requirements met by architecture? Explain the functions of a pilgrimage church with help of a typical pilgrimage church plan.

13. Why are Romanesque churches planned with square modules?

14. What architectural features of abbeys were assimilated in medieval university plans? Why?

15. Explain the evolving construction technology with typical church sections of pre‐Romanesque and Romanesque period

16. Write about evolutions of roofing and corresponding supports from pre‐Romanesque to Romanesque period. Accompany with sketches.

17. What are the design factors of Romanesque architecture? How were they met by Romanesque buildings? (10+10)

18. What is articulation of space? Why was it required in architecture? How was it achieved? Explain each solution with accompanying sketches.

19. Write notes, explaining the origin, function, structure with accompanying sketches : cruciform plan, aisle, apse, transept, crossing, westwork, pier, nave, portal, articulation of interior space in exterior form.

20. Write about use of arches in pre‐Romanesque and Romanesque buildings. Accompany with sketches. (20)

21. What are failures of Romanesque architecture? (10)

22. What was the role of sculpture in Romanesque architecture?

23. What is a portal? What are its religious significances? What are its different parts? How are sculptures related to portals?

24. What features of a church were enhanced to accommodate (a) more visitors/pilgrims, (b) more alters, (c) more clergy ?

25. Write about building materials and technology of pre‐Romanesque and Romanesque churches? Explain with labeled sketches.

26. What are the local variations of pre‐Romanesque period architecture seen in Europe ?

27. Write about the different (a) cultural and (b) climatological influences seen in Romanesque architecture.

28. What are the architectural features of Plaza of Miracles in Pisa? How did the soil condition of Italy affect regional characters of Italy and architecture of Piazza del Miracoli? Write some of the significant features of Pisa duomo ? How do the buildings respond to local climate ?

notes 3-10 pre-romanesque, romanesque txt

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