hydro-geomorphological implications of uncontrolled

ISSN 2309-0081 Fombe & Molombe (2015)

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www.irss.academyirmbr.com April 2015

International Review of Social Sciences Vol. 3 Issue.4

R S S

Hydro-Geomorphological Implications of Uncontrolled

Settlements in Limbe, Cameroon

FOMBE LAWRENCE FON Department of Geography, Faculty of Social & Management Sciences

University of Buea, P.O. Box 63, South West Region, Cameroon.

Email: [email protected]

Tel: (237)675160932 / (237)696031463

MOLOMBE JEFF MBELLA Department of Geography, Faculty of Social & Management Sciences, University of Buea, Cameroon.

Email: [email protected]

Tel: (237)674883867 / (237)695394845

Abstract

The proliferation of uncontrolled settlements in the coastal town of Limbe in the wake of rapid

urbanization, rainfall variability and sea level rise, interplay to increase the frequency and intensity of

hydrological and geomorphological problems like landslides, accelerated erosion, gully formation, floods,

tidal inundation, sea incursions and sedimentation. How the sustained spread of uncontrolled settlements in

different ecologically fragile terrain of Limbe has aggravated these hydro-geomorphological problems and

their associated impacts within the context of current environmental changes constitute the focus of the

study. Data was collected from primary and secondary sources and analysed qualitatively. Findings reveal

that uncontrolled settlements in Limbe are more exposed and the hardest hit by hydro-geomorphological

problems within the context of increasing rainfall variability, sea level rise, their hazard-prone locations

and their fragile, substandard physical infrastructures. There is need for structural and non-structural

strategies by the municipal authorities, the technical government departments and residents to be

collectively involved in the sustained development of such uncontrolled settlements. Awareness should be

raised on the occurrence, adaptation and mitigation of hydro-geomorphological hazards through disaster

management. The study also makes a clarion call for the improvement in land and housing access,

resettlement projects and proper land use planning as a precursor for environmental stability and

sustainable urban growth in Limbe.

Key Words: Urbanisation, Uncontrolled Settlements, Hydro-Geomorphological Problems/Hazards, Land

Use Planning, Disaster/Emergency Management, Limbe.

Introduction

Urbanization which is the process by which an increasing proportion of the total population of a country or

an area lives in towns and cities can be traced in modern times to the industrialization of Western Europe

when rural dwellers flocked into the cities to take on jobs in industry and services (Waugh, 2002; Weitz,

1973). Since then, the proportion of people living in urban areas in all regions has been rising, a prominent

feature of human population distribution particularly in developing countries (Bolay, 2006; Kometa & Ndi,

2012). Globally, the proportion of the world’s urban dwellers is likely to reach 60% by 2030, due primarily

to urbanization in the developing world (Park, 2001; Bolay, 2006). Hence, Digby et al. (2001) predict that

80% of all urban residents will be in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) by 2025. Another

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notable feature of current urbanisation is that most of the urban growth is expected to take place in small

and medium-sized cities of a million or fewer inhabitants (as the case of Limbe, Cameroon) rather than in

the mega-cities (Bolay, 2006; UN, 2010, in IGBP, 2012).

In contemporary times (since the 1950s), urban centres in the Third World or LEDCs as the case of Limbe

in Cameroon have grown rapidly mainly through rural exodus and natural increase and not necessarily by

economic advancements (industrialization) as the case of the developed countries. The urban population in

Cameroon doubled within a period of just 30 years after independence moving from 28.3% in 1976 to

44.3% in 2005 while the annual population growth rate for the period between 1976 and 2005 is 2.98%.

The growth in urban areas is 9.12% for the same period (Fombe & Balgah, 2012). Against the backdrop of

all these, the urban dwellers in most Third World towns like Limbe in Cameroon have little opportunities to

earn sufficient income for basic needs. They cannot afford safe buildable plots and adequate housing which

constitute basic human needs (Asiyanbola, 2012). Hence, Potter (1999) notes that a perennial applied

development problem is that everybody needs shelter but when viewed globally not everyone is able to

secure what may be regarded as housing of an adequate standard (Potter, 1999). Urban housing has thus

become a nerve-centred problem faced by urban rehabilitation and development proponents (Fombe, 2009).

