Human Anatomy Human Anatomy and Physiologyand Physiology

Chapter 1Chapter 1IntroductionIntroduction

Objectives:Objectives:1. Define all vocabulary words. (DOK 1)2. Define, compare, and contrast various levels and forms of

anatomical study. (DOK 1, 4)3. Describe, compare and contrast various methods of

anatomical imaging. (DOK 1, 4)4. Explain the principle of homeostasis. (DOK 2)5. Compare the use of positive and negative feedback loops

to control physiological systems in the human body. (DOK 4)

6. Categorize different ailments into the appropriate category of disease. (DOK 4)

7. Recognize body planes, directional terms, quadrants, and cavities. (DOK 1)

8. Identify the various body cavities and the organs associated with each. (DOK 1)

9. Use anatomical terminology to correctly compare the locations of any two body parts, organs or cavities. (DOK 3, 4)

What is anatomy?What is anatomy?• Anatomy is the study of the Anatomy is the study of the

structures of an organismstructures of an organism. . • MorphologyMorphology is the study of the is the study of the

shape of an organism. shape of an organism. • The key word associated with The key word associated with

anatomy is anatomy is STRUCTURESTRUCTURE..

What is anatomy?What is anatomy?• Gross anatomyGross anatomy is the study of is the study of

structure at the macroscopic structure at the macroscopic level or with out the use of a level or with out the use of a microscope.microscope.

• MicroanatomyMicroanatomy is the study of is the study of structure at the microscopic structure at the microscopic level and there are different level and there are different forms. forms. – HistologyHistology study of body tissue study of body tissue

structures and their functions. structures and their functions. – CytologyCytology the study of cells and the study of cells and

their structures and organelle their structures and organelle functions. functions.

Levels of Anatomical Levels of Anatomical StructureStructure

Macroscopic: Gross Level Microscopic: Histologicaland Cytological Level

Two Approaches of Two Approaches of Anatomical StudyAnatomical Study

• Regional ApproachRegional Approach: This method : This method focuses on a specific region of the focuses on a specific region of the body and all structures for that body and all structures for that particular region from the most particular region from the most external to the most internal. external to the most internal.

(head, thorax, abdomen, (head, thorax, abdomen, appendages). appendages).

• This approach is often used in This approach is often used in medical colleges when dissecting a medical colleges when dissecting a cadaver in gross anatomy.cadaver in gross anatomy.

Two Approaches of Two Approaches of Anatomical StudyAnatomical Study

• Systemic ApproachSystemic Approach: This method : This method focuses on particular body focuses on particular body systemssystems as structural units, and not where as structural units, and not where each part is locatedeach part is located

(digestive system, respiratory (digestive system, respiratory system, nervous system, system, nervous system, cardiovascular system). cardiovascular system).

• This is the approach we will use for This is the approach we will use for this course.this course.

Technology Used for Technology Used for Anatomical and Anatomical and

Physiological StudiesPhysiological Studies• Microscopes:Microscopes: Light Light microscopes, microscopes, Electron Electron microscopes microscopes (scanning and (scanning and transmission) and transmission) and various other various other forms of forms of microscopy allow microscopy allow the study of the study of structures to structures to small to viewed small to viewed by the unaided by the unaided eye.eye.

Technology Used for Technology Used for Anatomical and Anatomical and

Physiological StudiesPhysiological StudiesX-rays:X-rays: Examine Examine internal structures, internal structures, however exposure however exposure to potentially to potentially damaging radiation damaging radiation is required.is required.

Technology Used for Technology Used for Anatomical and Anatomical and

Physiological StudiesPhysiological Studies

MRI and CAT MRI and CAT SCAN Imaging:SCAN Imaging: Images are Images are produced without produced without the use of damaging the use of damaging radiation.radiation.

Technology Used for Technology Used for Anatomical and Anatomical and

Physiological StudiesPhysiological StudiesUltrasound:Ultrasound: Images are Images are produced by produced by sound waves sound waves bouncing off bouncing off the object the object being viewed.being viewed.

