Introduction

Grammatical Hierarchy

These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improv-ing in their writ-ing.

Det N

NP

Aux V Adv MV Prep Det N

VPPreP

Clause

Sentence

Morphemes 词素1.

Words 词2.

Clauses 分句4.

Sentences 句子5.

Phrases 短语3.

词素

Morphemes

The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.

1. Free morphemes 自由词素

A free morpheme has a complex meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech.

e.g.

boy girl desk chair kind give

2. Bound morphemes 粘附词素

Bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an inflectional or derivational affix.

Inflectional affixes: 屈折词缀

-s / -es -’s -ed -ing -er -est

Derivational affixes: 派生词缀

Anti- un- dis- -ly -ness -ment -less …

3. Allomorphs 词素变体

The same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological or orthographical forms. The variants of the same morpheme are called “allomorphs”.

In- im- il- ir-

Inactive immature illegal irrational

Cats /s/ dogs /z/ horses /iz/

词

Words

The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways:

1. Classification in terms of word-formation

2. Classification in terms of grammatical function

1. Simple words (morpheme word) 简单词

e.g. at, by, in, on, up, far, hand, take, make, …

2. Derivatives 派生词

+ prefix (prefixation)

+ suffix (suffixation)

3. Compounds 合成词

e.g. Handbook; world-famous; mass-produce; moreover; something; whenever; alongside

Prefixes Meaning Examples

un-

not,

the converse

of

unwise

non- nonessential

dis- dishonest

in- informal

im- immature

il- illegal

ir- irregular

un- reversing

the

action

unpack

de- decode

dis- disconnect

Prefixes Meaning Examples

mis- wrongly mishear

mal- bad malformed

pseudo- false pseudoscience

super- more than supermarket

sur- over surcharge

sub- below subnormal

over- excessive overconfident

under- too little underprivileged

mini- little miniskirt

Prefixes Meaning Examples

co- with cooperate

counter- against counterattack

anti- against anti-clockwise

pro- for pro-Chinesefore- before foresee

pre- in advance preschool

post- after postindustrial

ex- former ex-president

re- again resell

prefixes examples

a- astride

be- becalm

en- enlarge

em- empower

Conversion prefixes

Suffixes Meaning Examples

-ster

person engaged in an occupation or activity

gamester

-eer mountaineer

-er(or) driver

-ant inhabitant

-let small, unimportant booklet,

-ette small; imitation cigarette, leatherette,

-ess female hostess

Noun suffixesNoun suffixes

Suffixes Meaning Examples

-hood status childhood

-ship condition dictatorship

-dom realm kingdom

-ing state bathing

-ful amount handful

-tion / -sion state oppression

Noun suffixesNoun suffixes

Suffixes Meaning Examples

-ment state movement

-al action arrival

-age amount coverage

-ness state happiness

-ity state rapidity

-ism doctrine racism

-ee person interviewee

Noun suffixesNoun suffixes

Suffixes Meaning Examples

-ify

to become

beautify

-ize modernize

-en quicken

-ate originate

Verb suffixesVerb suffixes

Suffixes Meaning Examples

-ful full of hopeful

-less without meaningless

-ly having the quality of friendly

-like like childlike

-y somewhat like silky

-ish somewhat like foolish

-some causing troublesome

-able capable changeable

Adjective suffixesAdjective suffixes

Suffixes Meaning Examples

-ary (ory) connected with imaginary

-esque like picturesque

-ous full of glorious

-ic typical of dramatic

-ive having the quality of attractive

-ed having learned

-al typical of regional

Adjective suffixes

1. Closed-class words ( 封闭词类 )refer to those sets of words whose items are “closed” or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members.

2. Open-class words ( 开放词类 ) refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones.

Preposition Pronoun Determiner Conjunction

Auxiliary verb

Noun Adjective Adverb Main Verb

3. Between Closed-class and Open-class words

Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal numeral and Interjection

词组

Phrases

The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.

1. The noun phrase 名词词组

(determiner + ） （ premodifier +) noun (+ postmodifier)

all the college students

his new book on philosophy

the tall boy sitting in the classroom

the author’s new novel that will soon come out

Honesty is the best policy.

2. The verb phrase 动词词组

The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier).

She looks pale.

They fully appreciate our problems.

It is getting dark.

The children might have been playing in the garden.

He may really have injured innocent people.

In terms of grammatical form, a verb phrase can be finite or non-finite. A finite verb phrase ( 限定动词词组 )is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to tense or subject. A non-finite verb phrase ( 非限定动词词组 ) is a phrase initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to tense or subject.

We went there to see a film.

Having seen the film we had a discussion.

Painted by a famous artist the portrait is invaluable.

3. The adjective phrase 形容词词组

The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:

(modifier+) adjective (+ postmodifier / complementation)

The weather is fine today.

The course is pretty difficult.

You are not carefully enough.

That work is too difficult for that child.

4. The adverb phrase 副词词组

The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:

(modifier+) adverb (+ postmodifier)

He spoke loudly and clearly.

Be a man. Don’t act so lowly.

She spoke very clearly indeed.

He lives farthest from the station.

5. The prepositional phrase 介词词组

The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is:

(modifier+) preposition + complementation

Do you think you can borrow some money from your friend?

Food has been scarce since before the war.

Now their footsteps could be heard directly above my head.

从句

Clauses

The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject+ predicate”.

1. Independent and dependant clauses 独立分句和从属分句

An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase

He knows everything about it. 独立分句

I don’t know he knows everything about it. 从属分句

Some of your answers were correct, but I do not remember which. 独立分句

I do not remember which of your answers were correct. 从属分句

2. Simple and complex clauses 简单分句和复杂分句

When a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.

It is not true. (independent simple clause / simple sentence)

What you said is not true. (independent complex clause / complex sentence)

He said that it was not true. (dependent simple clause)

He complained that what you said was not true. (dependent complex clause)

3. Main and subordinate clauses 主句和从句

In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.

He complained that what you said was not true.

主句

主句

从句

从句

4. Finite and non-finite clauses 限定分句和非限定分句

A clause can be finite or non-finite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator.

I signed the paper to get the license.

The man, wearing such dark glasses, obviously could not see clearly.

Covered with confusion, they looked at each other.

The discussion completed, the Chairman adjourned the meeting for half an hour.

5. Verbless clauses 无动词分句

When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.

Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned.

Confident of the justice of their cause, they agreed to put their case before the arbitration panel( 仲裁小组 ).

One of the most popular tourist sites in Italy, Pompeii was viewed by nearly two million visitors last year.

句子

Sentences

The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit or connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

1. Full and minor sentences 完全句和不完全句

A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informal discourses.

A: Who called this morning?

B: Mr Jones.

No smoking!

No parking!

2. Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences

简单句、并列句、复杂句和并列复杂句

A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause.

The students have made better grades in the past few weeks.

Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence.

Miss Wu came to the party, but Mr and Mrs Sherman did not.

When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s), this makes a complex sentence.

What he said is not true.

Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.

They watched television and enjoyed themselves, but we couldn’t see the program because our television was broken.