It is thus commonplace to see the majority of the population in rapidly growing developing world cities like

Limbe living in substandard houses and unplanned marginal sites (uncontrolled settlements) mainly due to

urban poverty, poor enforcement of urban land regulations and the lack of public sector subsidized housing

amongst others. Uncontrolled settlements refer to residential areas in towns that have developed on vacant

land in either public or private ownership having been invaded unscrupulously by individual families and

small groups overtime and so are often lacking in basic municipal services (Fombe & Wanie, 2010). In

Cameroon, the World Bank (2003) reports that 70% of the population lives in such uncontrolled or

unplanned settlements with the majority of peri-urban residents living in poorly-drained and poorly-

serviced areas. Since the depression of the late 1980s, the problem of urban housing and poverty have

obliged the urban underprivileged to find any form of material or shelter that is built on unregulated or

vacant land which are sometimes unfit for human habitation due to environmental threats like floods and

landslides (Fombe, 2009). Against this background, this study sets out to examine the development and

nature of uncontrolled settlements in Limbe, investigate how the implantation of the uncontrolled

settlements has aggravated hydro-geomorphological problems or hazards and to propose meaningful

development approaches to stem the hydro-geomorphological hazards in Limbe.

The Study Area

Geographically, Limbe is located between latitudes 3o20

1 north and 4

o15

1 north of the Equator and between

longitudes 8o15

1 east and 9

o35

1 east of the Greenwich Meridian (Limbe City Council, 2008). Sited at the

interface of the continental and oceanic segments, the coastal town of Limbe also lies to the south southeast

foot slopes of the active lava-dominated Mount Cameroon Volcano of 4,100m in height (Che et al., 2011).

Administratively, Limbe is located in Fako Division of the South West Region of Cameroon (Map 1) and is

sub divided into three municipalities which are under the umbrella of the Limbe City Council: Limbe I (Poh

Council with 54% of the total population), Limbe II (Mokundange Council with 32% of the total

population) and Limbe III (Bimbia Council comprising 14% of the total population).

Limbe is a colonial town in Cameroon, given that it owes its emergence and growth to the plantation

economy and port functions that were first established by the colonial administrators. Limbe has overtime

withstood its growth potentials given the transfer of colonial plantations to the Cameroon Development

Corporation (CDC), the second largest employer after the State in Cameroon. Coupled with the post-

independence establishment of the National Oil Refinery Company (SONARA), the Chantier Naval

Industrielle Camerounaise (CNIC) and several touristic resorts amongst others, the town has acted as a

population trap to nationals (especially from the interior Grassfield region) and foreigners (nearby African



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countries who flock in for commerce, fishing and other informal sector activities). The Limbe City Council

(LCC) estimated the population of Limbe in 2010 at 120,000 inhabitants spread over a surface area of

596Km2 (with population density of about 201 persons per Km

2). In 2013, the population was estimated at

130,000 inhabitants giving a population density of 218 persons/Km2 (Table 2).

Map 1: Location of Limbe in Fako Division and the South West Region of Cameroon

The coastal city of Limbe experiences the subequatorial climate (hot and humid throughout) with two

distinct seasons: a 4-month dry season from November to mid-March and an 8-month rainy season that

runs from mid-March to November with a mean annual rainfall of about 3,100 mm, ±1,100 standard

deviation (Che et al., 2012). Annual rainfall in Limbe is thus high, with yearly precipitations varying from

1,500 to 6,000 mm in the last 34 years for different stations (CDC, Meteorological Centre, 2014). Peak

rainfall is recorded from June to August and at times in September (Table 1 and Figure 1). June and July

are characterised by intense and short-lived rainfall usually lasting less than 5hrs a day whereas, August and

September tend to experience less intense but more prolonged rainfalls that can last for 4 to 5 days in a row

(Che et al., 2012). Monthly rainfall totals frequently attain over 500mm and sometimes up to 1,000mm in

June, July and August. The mean annual temperature is ~26 °C and shows only limited variations of ~4°

throughout the year. Humidity is generally above 85% (CDC meteorological centre, 2014). These

characteristics correspond to the Tropical Monsoon Climate according to the Koppen climate classification

scheme (Peel et al., 2007; in Che et al., 2012). Table 1 shows the mean monthly variations as well as the

annual mean of the different climatic elements in Limbe. The 2nd

wettest place in the world, Debundscha is

located at the fringes of the Limbe II Council area. The rainy season is naturally accompanied by



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thunderstorms and peak stream discharge. During the months of July, August and September (the rainy

season), the hydro-geomorphological hazards become commonplace due to the excessive rainfall (Table 1

and Figure 1). The rainy season is thus the most vulnerable period for the environmentally unfriendly

settlements dominated by low-income dwellers with disasters like floods and landslides being common.