Technology Used for Technology Used for Anatomical and Anatomical and

Physiological StudiesPhysiological StudiesRadioisotopes:Radioisotopes: Radioisotopes are Radioisotopes are released in the released in the body and are body and are tracked using tracked using equipment to equipment to follow their path follow their path and determine how and determine how the organ in the organ in question is question is functioning.functioning.

What is Physiology?What is Physiology?• Physiology is the study of the Physiology is the study of the

function of a structure.function of a structure. • Remember that in biological systems Remember that in biological systems

structure often determines the structure often determines the function. function.

• The The role a particular structure plays role a particular structure plays in keeping the organism alive is in keeping the organism alive is physiology. physiology.

What is Physiology?What is Physiology?• The key word associated with The key word associated with

physiology is physiology is FUNCTIONFUNCTION..• Because structure and function are Because structure and function are

so closely related Anatomy and so closely related Anatomy and Physiology are often combined for a Physiology are often combined for a more complete understanding of the more complete understanding of the organism.organism.

HomeostasisHomeostasis• Your body is a very complex living Your body is a very complex living

machine with billions of processes machine with billions of processes occurring every second at the occurring every second at the macroscopic and microscopic level. macroscopic and microscopic level.

• When some internal or external When some internal or external change in the body’s environment change in the body’s environment occurs, the body must make occurs, the body must make adjustments to maintain operation at adjustments to maintain operation at its peak or optimum performance. its peak or optimum performance.

HomeostasisHomeostasis• Homeostasis (“same state of Homeostasis (“same state of

being”) is the internal balance being”) is the internal balance maintained by an organism no maintained by an organism no matter what changes occur in the matter what changes occur in the environment (external or environment (external or internal).internal).

• Another word for homeostatis is Another word for homeostatis is Equilibrium.Equilibrium.

• If an external change creates an If an external change creates an imbalance, such that the organism is imbalance, such that the organism is no longer in homeostasis, cellular no longer in homeostasis, cellular changes will occur to bring the body changes will occur to bring the body back into homeostasis.back into homeostasis.

HomeostasisHomeostasis• The body will make changes within The body will make changes within

its system to maintain this optimum its system to maintain this optimum state. state.

• Most of the changes occur Most of the changes occur autonomically (without your autonomically (without your conscious control) and you are often conscious control) and you are often unaware that they are occurring!unaware that they are occurring!

• The body monitors and makes The body monitors and makes adjustments by using pathways adjustments by using pathways know as know as Feed Back MechanismsFeed Back Mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.to maintain homeostasis.

HomeostasisHomeostasis

Feed Back MechanismsFeed Back Mechanisms• Feed Back Mechanisms consist of Feed Back Mechanisms consist of

three major components:three major components:1. 1. ReceptorReceptor: Receives stimulus : Receives stimulus

and monitor changes in the body’s and monitor changes in the body’s internal and external environment internal and external environment and relays it to the integration and relays it to the integration center. center.

(Usually a component of the (Usually a component of the peripheral nervous system or peripheral nervous system or endocrine system, sometimes called endocrine system, sometimes called a sensor).a sensor).

Feed Back MechanismsFeed Back Mechanisms2. 2. Integration CenterIntegration Center: Interprets : Interprets

stimulus and coordinates the proper stimulus and coordinates the proper response to re-establish homeostatic response to re-establish homeostatic state. state.

(Usually central nervous (Usually central nervous system and endocrine system)system and endocrine system)

3. 3. Effector:Effector: Receives message Receives message from integration center and from integration center and undergoes some change to re-undergoes some change to re-establish homeostatic state of the establish homeostatic state of the body. body.

(Usually a specific body tissue, (Usually a specific body tissue, organ or body system component organ or body system component involved).involved).

Homeostasis and Feed Back Homeostasis and Feed Back MechanismsMechanisms

IntegrationCenter

(Nervous System)or

(Endocrine System)

Homeostasis (set point)

Input (environmental stimulus)shifts homeostatic state of variable.

Variable

Receptor(sensor)

EffectorOrgan or tissue

Response by effector tore-establish homeostasis.

