IGES Project on Urban Environmental Management Agenda of the 3rd Project Group Meeting

Urbanization, Industrialization and Sustainable Development in Korea

- The Case Study on Ulsan Metropolitan City

Prepared by-Changsuk Kim ( Seoul City Univ., Ph. D )

-Hoiseung Jeong ( Korea Environment Insitute, Ph. D )-Deokho Cho ( Univ., of Taegu, Ph. D )–Dongkun Lee (Sangmyung Univ., Ph. D )

Dec. 2, 1999This study is performing with the financial supports of the Institute

of Global Environmental Strategies.

<Table of Contents>

Ⅰ. Introduction

Ⅱ. Urban Development and its Evaluation System Ⅲ. Urbanization and Environmental Problems in Korea Ⅳ. Case study Ⅰ: Ulsan- Metropolitan City

Ⅴ. Case study Ⅱ: Ansan City

Ⅵ. Urban Environment Management System in Korea

VII. The Development Strategies for the Sustainable Urban Environments

<Appendix>

I. Introduction

1.Background of This Research

East-Asian Countries have experienced rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization. They also created several environmental problems in local, national, and even global level. And then, the current economic growth policy reaches some limitations environmentally in sustaining an economic growth. Therefore, the goals of this research find a new paradigm for the sustainable development economically, socially, and environmentally in this area and suggests a new direction of economic development for the developing countries.

Korea has influenced the economic growth of East Asia countries because she is one of the most successful countries in terms of the economic development. In another way she has been experiencing very serious environmental problems due to negative impacts of a rapid economic growth. She changed recently a growth strategy from an economic growth to a sustainable development in order to solve environmental problems. Therefore, Korean experiences will be helpful to solve environmental problems of other Asian countries.

2. Scope of This Research

1. This research covers the Korean economic growth policy in macro system and incentive structure. Based upon this policy, it notes Ulsan and Ansan industrialization process. The former has focused on the building of heavy-chemical industrial complexes by the central government in order to promote the national economy. Many inappropriate industrial facilities of the Capital Seoul City are relocated in the latter 2). It examines the urbanization process in national and local levels, it identifies a relationship between the economic growth and environmental pollution. It also contains the urban environmental problems in Ulsan and Ansan. This model will apply to the Ulsan and Ansan Case Study.3). It develops the environmental indicators under the Driving Force- Pressure- State- Effect- Response Framework of the specific cities for applying to the developing countries. 4). It will develop the environmental indicators for elaborating the sustainable urban development model for the developing countries. 5). It finally will build a new model on the sustainable urban growth management for solving the environmental problems in East-Asian Cities. And it also suggests a new paradigm for the economic growth and environmental problem solving.

3. The Goal of This Research

Based upon the above researches, it will develop a model of sustainable urban growth management policy for the East-Asian sustainable urban development policy.

The Flow Chart of This Research

The Korean Experiences on the Industrialization, Urbanization, and Environmental Policy -Nation Level-Local Level (Ulsan, Ansan)-Environmental Problems - Governance on the Environmental Issues

Developing of the Environmental Indicator under the DPSER Framework-Driving Force-Pressure-State-Effect-Response

The Case Study for the Building of A Sustainable Urban Growth Management Policy in Korea-Economic Development (Ulsan and Ansan)-Industrial Policy-Environmental Assessment Model

Building of A New Sustainable Development Model in East-Asian Cities- Economic Growth- Industrial Policy-Governmental Policy-Citizen Participation-Environmental Management

Ⅱ. Urbanization ＆ Industrialization in Korea

1. National Land Use Circumstances in Korea

The South Korea national land is 94.229 ㎢ . National land use is composed of forest (65.8 percent), agriculture (22.1 percent), industrial (4.1 percent), public sector (2.4), and other areas (7.15 percent). The urban areas have been increased dramatically, residential areas 2.9 times, public sector areas 2.8, and especially industrial sites have increased 34.6 times for the last 50 years.