Table 1: Monthly Variations of Climatic Elements in Limbe for 2006

Month Temperature

(oC)

Rainfall

(mm)

Relative

Humidity (%)

Insolation

January 26.8 21 80 177.2

February 27.5 49 80 169.2

March 27.3 127 80 166.7

April 25.7 174 81 170.1

May 26.8 105 83 177.8

June 25.8 400 86 121.8

July 24.7 646 90 51.8

August 24.5 568 90 31.8

September 24.3 308 87 76.2

October 25.8 231 85 128.9

November 26.2 199 84 168.1

December 26.2 14 77 186.2

Annual Mean 26.2 2884 84 1619.8

Figure 1: Average Monthly Rainy Days (mm) in Limbe

Source: CDC Head Office, Bota-Limbe (2006)

Research Methods

Data for this study was obtained from both primary and secondary sources. The data sources included

residents of the sampled residential zones, land investors, estate agents and middlemen, traders of building

materials, local chiefs, administrative officials of related ministries as well as the Mayors. Primary source

data was gotten through field observations accompanied by photographs, measurements and interviews.

Field visits were undertaken from January to August 2014 to enable the researchers observe the spatial

setting of the town and the hydro-geomorphological problems of uncontrolled settlements during the dry

(January to June) and rainy (July and August) seasons. Field observation was accompanied by photographs

to illustrate some characteristic features of uncontrolled settlements in Limbe. During field visits to the

various uncontrolled settlements, the researchers measured the relative distances of housing units from river

banks and took note of landslide scars as well as the distances of previous flood heights shown on buildings.



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The study of landslide was done through the observation of the rock types as well as the estimation of the

angles of slope and gradients as first undertaken by Che et al. in 2012. Measurements of slope gradient made

use of topographic maps of the region with scales of 1:25,000. Residents in settlements on hill slopes with

gradients of over 200 were randomly selected to provide information on tenure security, livelihood sources

and expansion in neighbourhoods like Mabeta New Layout.

Interviews were conducted with officials of related Ministries (MINDUH and MINDCAF), the Mayors,

their technical services as well as town planning collaborators to obtain information on the reasons for

uncontrolled settlements and the difficulties in obtaining secured tenure by the population. The researchers

also interviewed the authorities to ascertain their awareness on the uncontrolled settlements and plans made

to address the associated problems in such zones. The traders of building materials were interviewed to

assess the price trends of basic building materials. Secondary source data was gotten from articles and

textbooks related to the field of research and previous works undertaken in the study area to obtain vital

information on the hydro-geomorphological hazards. The data obtained has been analysed and presented by

way of graphs, charts, tables and photographs .

Results and Discussions

Development of Uncontrolled Settlements in Limbe

Limbe has overtime (especially after Independence in 1960) witnessed a sustained increase in uncontrolled

settlements as a result of many factors. The town has been witnessing a rapid rate of urbanisation which can

be traced to the period of the colonial economy which saw the establishment of vast oil palm plantations

(now under the auspices of the Cameroon Development Corporation, CDC, since 1947) to diversify the

hitherto pre-colonial primary activities like farming, hunting and small-scale fishing. The plantation

economy that thrived in Limbe and other coastal areas acted as a population trap to many persons from the

interior grassfield regions that flocked in for plantation jobs (Molombe, 2009; Ndenecho, 2011). This trend

of population increase (Table 2) and land use change has been sustained over time coupled with the take-off

of the National Oil Refinery Company (SONARA) in 1981, the ‘Chantier Navale Industrielle

Camerounaise’ (CNIC) in 2007 and the Shipyard for the Repair of Oil Rigs amongst other developmental

projects. Added to these, Limbe also offers many commercial opportunities and as a second-order town in

the North West and South West Regions of Cameroon (Fombe & Balgah, 2012), with its superior social

amenities (administration, road density and resorts amongst others) when compared to third-order towns,

like Ndop, Mamfe and Muyuka, making her an important destination for migrants across Cameroon and

other nearby African countries. By implication, many urban centres especially those along the coast like

Douala, Limbe and Buea where the poverty incidence is lowest in the country have thus become magnets

for the rural population from different parts of the country (Ndenecho, 2011).