AfferentPathway

EfferentPathway

Error Signal

Types of Feed Back Types of Feed Back MechanismsMechanisms

• There are two primary types of There are two primary types of feedback mechanisms in living feedback mechanisms in living organisms. They are:organisms. They are:

1. 1. Positive feedback Positive feedback ( contractions of the uterus during ( contractions of the uterus during child birth, milk let-down reflex, child birth, milk let-down reflex, blood clotting) which tells a blood clotting) which tells a regulatory system or effectors to regulatory system or effectors to amplify (increaseamplify (increase) a response to re-) a response to re-establish homeostatic state.establish homeostatic state.

Types of Feed Back Types of Feed Back MechanismsMechanisms

2. 2. Negative feedback Negative feedback (temperature (temperature regulation in humans, blood glucose regulation in humans, blood glucose level regulation), which causes level regulation), which causes effectors to effectors to reduce or reverse a reduce or reverse a process process to re-establish homeostatic to re-establish homeostatic state.state.

The most common type of feedback The most common type of feedback mechanism is negative feedback.mechanism is negative feedback.

DiseaseDisease• Any changes in the body Any changes in the body

structurally or functionally, structurally or functionally, which interferes with the body’s which interferes with the body’s ability to maintain homeostasis is ability to maintain homeostasis is a DISEASEa DISEASE..

• There are four major categories of There are four major categories of disease.disease.1. Congenital1. Congenital2. Immunological2. Immunological3. Metabolic3. Metabolic4. Neoplastic4. Neoplastic

Congenital DiseaseCongenital Disease• Congenital diseases Congenital diseases

are diseases that are diseases that exist exist prior to or at prior to or at birth.birth.

• They can be due to They can be due to genetic disordersgenetic disorders (Hemophilia), (Hemophilia), chromosomal chromosomal disorders disorders (Down’s (Down’s syndrome), or the syndrome), or the failure of the fetus failure of the fetus to develop properly to develop properly (Spina bifida, cleft (Spina bifida, cleft palate).palate).

The individuals above suffer from agenetic disorder known as Xerodermapigmentosum. This disease affects the skin and renders the individuals withoutany protection from UV light. Their skin literally burns when exposed to any light source that emits UV radiation, even from light bulbs.

Immunological DiseaseImmunological Disease• Immunological diseases Immunological diseases

are caused byare caused by foreign foreign organisms (pathogens) organisms (pathogens) or agents (allergens, or agents (allergens, poisons) that enter the poisons) that enter the body and cause disease.body and cause disease.

• Typically the invoke a Typically the invoke a response by the body’s response by the body’s immune system. immune system.

• Chicken pox, measles, Chicken pox, measles, mumps, strept-throat, mumps, strept-throat, AIDS, and allergies are AIDS, and allergies are all examples of this type all examples of this type of disease. of disease.

• The individual above is suffering from the viral disease small pox. Small pox scars, blinds, maims, and often kills those it infects.

• It has been eradicated from the human population by vaccination.

• However, scientists are worried that it may re-emerge due to globalization, war, and terrorism.

Immunological DiseaseImmunological Disease• In some casesIn some cases the the

body’s own immune body’s own immune system turns on itself system turns on itself and begins to attack and begins to attack its own tissues. its own tissues.

• These type of diseases These type of diseases are called are called autoimmune diseasesautoimmune diseases. .

• Lupus is an example Lupus is an example of such a disease. of such a disease.

The individual above is suffering from the viral disease small pox. Small pox scars, blinds, maims, and often kills those it infects. It has been eradicated from the human population by vaccination. However, scientists are worried that it may re-emerge due to globalization, war, and terrorism.

Metabolic DiseaseMetabolic Disease• Metabolic diseases are Metabolic diseases are

those that interfere or those that interfere or inhibit normal inhibit normal metabolic processes of metabolic processes of the body.the body.

• Grave’s disease Grave’s disease (hyperthyroidism), (hyperthyroidism), diabetes, PKU, and diabetes, PKU, and Cushing’s disease are Cushing’s disease are all examples of all examples of metabolic diseases. metabolic diseases.

• Injuries are also Injuries are also classified as metabolic classified as metabolic diseasedisease because they because they also interfere with the also interfere with the normal metabolic normal metabolic processesprocesses of the body.of the body.