• Figure 1. Korean Land Use Pattern

2. The Korean Economic Growth Policy

In 1960s Korea was a desperate and poor country due to the Korean War and social unrest such as the student movement in 1960 and the military coup in 1961. However, Korea became a member of the Organization of the Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) which its members are composed of the developed counties in 1996. The Korean national income as a whole grew at an average annual rate of 7.9 percent during the period from 1963 to 1995 (Kim and Hong, 1997). It comes from several different factors such as a strong government policy for economic development, highly skilled labor and low wage, individual's willingness to overcome poverty, and the "Can Do Spirit for Economic Growth." An authoritarian military government built the Economic Development Five Years Plan in 1962. This plan was directed by a strong and authoritarian government and lasted until the 1980s (see Table 1).

CategoryFirst Plan(62-66)

Second Plan(67-71)

Third Plan(72-76)

Fourth Plan(77-81)

Fifth Plan(82-86)

Sixth Plan(87-91)

Eco

no

mic

Gro

wth

Rate(%

/Y)

7.8 9.6 9.7 5.8 8.6 9.8

Go

al

Fix of avicious cycleof socio-EconomiccircumstancesBuilding ofself-supportingeconomybase

Modernizationof IndustrialStructureAcceleration ofself-supportingeconomy

Balances ofgrowth,stabilization, andbalanceImplementation of self-supportingeconomy

Attainmentof self growthStructure Increase ofequality bysocialdevelopmentImprovementof technologyand efficiency

Stabilizationof economyRenovationof technologyRenovationofgovernmentfunction

Harmonizationof autonomy,stabilization, andwelfareAutonomy ofeconomy andequity of societyOpening ofeconomy andinternationalization

Po

licy Issu

e

Supply ofenergyAdjustmentof nationaleconomyInvestment ofSOC

Self-sustainingof foods and greenforestHigh levelindustrializationDevelopmentof technology andhuman resources

Self-sustaining of riceImprovementof internationalbalanceGrowth ofheavy-chemicalindustryEfficient use ofnational landresources

Balance ofinternationalaccountsInvestment totechnologydevelopmentAccelerationof New TownmovementImprovementof industrialstructure

Control ofinflationImprovementof financialsystemEnergysaving policyBuilding ofa newrelationshipbetween laborand capital

Emphasizing theeconomic equityControl to landspeculationAcceleration ofNew TownmovementRuraldevelopment andimproving livingconditions

<Tabel .1> The Goal and Policy Issues of Economic Development Five Years Plan

• Figure 2. The Change of Population and Urbanization Rate

(Figure 1). Economic Growth and Environmental Problems

Resources UseMaterial ConsumptionEnvironmental Pressures

Environmental Problem Cycle of Before ESSD Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Water cycle

Environmental problem cycle of after ESSD

GNP (time)

Source: Velliga, Pier(1998), Industrial Transformation Research, p.2, Figure 2. Economic Growth and Resources (revised by an author).

human activity

environment pressure

environment state

responsible system

envi.society

economiclaw,system

field

D

P S R

D S R

P S R

UNCSDTARGET

S

OECDJapanThis study

OECD

UNCSD

Japan

TARGETS(Netheland)

This study

DEFINITION OF FRAMEWORK

effect of environment

worse

P

P S

S

I

E

R

R

Figure 7. Development Framework of DSPER Structure

2.Structure and Composition of the Model

• The relation between industrialization and environment depends on both national factors and region-specific factors. However their influence varies at the stage of the model.

• National Region Specific• Driving Force ○ ○• Pressure △ ○• State ○• Effect △ ○• Response ○ ○• Strategic ○ ○

• In general, "An indicator is a parameter, or a value derives from parameters, which points to/provides information about/describes describes the state of a phenomenon/environment/area with significance extending beyond that directly associated with a parameter value.

• Within the DPSER framework, five types of indicators can be noted:

• .Indicators of driving force describe parameters which people can influence on the environment under the framework between the human and nature. They contain the urban activities and utilization of resources by the people such as government leadership and policy factors

• .Indicators of pressure note parameters that are influenced by the indicators of driving force. They generally include the land use change and load on the environment.

• . State indicators indicate the “state” of sustainable development that contain the environmental status.