Figure 2: Population Evolution and forecast for Limbe between 1966 and 2022



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Table 2. Population change and Density for Limbe between 1966 and 2022

Year % change Population

Density (Km2)

1966 / 41

1976 10.9 87

1986 7.4 151

1996 0.6 160

2007 1.4 184

2010 3.0 201

2013 2.7 218

2016 2.6 235

2022 9.5 369

Source: Limbe City Council figures up to 2010; Molombe, 2011 (for 2013 and

2016 figures); MINDUH projection (for 2022 figures).

Though there has been a slow growth in the Limbe population between 1976 and 2010, the gradual regain

of its demographic tendency within the past four years is outstanding and with an increasing density (figure

2; Table 2). This tendency has outpaced job creation leaving many migrants underemployed or self-

employed in informal sector activities that unfortunately cannot permit them afford adequate housing in the

background of rising cost of living. This explains why Fombe and Balgah (2012) noted that in Cameroon

towns, the cost of buying or building a house is very high relative to the annual earnings of the population.

The Limbe City Council (LCC) Consultation Survey of 2008 revealed that urban poverty and landlessness

affected about 80% of the population. Hence, the low-income and landless majority occupy the marginal

zones that are cheaper, ‘free’ and usually hazard-prone coupled with the fact that the respective urban

administrators have failed to fully enforce the existing land and building regulations of town planning and

environmental protection. This therefore supports the argument that in the popular free market system

today, individuals with the most resources secure the best-quality homes and those with least resources end

up living in the poorest housing (Keith, 1999). The urban poor in Limbe are thus located mostly in the

unplanned hilly and risky zones with semi-permanent housing, in zones where the land is relatively cheaper

(Awum et al., 2001).

Figure 2: Price Trends for selected Building Materials in Limbe from 1990 to 2014

Source: Field Work, 2014

In addition to urban poverty, the cost of authorised and standard building materials has also been on the

increase in the last decade (Figure 3). The prices of 50kg of cement, 8 Inches of iron rod, 5kg (4 Inches)

nails and a board of plywood have increased from 2,900 to 5,000, 1,500 to 2,800, 1,900 to 3,000 and 1,900

to 3,700 between 1990 and 2014 respectively. The cost of 50kg cement has been the most expensive of the



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building materials overtime given that it recorded a net increase of 1,000 and 900FCFA between 1990 and

2000 and between 2000 and 2009. Within these years, the net increase for 8 Inches of iron rod was just 300

and 450FCFA. The costs of a plywood board and that of 5kg (4 inches) nails were all 1,500FCFA in 1990

but over the years a board of plywood has become more expensive that the 5kg of nails (in 2009 for instance,

the cost of a board of plywood stood at 3,500 while that of nails stood at 2,800FCFA).

Besides rapid population growth and urban poverty, the undulating physical milieu of Limbe (Map 2) poses

a lot of challenge to the extension of human settlements. Besides urban expansion being sandwiched by the

Atlantic Ocean and the Mount Etinde (Small Mount Cameroon), the numerous volcanic hills and flood-

prone zones (dry valleys) also take their toll on the supply of construction space (Molombe, 2011). The

CDC oil palm plantation estates had long contributed to the lack of safe building sites in the city though this

pressure seems to lessen with the current CDC Land Surrender Policy that saw the leasing of some former

plantation lands for urban expansion. Moreover, the land values and rents in Limbe have also been on the

increase given the demand from the growing population. There is also the lack of public low-cost housing

in Limbe as in the higher-order cities like Douala and Yaoundé.

Furthermore, the current urban land regulation framework has loopholes in terms of some of the regulations

and with the respective authorities or offices charged with implementation or enforcement. Like in other

Cameroon cities, the growth of uncontrolled settlements is partly fuelled by the problem of land tenure and

excessive procedures for land registration. The land tenure system in Cameroon does not facilitate efficient

land use as it creates opening for unexploited spaces in urban areas (urban land reserves-Section 91 of

Ordinance No. 77-1 of 10th

January, 1977) to be illegally occupied and also foster difficult access to land. It

is worthy to mention that the proportion of public land that has not been put into use also forms a ready

prey for squatting (Fombe & Wanie, 2010).

Since the conditions to acquire land are difficult for the average family intending to own a home in these

towns, they find it more beneficial to contract with the local council that readily authorize the construction

of houses irrespective of the location. It costs between 100,000FCFA and 200,000FCFA to obtain a

Building Permit for an average villa of 4 bed rooms in lower-order towns like Limbe and Tiko but twice as

much and even longer to obtain a Land Certificate/Title (Fombe & Wanie, 2010).

