french west africa “senegal” - university of alberta pdfs... · french west africa: labour ......

Case Studies:

French West Africa“Senegal”

SenegalSenegal

FRENCH

French West AfricaFrench West Africa

Colonial French West Africa

Colonial French West Africa: Education- more hierarchical than British administration

- fewer educated elite as middle-men between French authorities and ‘average’ Africans

- most educated in Senegal: Dakar, Saint Louis

- Ecole William Ponty only secondary education centre (est. 1920s)

Colonial French West AfricaColonial French West Africa

Policy ‘assimilation’: established post 1848 revolution

- meant to create ‘Black Frenchmen’

- abandoned late 19th century: by early 20th

century only applied to handful of educated elite in coastal towns


Most Famous: Blaise Diagne (1872 –1934)

-first member of French Parliament

- tried to obtain French citizenship for all Senegalese: failed

- saw colonialism, ‘sacrifices’ as way forward to ‘modernization’: controversial position by 1930s


- 1926: over 13 million Africans in FWA andfewer than 50,000 had achieved goal of citizenship

- 1945 still fewer than 100,000

Most of these in Senegal: significant political, social, cultural implications

GoreeGoree, Saint, Saint--Louis, DakarLouis, Dakar

.GoreeIsle

.


French West Africa: Labour

- widespread use forced labour (from 1912): work on roads, railroad, Office du Niger (canals, dams) [French Soudan]

- 1930s (depression): migrant labour from French Soudan encouraged to Senegal to develop peanut industry

- tied to entrepreneurial Islamic MouridBrotherhood [Friday Lecture]


Labourers ‘recruited’ for work, Senegal, French West Africa


Other grievances:

- military conscription, resentment at treatment soldiers post-war [Davidson Video]

- taxation

- lack workers’ rights, recognition Unions

- often lead to resistance, local and large scale e.g. 1947-8 Railway Workers’ Strike: began in French Sudan (Bamako), main activity in Senegal (Thies, Dakar)


French West Africa: Politics

- Post WWII ‘Fourth Republic’ (1946-58): encouraged African political parties

- 1946 conference Bamako: all french colonies formed RDA (Rassemblement DemocratiqueAfricaine )

- united with Union Soudanaise (US-RDA)


- attempted to unite all French West Africa: interests too diverse, failed

-1948: Leopold Senghor formed Bloc Democratique Senegalaise, removing Senegal from US-RDA

- attempting to challenge urban monopoly on politics: launched new party from rural base of support


1956 “Loi Cadre”:

- devolved government from Dakar as centre of French West Africa Federation (and Brazzaville (centre of French Equatorial Africa) to each of 12 colonies.

- context important: imminent independence of British colonies Gold Coast, Nigeria

- crisis in Algeria


1958: dramatic changes in France

- fall of fourth republic, recall Charles de Gaulle, formation Fifth Republic with new Constitution

- related to crisis in Algeria [“Settler Colony”]

- ‘Union’ became ‘Community’: France to control finance (common currency), foreign policy, military affairs


- local parliamentary government, flag, anthem devolved to ‘states’

- African colonies provided with Referendum: retain status or become ‘members of the Community’?

- all (except Guinea) chose latter: assured strong continuing influence of France even in decolonized Africa

The French Community (1958): successor to the French Union (from 1946) [included French Guyana, South America]


Modibo Keita: US-RDA President

- 1956-58 Deputy in French National Assembly; first African Vice-Deputy

-


Political Vision: socialist

- had campaigned for ‘autonomy’ within French Community in 1958

- became Soudan Français (French Sudan)

- shared spirit Pan-Africanism: aimed for West African Federation of former French colonies

- convinced Leopold Senghor to join

Mali Federation

1960: formation of Mali Federation -- union French Soudan and Senegal

-

Emergence: Mali and Senegal

1960: union French Soudan and Senegal

- short-lived: Senegal seceded nine months after union to be independent under Leopold Senghor

- issues: socialism and resources

Senegal was clearly ‘have’ former colony, Mali was ‘have-not’: Senegal did not wish to subsidize Mali’s growth