• .Effect indicators include the disease, desertification and extermination of bio-diversity due to the environmental problems.

• .Response indicators note policy options and other responses to the changes in the “state” of sustainable development.

Definition and functions of environmental indicators

4. Definition and functions of environmental indicators

Human Activity

change of landuse

Re-use of Resources

Response indicators affect effect, state, pressure and driving force indicator

population

transport

Act, Policy, Planning

Socio, economic

land development

urbanization

changes of landuse each the

classification of land category.

Use of Resources

energy consumption

Ecosystem

water consumption

quantity

quality

distribution

Environment Pressure

air

water quality

Qualitative Improvement of

Environment

waster recycling

conservation creation of biotope

Driving Force

Pressure State Response

Landuse

Effect

Industralization

resource, energy

waste

Effect on Ecosystem

nature diseaster

pressure increase

Material Damage of

property

Effect on Human Body

disease

nvironment ManagementEstablishment of act, polich, etc.

• Figure 8. The Framework of DSPER Structure

<Table 2 > Components of environmental indicators in study areas Cate Intermediate I ndividual I ndicat ors Indicators

Pop ulat ion Pop ulat ion Densit yHuman

ActivitiesTransp ort at ion Th e Number of Aut omobileSocio-Economic Policy Ch ange of Socio-Economic PolicyNat ional Develop ment Policy Ch ange of nat ional develop ment p olicyLand use p olicy Land use ch angeIndust rial p olicy Ch ange of indust rial p olicy

Driving

Force

Policy and

Finance

Resource and energy p olicy Ch ange of Resource and energy p olicyUrbanizat ion rat e Urbanized area/ urban areasLand use

changeLand use ch ange by cat egory Land use ch ange by cat egoryAmount of energy consump tion Amount of Gasoline and Pet roleumResource useWat er resource use Pip e line wat er

Pressure

Productivity Manufact ural p roduct s Manufact ural p roduct iviiesQuant it y Green area in urban areaQualit y Plant s

Densit y of p lant sIsolat ion

EcosystemDist ribut ion

Cont inut y

NO2Air qualit ySO2

Wat er Qualit y BODRain (wat er) Surface Wat erOcean Ocean p ollut ionHazard wast e Amount of Solid and h azard wast eGlobal worm CO2

Cu

Environmenta

l Pressure

SoilPbBeaut iful Dist rictQuality of

Life

Amenit yHist ory and Cult ure

Cit izen Cit izen’ s awareness on environment

State

Awareness

onGovernment Government ’ s awareness on environment

Effect on Disease Disease Causes

Material Nat ual d amage F lood ingDist rict sDeterioratio

n of living

Det eriorat ion of amenit yH ist ory and Cult ure

Damage on

ecosystem

L oad on environment E xt erminat ion of wild amimals

Effect

Climate Acid rain Acid rain d ays/ raining d ayW ast e recycling Rat e of wast e recyclingW at er recycling W at er recycling

Resources

recycling E nergy recycling H eat ing syst emPlant space G reen prot ect ionImprovement

of G reen area ParkL aw, cont rol and regulat ion onenvironment

E nvironment al law and syst em

E nvironment ed ucat ion and informat ion ? E nvironment ed ucat ion

Environment

managementE nvironment organizat ions E nvironment al officials

Environmenta Domest ic environment al t ech nology E nvironment al t ech nologyW at er Pipe line wat er and wast e wat erEnvironmenta

l facilitiesSolid wast e W ast e t reat ment t o th e energy consumpt ionL and use L and use relat ed policyAir qualit y Clean air qualit y policyT ransport at ion T ransport at ion relat ed policy

Policy and

planning on

environment Clean wat er Clean wat er relat ed policy

I nt ernat ion cooperat ion on t ech nology I nt ernat ional cooperat ion

Response

Internationa

l

cooperation

E xch ange of t ech nology E nvironment al t ech nology cooperat ion

Ⅳ. DPSER Framework for the Ulsan Metropolitan City1. General Circumstances of the Ulsan Metropolitan City

UMC is one of the fastest industrialized cities within the country or in the world since 1962 when she became a city. She is a symbolic city of Korean development in terms of industrialization, urbanization, and even environmental problems. The Korean government nominated Ulsan as a special industrial area and established an industrial center by the 'Special Law of National Industry Site Development' (Corporation of Industry Site Development, 1987). Based upon this law, Ulsan National Industry Complex was constructed.