There are too many stages (over 15) in the process of acquiring and registering land. There is the tendency

for people to take short cuts by building without registration (uncontrolled) to avoid the numerous charges

and taxes (land tax, property tax, etc.). The numerous stages and taxes extracted from prospective land

owners thus indirectly contribute to uncontrolled building. Section 82 of the 1977 Ordinance enumerates a

series of taxes and royalties to be derived from urbanization; which include Layout Permit, Location

Permit, Building Permit, Town Planning Certificate, Land Tax, Land Registration and a host of others.

With many persons unable to acquire land through the expensive formal procedures, they are forced to seek

land space and shelter in the uncontrolled or unplanned areas. The erection of poor quality or substandard

housing structures in Limbe is therefore closely related to the inability or the lack of will by the urban

authorities to enforce existing urban land and building regulations. The nonchalance of the traditional

council which notifies the council authorities on cases of violations further encourage the growth of

uncontrolled settlements in Limbe and Tiko. There is thus an active market in untitled or illegally titled

plots in risk zones which leads to the continuous development of squatter settlements (Fombe & Wanie,

2010). This is a similar scenario in Bamenda where Kometa and Ndi (2012) noted that the high rate of

urbanization in Bamenda has not been consistent with a sustainable urban planning scheme given that town

planning provisions outlined in Law No. 2004/003 of 21/04/2004 have been ignored with many housing

structures being erected where they are not supposed to be leading to hazardous housing and environmental

conditions.



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Besides the desperation of the population, some of the inhabitants do not perceive their housing locations as

being risk zones and so do not see the need why they should be prevented by the regulations or authorities

from settling in such areas.

Uncontrolled Settlements in Limbe

Uncontrolled settlements (in Limbe) comprise the housing stock that violate the urban land and building

laws in terms of location (site), safety, possession of town planning instruments (tenure security), building

standards (aesthetics) and serviceability. As far as site is concerned, uncontrolled settlements in Limbe

occur on low lying areas and steep slopes as well as in the inner city areas and peripheries. Given that this

low lying town is ensconced by steep volcanic hills comprising of scoriacious material, uncontrolled

settlements have extended unto the steep slopes. The physical environment itself has therefore posed a

challenge to building and thereby limiting the available space for building (Map 2). The undulating relief

range from 0m at sea level to about 300m at major hills like the Moliwe Hill, Coconut Island (46.5m), Mile

II (890m), Towe (362m) (Plate 1c), Mabeta New Layout (295m), the Ambas Bay areas (152m) and Unity

Quarters (over 152m) (Plate 1b) (Buh, 2009). Besides, the Mt. Etinde (little Mount Cameroon) at Batoke in

the Limbe II Municipality is located at a height of 1,713m above sea level (Macmillan Cameroon, 2005).

Plate 2 shows a land scar just about 3metres from the foundation of a building at Unity Quarters.

Map 2: Physical Milieu of Limbe showing the undulated topography

A B C

Plate 1: Uncontrolled Settlements of varying Standards on Steep Volcanic Slopes in Limbe

(A) Mawoh Quarter (B) Unity Quarter (C) Bahai-Towe Quarter




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Plate 2: A Standard Housing Unit Perched on a Hill Top at Unity Quarter. Notice Land

Scar behind the Housing Unit indicating Landslide Vulnerability


Other uncontrolled settlements have emerged on the very low lying regions that are usually river

banks/flood plains, dry valleys, wetlands, or in the intertidal zone. Limbe generally a low lying town (about

3m above sea level) entombed by hills. As indicated on Plate 3a, houses have developed as close as one

meter from the canalised River Djengele channel at Church Street. It is also worthwhile to note that most of

the coastal settlements are sited below 50m above sea level (Plate 4) (Buh, 2009). This coincides with the

urbanization pattern of the Douala Metropolis of Cameroon where the topographically flat Bonaberi area

that was initially reserved for industrial development has been invaded for settlement (Fombe & Fogwe,

2001). Tadonki (1999) cited in Fombe and Fogwe (2001) highlighted that the encroachment unto swampy

public and industrial land has been a common practice within the past three decades in Douala.

A B

Plate 3: Uncontrolled Settlements on the Banks of River Djengele

(A)and on a wetland in Mbonjo (B)

Source: Molombe, 2011.

