INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES I :ABILITIES

Human beings exhibit individual differences in

(a)cognitive, affective, and behavioural processes, and(b) ABILITIES and PERSONALITY. The study of individual differences in

psychology involves the study of ABILITIES and PERSONALITY.

The extent of individual differences is smaller in (a) than in (b).

ABILITIES and PERSONALITY are separate

but related aspects of the individual.

• Abilities are what a person can do,• Personality is everything that a

person is, distinct from everyone else.

ABILITIES (INTELLIGENCE ) ‘Abilities’ refer to more than one area

of what a person ‘can do’ – such as

intelligence, aptitudes, special abilities, and creativity. INTELLIGENCE is the ability studied in

greatest detail by psychologists. Over the last 50 years, there has been a big change in the approach to

intelligence.

Many definitions of intelligence have been proposed, indicating a variety of theories/ models, and several techniques of assessment.

There have also been many controversies

regarding the basis of intelligence (e.g. is it mainly genetic, or mainly the

result of environment), and even the question

of what intelligence tests measure.

Intelligence is “ A very general mental capability

that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience….. it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—’catching on’, ‘making sense’ of things, or ‘figuring out’ what to do.

- Gottfredson (1997)

Issues that have been considered :o What is ‘intelligence’ ? -- Structural as well as Process

theorieso How has it been assessed ? -- Mainly by adopting a psychometric approach.o Limitations in existing ability tests ?-- Specific problems, such as culture-

fairness, and problems related to age have been highlighted.o Alternative approaches to

assessment ?

Structural views : What is ‘intelligence’ ? What is it

made up of ? A) Views proposing ONE basic ability

(expressed in more than one form); B) Views proposing more than one

ability or ‘factor’. Process-oriented views : What are the processes in the

functioning of intelligence ?----------------------------------------------------------------- Some views combine the two

approaches.

Assessment of Abilities Psychometric approach – various

tests that are standardized : standardization involves item selection, establishing validity and reliability, and creating norms.

Performance tests (non-verbal, involving

minimum language, and Verbal tests (involving language,

‘paper-and-pencil’ tests). Individual and Group tests.

Theories of IntelligenceA) Views proposing one basic ability – BINET – Pioneer in the field, known for starting systematic

intelligence testing. Intelligence consists of a

set of general abilities, such as memory, attention, and judgment. These general abilities can be measured

in terms of different operations. Developmental (age) changes must be

kept in mind in making ability tests.

Proposed the concept of MENTAL AGE (M.A.) as the main indicator of intelligence.

TERMAN : Basically agreed with Binet, Proposed the idea of ‘General Intelligence’ – “ the ability to do abstract thinking”.

Modified the Mental Age concept – proposed that M.A. should

be considered with reference to Chronological Age (C.A.).

STERN – proposed the concept of Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) : ratio

between M.A. and C.A. M.A. IQ = ------ x 100 C.A.

B) Views proposing more than one ability

or factor Notable among such views are those

of Thorndike, Thurstone, Spearman,

Cattell, and Guilford. Common feature: All of these views

proposed more than one component or ability. These components or ‘factors’ were

proposed on the basis of a statistical-mathematical technique called FACTOR ANALYSIS.

1) SPEARMAN : Intelligence consists of : A general or ‘g’ factor – indicates an

overall (general ability) component; A specific or ‘s’ factor – indicates a

set of specific abilities or components that is expressed in a particular domain.Example: The ‘g’ factor would involve REASONING (drawing logical inferences on the basis of given information).

The ‘s’ factor – some persons can reason

better with words than with numbers. Verbal reasoning : “Ocean : Lake : : Large is to ---- ?” Numerical reasoning : “9 is to 3 as 36 is to ---- ? “ The ‘g’ factor can be known through

two kinds of functions – ‘Eduction of relations’ – e.g.

Relationship between ‘Sparrow’ and ‘Bird’ ?

‘Eduction of correlates’ – e.g. The husband of ‘Queen’ is ….?

Observation: Mental age does not increase beyond a certain age.

Binet : 13 years Others: 16 to 18 yearsQues: Then how does one calculate IQ for persons above the age of 18 years ? Wechsler suggested a solution - Instead of IQ based on M.A./C.A., use a modified indicator, based on Mean and standard deviation of the distribution of test scores.

2) GUILFORD: ‘Intellect’ should be understood in terms of THREE DIMENSIONS, each consisting of further

factors or abilities – the ‘three faces of

intellect” :– OPERATIONS - the nature of thinking involved; PRODUCTS – what results from the Operations; CONTENTS – the mode through which Operations are performed.

Operations refer to the nature of thinking involved in responding to problems/ test items.Two Operations deserve special mention –Convergent production – that which requires thinking in terms of correct answers/ solutions – as in conventional IQ tests.Divergent production – that which requires thinking in terms of several possible answers – as in creative thinking.

Hand painting 1

Hand painting 2

Creative salads

Shopping cart chairs

Tables made of recycled material

Process-oriented views – Robert STERNBERG – Triarchic model : most cited

contemporary model that proposes an information- processing view of ability. Intelligence is best understood in the

form of THREE FUNCTIONS : Componential intelligence Experiential intelligence Contextual intelligence

These three aspects of intelligence work at the following ‘levels’ :

• Meta-components- for higher-level cognition and decision-making;

• Performance components – for execution of plans/ decisions made at the meta-component level ;

• Acquisition components – for learning;

• Retention components – for memory;

• Transfer components – for carrying over, or applying information.

Other views of Ability – Multiple intelligences – GARDNER The multi-factor approach to ability may be acceptable, but there is also evidence for different KINDS of intelligence (not included even in the multi-factor approaches). SEVEN kinds of intelligence proposed – 1) Verbal 5) Musical 2) Logical-mathematical 6) Interpersonal 3) Visual/ spatial 7) Intrapersonal 4) Bodily/ kinesthetic [ 8) Spiritual ??]

The Indian scenario : Traditional views allow for individual

differences in ability, but do not contain an ‘assessment’ component, other than the ‘guru’s’ evaluation based on direct observation or experience.Contemporary approach – adopts the Western views (both unifactor and

multifactor).Tests made by Terman and Wechsler

have been ‘adapted’ for Indian conditions.

Some tests that have been used :

1) Binet – Kamat test 2) C.M. Bhatia’s ‘battery’ of tests

(based on Wechsler’s tests). 3) Versions of Raven’s Progressive

Matrices.

Many psychologists have made their own

intelligence tests, provided validity/ reliability information, and have made Indian norms.