. A city is a town where more than 50 thousand peoples live.

2. DPSER Framework of the Ulsan Metropolitan City for the Sustainable Development

2.1. Driving Force of the UMC UMC is one of the fastest industrialized cities within the country or in the

world since 1962 when she became a city. She is a symbolic city of Korean development in terms of industrialization,

urbanization, and even environmental problems. The Korean government nominated Ulsan as a special industrial area and established an industrial center by the 'Special Law of National Industry Site Development.'

Based upon this law, Ulsan National Industry Complex was constructed.

At the initial stage of industry complex development, its population and size were respectively 85 thousands and 176.04 km2. However, its population and size are separately 991 thousands and 1,055.55 km2 in 1996. The number of population has increased about 12 times and urban size six times during 34 years

The development process of UMC is lined up with the building process of industry complexes. The stages of development of industrial complex are as follows:

The first stage (1962-1966) focused on the building of an industry site and infrastructure such as port, road, and water provisions for the Ulsan Industry Site.

The Change of Population and Area of the UMC

Year Populations IncreasingRate (%)

PopulationDensity

Households Area(㎢)

1962 211235 1 209.5 32238 1008.321965 222965 1 221.1 38123 1008.321968 249131 2.1 247.1 44916 1008.321972 275355 5.9 274.2 53704 1004.221975 368612 4.6 366 76738 1007.181978 482150 4.3 476.6 99930 1011.581982 593042 4.5 585.5 130964 1012.821985 670358 1 638.4 163443 1050.081988 743184 3.9 705.8 184974 1050.921992 898630 5.1 854.4 262970 1051.811995 969196 2.4 918.4 289295 1055.351997 1013070 2 959.6 309945 1055.7

The Number of Cars of in Korea(Unit: 1,000 Cars)

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997Cars 1309 1611 2035 2660 3395 4248 5231 6274 7404 8469 9553 10413P/C 31.5 25.8 20.6 16.0 12.6 10.2 8.4 7.0 6.0 5.3 4.8 4.4Auto 664 844 1118 1559 2075 2728 3461 4271 5149 6006 6894 7586Truck 473 546 635 769 925 1077 1262 1449 1645 1817 1963 2072Bus 155 200 260 323 384 428 484 528 582 613 663 719S.Car 18 20 22 9 11 15 25 26 29 33 34 36

The Number of Cars of the UMC

Year Total Automobiles Trucks Buses Special Cars1986 20376 8896 8510 2091 8791987 26803 12204 10567 3040 9921988 37275 18878 12770 4521 11061989 53002 30335 16112 6115 4401990 70877 43097 19443 7775 5621991 94515 62540 22303 8835 8371992 119357 82446 25230 10006 16751993 144705 104078 28375 10612 16401994 174642 132598 28727 11630 16881995 209803 160752 35303 12054 16941996 241600 188845 38141 13038 15761997 262394 207053 39938 14053 1350

The Growth of GNP, GDP and GNP per Capita in Korea

Categories Unit 1970 1980 1990 1994 1995 1996 1997GNP billion \ 2788 36857 178262 303773 348979 386438 416018GNPDeflator

90=100 7.7 50.2 100.0 129.4 137.0 142.0 145.7

GDP billion \ 2771 38148 179539 305970 351975 389813 420987GNP/P thousand

\87 971 4165 6805 7739 8485 9046

GNP/P Dollar 253 1597 5883 8467 10037 10543 9511

The second (1967-1971) made an effort to construct the heavy chemical industrial complex. A refined oil industry along with chemical fertilizer industries was built in the water front areas such as Jangsengpo and Yeochun. In order to support these facilities, social overhead capital such as port, road, and steam power plant also was installed in this era.