A B

Plate 4: Uncontrolled Settlements in the Inter-tidal Zone at Dockyard, Mbonjo Limbe, Vulnerable to Sea

Level Rise. Source: Molombe, 2011.



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These settlements have lamentably emerged in areas that are prone to various environmental problems in

direct contravention of the Town Planning Law No. 2004/003 of 21st April 2004 which states that any land

in danger of a natural hazard (flood, landslide and erosion amongst others) shall not be built on. Such

settlements have also been erected in violation of Law No. 80-22 of 14 July 1980 that aims at protecting

infringements on landed property and State Lands. Article 94 of the Environmental Management Law (Law

No. 96/12 of 5th

August 1996) which posits that mangrove ecosystems shall be specially protected also

seems bleak in the face of settlement expansion in the inter-tidal zone (Plate 4). The squatters of this inter-

tidal zone frequently cut down the mangrove vegetation for construction materials and fuel wood needed

for fish smoking. Also, Article 27 of this Law that prescribes the protection of flood plains is also grossly

violated as settlements have encroached into such areas (Plate 3a). Article 36(1) which aims at addressing

the problem of soil erosion is also downplayed by the expansion of these settlements on hilly zones.

On the other hand, the settlements that conform to the existing regulations in terms of their location in safe

(hazard-free) zones coincide with the required standard, high-income and planned housing units which have

tenure security. On the contrary, given that the uncontrolled settlements have side-tracked the town

planning regulations by virtue of their location in risky or environmentally unfriendly areas, they lack

security of tenure (Land Title and Building Permit). The absence of tenure security in such uncontrolled

settlements explains why such areas are strewn with semi-permanent, temporary or makeshift housing

structures with poor housing design and aesthetics (Plates 1c, 2, 3b and 4). It is also worth noting that there

is also the emergence of standard housing structures with better aesthetics (Plate 1b and 3a) in the hazard-

prone or risk zones. The uncontrolled settlements in Limbe can generally be distinguished by their

substandard housing conditions (slum) even though some standard housing units have also been emerging

in such unauthorised zones (Plates 1b, 3a and 4b). This is similar to the substandard urban housing

infrastructure (temporary makeshift structures and permanent buildings) in the swamps of Bonaberi (Fombe

& Fogwe, 2001). By virtue of their erection in unauthorised or risk zones, the council authorities do not

extend urban amenities or social infrastructure into such areas. Most of the services in such areas have been

provided by community initiatives and are often characterised by service congestion.

The uncontrolled housing zones usually lack tap or piped water supply, drainage facilities, waste disposal

facilities and streets/access roads (emergency and waste evacuation routes) amongst others. Hence, such

settlements are usually characterised by high density development and inadequacy of amenities in violation

of the 2004 Town Planning Law which guarantees that land shall be approved for building only where it is

served by a public or private road of at least 7m wide (Section 11) and with provision for the intervention

of emergency (fire-fighting units, sanitation), refuse collection and other services (Section 12). The other

provision of the Law which states that owners of hemmed-in parcels without rain water drainage ways,

particularly plots located downstream, shall be entitled to seek and obtain a passage through neighboring

plots, under conditions stipulated by Sections 682 to 710 of the Civil code is not also upheld in such

uncontrolled settlements.

Uncontrolled Settlements and Hydro-Geomorphological Hazards in Limbe

The immediate trigger for hydro-geomorphological hazards like floods and landslides is an increase in the

amount and intensity of rainfall (environmental changes such as climate variability and sea level rise).

However, it has also become obvious that increased human impacts brought about by urbanization and

urban development has enhanced the intensity of such hazards (Che et al., 2012; Kometa & Ndi, 2012;

Guedjeo et al., 2013). Even though most of the hydro-geomorphological hazards in Limbe are orchestrated

during the rainy season when copious amounts of rainfall are received (Table 1 and Figure 1), this study

found that the uncontrolled settlements in Limbe have aggravated the frequency and intensity of such

hazards, namely: landslides, rock fall, soil erosion, sedimentation, flooding, tidal inundation and sea

incursions by virtue of their implantation in ecologically fragile areas (some of which fall within the realms

of Private and Public State Property). It is also evidenced that these uncontrolled settlements that have



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triggered these environmental problems are also usually the hardest hit because of their poor housing

standards and lack of basic amenities like evacuation/emergency routes and proper drainage channels

(storm drains/culverts).