[will return to this economic aspect in context of MouridBrotherhood]

Leader of New Country: Senegal

Leopold Senghor (1906 – 2001)

Leader of Senegal: Senghor

Leopold Senghor:- born near Dakar 1906, father merchant

- educated Catholic Mission School and Jesuit College, Dakar

- Lycee Louis-le-grand, Sorbonne University Paris, acquired French citizenship

- taught language and literature in France

Leader of Senegal: Senghor

Leopold Senghor:- 1930s, part of intellectual movement “Negritude”: wrote poetry celebrating ‘being African’ [in spite of name, was not about skin colour]

- 1939 mobilized into French Army

- taken prisoner June 1940 (18 months camp)

- released because of illness, participated National University Front resistance 1942

Independent SenegalIndependent Senegal

What kind of country did Senghor inherit?- caught in ideological struggles between Pan-Africanist Socialism and economic needs of largely peanut monoculture in hands of powerful Islamic Mourid Brotherhood

- caught in cultural/religious struggle between finding essence of ‘Africanism’, embracing western education (including language, French), accommodating significant part of Christian (Catholic) population


What kind of country did Senghor inherit?

- caught between long-standing urban life of coastal towns and rural life experienced by majority of population

- caught increasingly between different visions of ‘modernization’: shaped by gender, class, region intersecting with culture, religion


What kind of country did Senghor inherit?- caught between different understandings of ‘independence’ and ‘neo-colonialism:

- could economic independence occur while ‘colonial’ ties remained?

- could political independence occur while colonial economic ties remained?

- could societal independence occur while legacies of assimilation reproduced themselves?


What kind of country did Senghor inherit?

- one NOT caught in racist struggle: issues about what Europeans represented, not about ‘whites’ per se

- one NOT caught in cold war ideological struggle: severance with Mali Federation signaled clearly and quickly political orientation


Struggles captured in Ousmane Sembene’s novel/film:

XALA

[excerpts of film shown in class;excerpts from Novel assigned for

Disscussion Class]

XALA and ISLAMXALA and ISLAM

Islam is theme of Novel/Film: spoken to in many ways

- polygamy: juxtaposition with ‘modernism’, Christianity (specifically Catholicism)

- conflated with ‘tradition’, defining ‘Africanism’

- ‘marabouts’ (French term), ‘shaykhs’: healers, respected religious leaders

Islam and Islam and MuridMurid BrotherhoodBrotherhood

Islam central because of special brotherhood: Murids- played critical historical role in both colonial, newly independent Senegal

- political, religious but most significantly: Economic --key to development colonial cash-crop: peanuts

- Murid sufi order offers ‘answer’ to contemporary contradictions ‘Islam vsdemocracy/secularism’

AhmaduAhmadu BambaBamba

Brotherhood based on Saint: Ahmadu Bamba

- his history ‘legend’become integral partof culture as well as religion

Amadu Bamba c. 1912 (only known photo)

[see ‘Readings’ ]

Ahmadu Bamba

Arabic Calligraphy and Ahmadu Bamba

Ahmadu Bamba

[from ‘Senegalese Politicians Court….’, in ‘Readings’;see also ‘Saints in the City’ for art in particular (Recommended)]

Amadu Bamba

Amadu Bamba especially interested in issue of ‘relations between rulers and ruled’ :

'Those who frequent them [the unjust rulers] because of their wealth, share in the corruption which is the source of their power.‘

Ahmadu Bamba

- distanced himself from extreme asceticism

- advocated involvement Sufi Shaykh in life of community

- system of education: to instill teachings of Islam and create Muslims who served their community

“Acquisition of knowledge without practice was a waste of time”

Ahmadu Bamba

Bamba provided specialized, ‘customized training’ to disciples with different intellectual, physical abilities:

- working schools ‘tarbiyya’ more populated than other schools in early days of Murīdiyya: majority of people who first came to Bambahad already passed schooling age

-Movement became known for emphasis on ‘work’