The third period (1972-1976) was a leaping stage in the development of Ulsan industry. Ulsan's representative industries such as automobile and shipbuilding were constructed in Yumpo and Mipo industry complexes during this period.

In the fourth stage (1977-1981), agglomeration and scale effects of these industries was gradually generated and several industries such as iron, automobile, and lumber were located in order to enjoy these side effects.

An industry belt was established in the fifth period (1982-1986) because existing industry complexes were continuously grown in terms of productivity and scale, and new industry complexes like Unyang and Yongyun were built. And then Ulsan has grown the biggest heavy-chemical industry complex city in South Korea in terms of amount of products and scale.

In another aspect, Ulsan has tried to reduce environmental problems through changing the structure of industrial base from petroleum chemical plants to automobile and shipbuilding plants, which are relatively a low pollution industry. Eventually, main industries gradually has changed from the petroleum chemical industry to the automobile and shipbuilding since 1987 (UMC, 1997).

As a result, two national industrial complexes and several local industrial complexes were located in UMC as the Figure 1. The productivity is corresponded to 18.9 percent in that of nationwide manufacturers and 21.1 percent in amount of nationwide export customs (UMC, 1997). Finally, Ulsan was eventually grown to the symbol of Korean economic development

Figure 1. The Location of Ulsan Industry Complexes

<Table 2> Economic Status of Ulsan Metropolitan Area in 1996

Category Unit Nation UMC Ratio to Nation(%) NotePopulation 1,000

Person45,545 991 2.18

Area Km2 99,268 1,055Number ofManufacturers

101,934 1,022 1.0

Number ofEmployees

1,000Person

3,242 150 4.63 Five Employees or more

Amount ofProducts

Million($)

429,556 46,000 10.71

Export Million($)

129,715 16,079 12.40

Import Million($)

150,339 20,001 13.30

Marine Cargo 1,000Ton

719,792 128,435 17.84

Source: Ulsan Commercial Chamber (1998), The Economic Status of Ulsan Metropolitan City in the Circumstances of Ulsan Commercial and Industrial Sites (p.2).1). Each number is extracted from the Korean Census Survey on the Mining and Manufacturing Industry2). 1 US dollars ($) = 900 Korean Won

<Table 3>. Source Industries of Environmental Pollution in 1998Number of Source industries

Sub Total

Air

Water

Noise

SpecifiedW

asteM

aterials

Dust

Bad Sm

ell

Poison

Soil

Autom

obiles

2,018(616)

770(330)

791(286)

209 248 289 35 170(122)

448 262,394

2. The Environmental Pressure in UMC

These explosive urbanization and industrialization however created several environmental problems such air quality, sewage water, soil, and river and ocean pollution in UMA. Especially, Ulsan's environmental problems are serious more than that of any other city because most manufacturing plants are pollution-related industries such as petroleum-chemical or automobile and shipbuilding industries.

Source industries of environmental pollution are like Table 3.

Source: This data is provided by the Department of Environmental Protection in UMC in 1998( ) is the number of source industry of two national industry complexes (Ulsan and Onsan)

Population Increase and Urbanization Rate in Korea and 7 Large Cities

Total Pop Urban Planning Area Administration Area Urbanization Rate(%) Urban Planning