Map 3: Limbe and Neighbourhood on the South East Foot Slopes of Mount Cameroon showing Shaded

Relief (Notice the East-West Trending Assymmetric Ridges of the Mabeta Massif and several

pyroclastic Cones to the West).

Source: Che et al., 2012.

The expansion of uncontrolled settlements and urban agriculture on the steep scoriaceous volcanic slopes of

Limbe has led to severe slope instability. Housing development on the steep slopes in areas such as Bahai-

Towe, Bamba Hill, Unity Quarters, Mawoh, Motowoh and Coconut Island (Maps 2 and 3) has led to the

clearance of the rainforest vegetation (deforestation) that hitherto served as a check to various forms of

mass wasting on the volcanic slopes. In addition to the exposure of the scoriaceous material due to

deforestation, the unregulated slope undercuttings and leveling to create construction spaces have led to

accelerated erosion (gully formation) and landslides during the rainy season. The transition of urban

watersheds from their natural, forested state to a predominantly urban condition encompasses the removal

of vegetation, compaction of soil, creation of impervious surfaces and the alteration of natural drainage

networks. This explains why Kometa and Ndi (2012) concluded that the level of urbanization in urban

watersheds has shown no systematic planning at all. Given that most of the land developers in the

uncontrolled settlements are low-income earners, they lack the extra finances to put up housing units that

meet the engineering standards to keep slope volcanic in check. Hence, the landslide disasters that plague

the uncontrolled settlements in Limbe (Plate 5) are similar to those on the slopes of the Bamenda

escarpment (hosting 6-8% of the population) (Kometa & Ndi, 2012).



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A C

Plate 5: Hydro-Geomorphological Hazards in Limbe showing potential Impacts (A) Impact of Flooding on

River Bank Settlement (B) 2001 Mabeta New Layout Landslide

Source: Buh, 2009.

Due to the enhanced runoff and accelerated erosion on the steep slopes, flooding is induced as the

sediments eroded from the slopes raise the river beds and clog the narrow drainage channels or storm drains

alongside solid wastes. This then leads to flooding, residential inundation and the problem of sedimentation

and subsidence in the low lying neighborhoods in areas like Church Street, New Town, Down Beach,

Clerks Quarters and Mbonjo. The increased sediments arriving the low lying areas as a result of

uncontrolled slope development has made neighborhoods like Clerks Quarters to be ‘sinking’ as sediments

have built up right to the window levels of the houses (attaining heights of about 1-1.5m). By implication,

some inhabitants in this zone have recently been converting windows into doors while others have built

embankments round their houses to prevent flood waters from entering into the homes. It is common place

to see the surrounding of a building being raised more than the floor levels of the home.

The encroachment of housing into the river banks like along the River Djengele has constricted the ability

of such channels to accommodate excess discharge during the rainy season. Deforestation, especially on

steep slopes, and enhanced run off during the rainy season immediately floods the low lying settlements

because of the inadequate drainage channels and the built-up flood plains that could help accommodate the

excess discharge during the rainy season (Plate 5a). In examining the spatial variation of the total number

of rainy days alongside the incidence of floods, it was discovered that the months of July and August

experienced the highest frequency of floods owing to the fact that they recorded the highest number of

rainy days in the year 2009 (Kometa & Ndi, 2012; Guedjeo et al., 2013). Areas with high flood risks in

Bamenda include flood plains and wet lands. Despite the important role now played by the Hygiene and

Sanitation Company (HYSACAM) in solid waste disposal, the problem of solid wastes clogging the storm

drains and river channels still persists.

There have also been notable environmental problems in the uncontrolled settlements sited at the inter-tidal

zone as evident in the Mbonjo and the Dockyard neighborhoods. The destruction of the mangrove

vegetation to supply fuel wood for fish smoking has removed the natural tidal defense that shielded these

coastal squatters. In the wake of global sea level rise, it is now common place for high tides to penetrate

and flood these coastal settlements (tidal inundation) to the extent that some buildings are abandoned at

certain periods of the year. This problem is also aggravated by the lack of ripraps and other coastal defenses

in Mbonjo and Dockyard. The makeshift housing structures characterizing such areas (Plate 4) are also

usually uprooted during severe periods of tidal inundation.