The British actor Marty Feldman’s“unique” eyes were due to the fact he suffered from Grave’s disease. Unfortunately this disease also led to his death at an early age froma heart attack.

Neoplastic DiseaseNeoplastic Disease• Neoplastic diseases are the result Neoplastic diseases are the result

of abnormal cell or uncontrolled of abnormal cell or uncontrolled cell growth.cell growth.

• The abnormal cells grow and The abnormal cells grow and divide in other normal tissues divide in other normal tissues and disrupt their normal function and disrupt their normal function and starve them of nutrients that and starve them of nutrients that they need to survive.they need to survive.

• Cancers are all examples of this Cancers are all examples of this type of disease.type of disease.

Neoplastic DiseaseNeoplastic Disease• In England during 1800’s

there lived a man by the name of Joseph Merrick who suffered from a disease called Proteus syndrome.

• This disease resulted in the abnormal growth of the connective tissues (cartilage and bone) on the right side of his body.

• He was so grotesquely disfigured by the disease, that his appearance frightened the public.

• He often wore a hood over his head when in public and was referred to as the “Elephant Man”.

Body Levels of Body Levels of OrganizationOrganization

Major Body Systems and Their Major Body Systems and Their FunctionsFunctions

Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical Terminology• We are organisms We are organisms

with bilateral with bilateral symmetry. symmetry.

• If our body were If our body were divided down the divided down the middle vertically, middle vertically, the right side is a the right side is a mirror image of the mirror image of the left. left.

• The image shows a The image shows a body in anatomical body in anatomical position. Face position. Face forward with palms forward with palms turned out.turned out.

Body PlanesBody Planes• Our body can be Our body can be

divided because of divided because of our bilateral our bilateral symmetry into 3 symmetry into 3 major separate major separate planes:planes:

• Frontal or Coronal Frontal or Coronal Plane:Plane: Separates front Separates front surface (ventral, surface (ventral, anterior) from the anterior) from the back surface (dorsal, back surface (dorsal, posterior)posterior)

• Transverse Plane:Transverse Plane: Separates upper body Separates upper body (superior) from the (superior) from the lower body (inferior)lower body (inferior)

Body PlanesBody Planes• Mid-sagittal or Mid-sagittal or

Medial Plane:Medial Plane: Separates the right Separates the right side of the body side of the body from the left side from the left side along the mid-line along the mid-line or the midsagittal or the midsagittal line of the body.line of the body.

• ParasagittalParasagittal: any : any plane that divides plane that divides the body vertically the body vertically either to the right either to the right or left of the or left of the midsagittal plane, midsagittal plane, and is parallel to and is parallel to the midsagittal. Not the midsagittal. Not shown in this shown in this diagramdiagram

Medial or Midsagittal Plane

Directional Terms Directional Terms SuperiorSuperior: :

towards thetowards theupper bodyupper bodyInferiorInferior: towards : towards

the the lower bodylower body

Directional Terms Directional Terms Proximal:

towards the point of originDistal: away from

the point of origin***Proximal and

distal refer specifically to points of origin that are also attachment points with the torso (shoulder, hip)

Directional Terms Directional Terms MedialMedial: towards : towards

the middlethe middleLateralLateral: towards : towards

the sidethe sideDeepDeep: towards : towards

the inside of the inside of the bodythe body

SuperficialSuperficial: on : on the surface of the surface of the bodythe body

Animation

Body RegionsBody RegionsAxial skeleton: skull, spine, sacrum (torso and head)Appendicular skeleton: pelvis and appendages (arms and legs)

Abdominal QuadrantsAbdominal Quadrants

1.Upper right quadrant

2.Upper left quadrant

3.Lower right quadrant

4.Lower left quadrant

Abdominal RegionsAbdominal Regions

1.Right hypochondriac

2.Epigastric 3.Left

hypochondriac 4.Right lumbar 5.Umbilical 6.Left lumbar 7.Right iliac or

inguinal 8.Hypogastric or

pubic 9.Left iliac or

inguinal

Body CavitiesBody Cavities