Area Administratio

n Area Urban Pop Non- Urban

Pop Urban Pop Rural Pop Criteria Criteria

Yea (A) (B) (C=A- B) (D) (E=A- D) (B/A*100) (D/A*100) 1983 39,172 ... ... 28,583 10,589 ... 73.0

1984 40,430 ... ... 29,599 10,831 ... 73.2

1985 40,467 ... ... 30,086 10,381 ... 74.3

1986 41,161 ... ... 30,936 10,225 ... 75.2

1987 42,125 ... ... 32,048 10,077 ... 76.1

1988 42,053 ... ... 32,963 9,090 ... 78.4

1989 42,641 ... ... 34,560 8,081 ... 81.0

1990 43,390 ... ... 35,558 7,832 ... 81.9

1991 43,800 ... ... 36,330 7,470 ... 82.9

1992 44,568 ... ... 37,319 7,249 ... 83.7

1993 45,077 ... ... 37,969 7,108 ... 84.2

1994 45,512 ... ... 38,429 7,083 ... 84.4

1995 45,981 39,852 6,129 39,334 6,647 86.7 85.5

1996 46,349 40,378 5,971 39,571 6,777 87.1 85.4

1997 46,813 40,839 5,974 40,216 6,597 87.2 85.9

Seoul 10,389 10,389 - 10,389 - 100.0 100.0

Busan 3,865 3,865 - 3,840 25 100.0 99.4

Taegu 2,502 2,534 - 32 2,483 19 101.3 99.2

Inchon 2,446 2,403 43 2,378 68 98.2 97.2

Kyongju 1,324 1,340 - 16 1,324 - 101.2 100.0

Taejun 1,323 1,329 - 5 1,323 - 100.5 100.0

Ulsan 1,013 898 115 910 103 88.6 89.8

Land Use Plan in 7 Large Cities( ㎢ )

Cities Total Residential Commercial Industrial Others Seoul 605.90 302.80 28.00 29.00 246.10 Busan 1,052.85 123.31 24.19 50.71 854.64 Taegu 1,001.71 120.65 18.85 37.28 824.93 Inchon 1,061.00 112.98 23.98 59.14 864.69 Kyongju 744.22 78.73 12.06 21.62 631.81 Taejun 600.41 78.65 9.52 13.07 499.17 Ulsan 1,143.11 72.86 8.12 68.75 993.36

Land Use by Land Category in the UMC

Year ResidentialLand

IndustrialSite

SchoolSite

Road Rail Site MineralSpring

1992 17,038,608.9 20,904,979.8 1,759,584.6 10,136,320.6 1,127,808.9

1993 17,728,857.9 22,157,958.5 1,828,071.7 10,666,393.7 970,257.0

1994 18,693,527.3 22,538,706.5 1,885,437.2 11,189,996.5 981,885.4

1995 32,407,211.8 34,211,758.0 2,589,016.2 27,883,555.2 1,907,667.1 6.0

1996 33,053,219.3 36,023,164.7 2,646,916.2 28,153,278.1 1,919,436.1 6.0

1997 34,287,932.7 38,205,124.0 2,668,356.5 28,545,551.1 1,918,853.1 6.0

The GDP and Energy Use in Korea

Gas Consumption in the UMC

Distillate Bunker CTotal Gasoline Kerosene fuel Oil Heavy Oil Oil Others

1992 327,434 80,093 39,745 207,596 - - -

1993 349,350 96,881 42,665 209,804 - - -

1994 392,088 121,658 41,135 229,295 - - -

1995 447,623 147,920 41,852 257,851 - - -

1996 785,101 257,805 86,874 440,422 - - -

1997 927,593 265,344 203,503 458,746 - -

Distillate Bunker CTotal Gasoline Kerosene fuel Oil Heavy Oil Oil Others

1992 327,434 80,093 39,745 207,596 - - -

1993 349,350 96,881 42,665 209,804 - - -

1994 392,088 121,658 41,135 229,295 - - -

1995 447,623 147,920 41,852 257,851 - - -

1996 785,101 257,805 86,874 440,422 - - -

1997 927,593 265,344 203,503 458,746 - -

Industry, Agriculture and Industry Complexes(Unit:m3, number, person)