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Conclusion

Limbe is a second-order, coastal town in Cameroon with a lot of growth potentials. However, her rapid rate

of urbanization, the challenging physical (coastal) environment, urban poverty and the lapses in the current

system of land administration interplay to bring about the proliferation of uncontrolled settlements in

ecologically fragile, risk and protected areas. Given the copious amounts of rainfall received during the

rainy season, rise in sea level and housing development in unauthorized zones, hydro-geomorphological

hazards abound in increasing frequency and magnitude leading to environmental instability and its

associated human casualties and material losses. Hence, for a more sustainable urban growth in the town,

structural and non-structural measures have been recommended to the authorities and inhabitants of Limbe.

Recommendations

There is need for proper enforcement or follow-up of existing urban land regulations (town planning and

environmental laws) to stem further uncontrolled housing development in the town. Nonetheless, in as

much as this study recognizes the need for regular monitoring and sanctions for the occupants of risk zones,

there is also dire need to remind ourselves that abiding by the existing regulations is only a very feasible

option for the middle- and high-income population. The low-income population in the town find it difficult

to meet up with the costs and requirements for accessing land within approved building zones and in

procuring town planning instruments like the Land Title and Building Permit from the respective

authorities. The charges and time involved in procuring these planning instruments should therefore be

reduced and corrupt practices guarded against so that some of the low-income population which constitutes

a growing majority can afford to put up standard housing units.

Regularizing tenure for some uncontrolled settlements (in less risk zones) could be a more feasible option

given the financial constraints and difficulties of accessing land for resettlement programs. This is so

because demolition campaigns without necessary resettlement schemes/programs have often created

vicious circles of disorder since the displaced victims still filter into different attractive nodes (Fombe &

Fogwe, 2001) and also for the fact that such demolition campaigns involve huge losses (Buh, 2009;

Guedjeo et al., 2013). In this light, Fombe and Wanie (2010) opine that urban authorities can extend

ownership rights to such settlements by making provision for Location Permits rather than the Land Title

(and Building Permit) that are more cumbersome and costly for the low-income population. In so doing, it

will go a long way to aid slum upgrading and consolidation which will in turn encourage the residents to

support adaptation, risk-mitigation practices and disaster management systems that will prevent and

mitigate hydrological and geomorphological hazards in their neighborhoods.

The promotion and reinforcement of adaptation strategies that can prevent and mitigate the impacts of

hydro-geomorphological hazards within the uncontrolled settlements will therefore constitute a core

strategy for their consolidation and subsequent upgrading. This study therefore recommends that the

municipal authorities, the officials of MINDUH, MINDCAF in collaboration with the residents of

uncontrolled settlements set up disaster or emergency management programs. Such disaster management

programs for the uncontrolled settlements in Limbe should have as objectives the training of disaster

management staff, setting up of communication systems during disasters, prevention of hazards (as much as

possible), reduction of vulnerability of uncontrolled settlements to hazards and enhancement of coping

strategies (mitigation), disaster preparedness, disaster relief and disaster recovery. With regard to flood

mitigation for instance, the building of levées (using tires and sand bags) along river banks, the erection of

ripraps along the coastal settlements as well as the straightening, enlarging and regular dredging of drainage

networks can go a long way to mitigate floods as elaborated by Kometa and Ndi (2010) and Guedjeo et al.,

(2013). For landslides, proper engineering standards can be supervised by the urban authorities to bring



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some of the hilly zones under planned housing development. Also, the use of hazard mapping, disaster

monitoring and early warning systems are all important in addressing natural hazards in the town.

The inhabitants should be sensitized (via print and audiovisual media, billboards and meeting houses) on

the dangers of violating the town planning and environmental laws when they settle on risk zones. Such

campaigns can be done through the media, quarter heads and community sensitization programs. The

public should be sensitized as to why the urban land regulations make it important for open spaces to be

allocated in the town amidst the growing need for construction space. The public should be aware of the

common uses of open spaces for public utilities, parks, greens, playgrounds and streets amongst others.

Access to land will therefore need to be improved by supporting and speeding up the CDC plantation Land

Surrender Policy to create more residential new layouts and people encouraged by the authorities to put up

rental housing. Meanwhile, for the ecologically fragile areas, specific building standards or engineering

works (land reclamation, slope engineering) should be put in place to ensure that bringing such areas under

settlement will not jeopardize environmental stability. With improvement in land access and the

establishment of low-cost housing in the town, the local authorities could better resettle the occupants of

high risk zone. An alternative land use system could then be developed for the ecologically fragile areas

after resettlement programs.

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