Number ofComplex

Total Area Number ofEstablishments

Number ofWorkers

1992 2 261 13 1,200

1993 2 261 17 1,744

1994 2 261 20 1,950

1995 3 332 22 2,176

1996 3 332 27 2,223

1997 6 71,335.2 583 114,944

Ulsan·MipoNational Industry Complex

1 46,222 421 102,437

Onsan National IndustrialComplex

1 24,518 135 10,184

Songbuk Agriculture andIndustrial Complex

1 138.5 9 1,189

Tuso Agriculture andIndustrial Complex

1 122.6 14 850

Tudong Agriculture andIndustrial Complex

1 69.7 4 284

Dalchon Agriculture andIndustrial Complex

1 264.4 Incompleted

<Table 4>. The Circumstance of Air Pollution in UMC

Average Levels of Air Pollution by Year

Cate

gory

Unit

Crite

ria

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998.4SO2 PPM/ Y 0.03 0.038 0.031 0.032 0.031 0.028 0.022 0.018 0.016TSP μ g/ m3/ Y 150 96 95 97 95 98 106 75 69O3 PPM/ 8h 0.06 0.013 0.012 0.014 0.013 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.017NO2 PPM/ Y 0.05 0.022 0.027 0.028 0.026 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.022CO PPM/ 8h 9 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.0 0.9 0.8AcidRain P.H 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.9

Source: Department of Environmental Protection in the UMC (1998.5), Circumstances of Environmental Preservation in theUMC.

2.3 The Environmental States of the UMC

Main pollutants of national complexes are air and poison pollution because major factories in these areas are petroleum chemical or heavy industries. More specifically, two major environmental problems in the UMC are air quality and water pollution.

Water quality can be noted in Table 5. Water pollution exceeds the environmental criteria in most areas except coastal water. In other words, the UMC is experiencing serious water pollution. However, water quality has improved since the middle of the 1990s due to the same reasons which account for the improvement of air quality. Other environmental problems such as noise, soil, and poison also became better as the result of the effort of the local government and the public (UMC, 1997). In a broad sense, the environmental quality of the UMC has been improved but that of specific industrial complexes is still deteriorating.

Source: Ulsan Commercial Chamber (1998), The Economic Status of Ulsan Metropolitan City in the Circumstances of Ulsan Commercial and Industrial Sites (p.2). 1). Each number is extracted from the Korean Census Survey on the Mining and Manufacturing Industry 2). 1 US dollars ($) = 900 Korean Won

Air Pollution (SO2) by the Metropolitan City

Standard 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997Seoul 0.03 0.023 0.019 0.017 0.013 0.011Pusan 0.03 0.028 0.023 0.023 0.022 0.018Taegu 0.03 0.035 0.038 0.031 0.023 0.016Inchon 0.03 0.021 0.022 0.023 0.012 0.013Kyongju 0.03 0.014 0.013 0.010 0.008 0.009Taejun 0.03 0.020 0.021 0.017 0.015 0.011Ulsan 0.03 0.032 0.030 0.028 0.022 0.019

Generation of Waste Water and Household Waste Water per Day

Unit 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997HouseholdWaste Water

1 Thousand㎥/Day

13972 15976

Per Capita ℓ /Person, Day 314Industrial WasteWater

1 Thousand㎥/Day

6412 7259 8741 8926 4874

DischargeAmount

1 Thousand㎥/Day

2093 2316 2375 2511 2618

Livestock WasteWater

1 Thousand㎥/Day

170138 175669 168370 197017 199917

BOD Discharge 1 Thousand㎥/Day

470 403 455 541 547

Table 5. The Circumstances of Water Pollution in the UMC

Average Levels of Water Quality by Year(ppm)

Location

Category

Criteria

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998.4

Up

per BOD 1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.3 2.0

Taew

ha R

iver

Low

er BOD 3 11.7 6.4 6.9 9.7 9.8 11.3 10.7 7.4

HeiY

aR

iver BOD 3 6.6 3.5 3.3 4.2 3.8 2.8 3.5 2.5

Coastal

Water COD 4 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.9 1.9 1.3 1.3 -

The Method of Waste Treatment in the 7 Large Cities (household + Industrial waste)

Category Total Landfill Incineration Reuse

Total 47,894.8 30,578.5 3,409.0 13,907.3 Seoul 12,661.9 7,839.8 582.2 4,239.9 Busan 4,146.0 2,142.0 511.0 1,493.0 Taegu 2,744.9 2,047.9 173.7 523.3 Inchon 2,056.5 1,662.8 35.9 357.8 Kyongju 1,546.5 1,143.6 7.2 395.7 Taejun 1,488.1 1,083.8 13.3 391.0 Ulsan 1,237.8 854.6 29.1 354.1

Environment Related Organization

. Investment on the Environment Issues and Financial Sources

Investment sections

IV. Lessons from the Korean and Ulsan Experiences.

Everything in Korea has been changed dramatically except human species during the last 40 years. In a broad sense, Korea has become a better society. However, this rapid growth created a serious negative result. In other words, 'environmentally,' "Samcheunri Gumsu Gang San" is altered to a serious polluted country. More specifically, the environmental problem of Ulsan is very serious like the above descriptions even if she has played the role of engine to promote the Korean economic growth. The reasons can be summarized as follows:

1) In order to promote economic growth, the Korean government adopted the growth strategy of heavy-chemical industry that is a pollution-related manufacture. Ulsan is a symbolic city of economic growth and environmental problems. Ulsan's economic growth indicated the deterioration of urban environments. It was a trade-off relation. Therefore, the government should adopt the environment friendly industry to stop the trade-off relation of economic growth and environmental problems. It is a sustainable development strategy.

2) The second is that the central government did not consider the environmental impacts of heavy-chemical industrial complexes. However, if the environmental problems occur once, it is very difficult to cure them by their inherent nature. Actually, even though the central government has tried to cure the environmental problems since 1984, it became worse so far. Fortunately, the central government had continuously reforested in mountain areas since 1960s and succeeded in building a green national land except urban areas.

3) The third is the management of environmental problems. In terms of political structure, the local autonomy was not established until 1995 and environmental policies were controlled by the central government. It resulted in the inefficient correspondence on the local environmental problems. Until now, national industrial complexes are regulated by the central government and local complexes are controlled by the local one but both complexes are located within the UMC. Two different organizations involved in the management of Ulsan environmental problems and it caused several problems on the management of several industrial complexes.

4) The non-profit organization and citizens must participate in the improvement of environmental problems because it is impossible to do it without their helps. Many environmental organizations and citizens and even some factories recently involved in the improvement of environments in the central and local level. The public concerns on the environmental issues increased explosively because the environmental problems such as fresh water, air quality, bad smell and so on are directly related with the quality of their lives.

In summary, in the beginning stage of economic development, Korea made a mistake that did not consider negative impacts of rapid economic growth which are environmental problems. As a result, she has paid a lot of costs to cure these problems and still is undergoing. Very recently, the central and local government, citizens' organizations and even plants begin to take into consideration on the environmental issues. As a result of these efforts, the direction of environmental problems changed from the deteriorating trend to the improving one (Department of Environment Protection of UMC, 1998).

VII. Concluding Remarks and Future Studies

1. building of sustainable urban growth management model

(1). Economic growth policy

(2). Urban amenity

(3). Industry ecology and sustainable consumption

(4). Role of organizations (government, social organizations, and citizens)

(5). International comparisons of the environmental and economic growth policy

(6). Governance on the environmental issues

2. .Applying the Modified Model to Case Study Cities

.3. Finding Policy Implications

IV. Research Members

Changsuk Kim (Seoul City Univ. Ph.D: Projector Leader:

cskim@uoscc.uos.ac.kr)

Hoiseung Jeong (Korea Environment Institute, Ph.D:hsjeong@keins.kei.re.kr)

Deokho Cho (Univ. of Kyongju, Ph.D: chodh@biho.targu.ac.kr)

Dongkeun Lee (Sangmyung Univ. Ph.D: Project Manager)

(dklee@smuc.sangmyung.ac.kr)

8 Research assistants(2 assistants per professor)

V. Time Schedule of Study and Members' Roles

Time

Category97.6 97.9 97.11 98.2 98.5 98.8 98.11

1.ResearchPlan

FourMembers(Kim)

2.GatheringBase Data,Review ofLiterature

Jeongand Cho

3.FieldSurvey:Ulsan

Cho andLee

4.MidtermReport

FourMembers(Kim)

5.Review ofMidtermReportCase Study(Inchon)

LeeandCho

6. BuildingofSustainableUrbanGrowthModel

Lee andJeong

FourMembers

7.FinalReport

FourMembers