‘Work and Discipline’

Painted on the back of a truck: ‘Talibe (‘religious student) Cheikh: Work and Discipline’

[from ‘Senegal’s Mourides…’, in Readings]

Muridism and Wolof

Realized that genuine conversion of Wolof masses could be achieved only through writing that could be sung or read out loud to illiterate village audiences:

- used Wolof proverbs, popular sayings to simplify foreign Islamic concepts, make them understandable

- then transcribed in ‘Wolofal’ for wider dissemination: Wolof written Arabic script

Muridism and Wolof

Creating Tarbiyya Schools, encouraging use Wolofal, Amadu Bamba understood pedagogical, cultural benefits of using Wolof to reach common people:

- classical Arabic poems, Wolofal literature base educational materials Murids used to educate, transmit ethos to future generations.

[see ‘Ahmadu Bamba and ajami’ (Recommended) in Readings]

“Wolofal”

Example ofWolofal Text

Muridism

“…[Murid ethos] allowed the cohesion and continuity of the brotherhood. This ethos that is shaped by values such as solidarity, self reliance, rootedness in the local Islamic culture, submission to the shaikh and distrust of temporal power-holders contributed to the development of a counterculture. That is a set of values, practices, a cultural code and a worldview that provide structure and meaning to the disciples' lives.”

[from ‘Educating the Murid’, Cheikh Anta Babou, Resources]

MuridsMurids and Colonialismand Colonialism

1895: local administrators portrayed AmaduBamba as ‘danger’ to state:

- involved with Tijanis, brotherhood al-hajj Umar (Tukolor Caliphate) resisting French

- claimed Amadu Bamba followers for jihad

- given superficial trial, exiled for seven years to Congo

MuridsMurids and Colonialismand Colonialism

Amadu Bamba in Exile: deepened personal faith- wrote more poetry, books

- kept in touch with family and friends

- widely seen as ‘martyr’: worked directly against French intent

- attracted more followers

MuridismMuridism and Colonialismand Colonialism

Most famous (of many) miracles/visions:

- denied right to pray aboard ship taking him to the Congo

- So… he spread his prayer rug on the ocean waves and stepped out on to it and prayed

- tales of miracles used in subsequent years to support legitimacy

‘‘In ExileIn Exile’’


French Colonial Enterprise: profitable cropsIn Senegal: almost uniquely – peanuts.


French needed religious leaders to influence people to develop crop, supply labour force:

- Amadu Bamba most important religious leader in major peanut-growing region

- brought back from exile to take charge of followers who were seen by French as especially industrious workers.

French saw it as ‘generosity: Murids portrayed it as ‘victory’ over French authority


Local politics led to complaints: AmaduBamba exiled to southern Mauritania

- sent to be with Mauritanian Shaykh who had supported French colonialism

-Amadu Bamba respected religious authority of Shaykh but resisted becoming ‘student’

- while in Mauritania, had revelation leading him to create own brotherhood: Murid


1907: French brought him back to Senegal

- easier to keep an eye on him

1914-18: WWI

- French needed support from African colonies

- food, transport and soldiers (to fight in Africa, Europe, Middle East)


Bamba preached ‘accommodation’ with French:

- encouraged supporters to join ‘tirailleurs’

- fought fellow Muslims on behalf of French

- soldiers recited Amadu Bamba’s poetry to keep up moral!


1920s saw specific patterns typical of Senegalese political life established:- shared belief in compatibility of interests of colonial state and ‘marabouts’

But: Murids in touch with Pan-Islamic movements in Arab world- sending money to ongoing resistance in Morocco

- contributions to Brotherhood seen as competing with French taxation


Amadu Bamba died in 1927:

- son took over: took title of ‘Caliphe Generale’(mix Arabic and French reflecting situation in Senegal)

- French ruled interior ‘through’ Murids

- centre remained Touba

- massive mosque was built

Grand Mosque, Grand Mosque, ToubaTouba


Murid movement became wealthy from growing, exporting peanuts:

- Amadu Bamba had remained ‘apart’, spiritually, physically (little to do with French administrators)

- successors actively involved in political life

– locally, increasingly nationally, able to act in many cases as ‘King Makers’


Murids expanded east along Dakar-Niger railway:- over course of early 20th C, increasingly specialized in peanuts

- abandoned traditional foodstuffs like millet

- critical factor in evolving Colonial economy

“By promoting the work ethic of the Mouride, the colonial ideologues thought they had found a notion that could bridge the gap between Islamic thinking on the one hand and development ethics of the official state programme on the other. “

MuridismMuridism and Independenceand Independence

On the eve of independence:

- Senegalese marabouts (as group) declared loyalty to De Gaulle, support for French community

- could not maintain cohesion despite creation of Conseil Superieur des Chefs Religieux du Senegal in 1958 'to defend the interests of Islam‘

- Tijani marabouts protested against joining Mali federation


-other marabouts continued to challenge what they saw as political elite

- created political party with other secular leaders who opposed Leopold Senghor's Union Progressiste Senegalaise (UPS)

At moment of independence:

- marabouts divided on political support BUT…

- knew they could influence national policies

MuridismMuridism and Independenceand Independence

Changing face of Muridism:- following WWII, peanuts no longer as profitable (competing sources peanuts, other oils)

- Murids began moving into coastal towns, cities

- even abroad1980s:France, elsewhere in Europe, even North America --especially New York

MuridMurid DiasporaDiaspora

Operates as brotherhood and cultural/commercial ‘diaspora’:

- spiritual leader based in Touba

- annual festival: reenactment return AmaduBamba from exile attracts a million followers

- Shaykh, brotherhood supported by Muridcommunities around world

MuridMurid DiasporaDiaspora

-in return, communities request practical aid, prayers on their behalf

This is ‘traditionally’ functioning brotherhood articulated in modern economic and social terms.

[see ‘The Mouride Brotherhood’, in Readings]

MuridismMuridism and and SengaleseSengalese IdentityIdentity

Political Role: - efforts made to stress compatibility Murideconomic ethics, goals of postcolonial state

- during Murid ceremony 1963, President Senghor asked :

'What is socialism if not, essentially, the socio-economic system which gives priority to work? And who has done this better than Amadu Bambaand his successors?’

MuridismMuridism and Senegalese Identityand Senegalese Identity

1972 Abdulaye Wade (future president) published article:

- challenged argument that Islam is essentially incompatible with goals of development

- argued that development theorists should take into account potential of Islamic movements like Murids because of religious devotion to work, willingness to develop the nation


Wade emphasized Amadu Bamba as ‘Senegalese’ thinker [before Senegal existe]:

- writings, philosophy, had origins in ancestral traditions: it is 'national', not 'pan-Islamic‘ [articulation of tensions – how to ‘view’Islam in National Project]

- Wade labeled Murid doctrine as 'scientific‘, having nothing to do with mysticism characteristic of other [threatening] Islamic movements because of centrality of work ethic


Efforts promoting ‘Bamba-ism’ profoundly Nationalistic:

- selective, discriminated against other manifestations of religious experience

- argued that Bamba's doctrine was peaceful, condemned violence

- Bamba's methods, dealings were based on 'persuasion‘, 'moral (not physical) resistance'.


Murid attitude presented as significantly different from other major 'sects‘:

- Tijani: too 'Arabic', too 'violent‘- 'Qadiri: too 'Mauritanian‘

1981: Abdou Diouf - efforts to ‘Islamize’image of Senegal internationally

SenghorSenghor’’s Successors: s Successors: DioufDiouf and Wadeand Wade

Abdou Diouf(President 1981- 2000 )

Abdulaye Wade (President 2000-20012)

Contemporary AdaptationsContemporary Adaptations

Example legacy of Amadu Bamba:

- Educating the Murids [see Readings] shows how major state-owned cotton company (early 1980s) appropriated means, ethos of Murids:

- created schools- appropriated language- rhetoric: ‘only through work that one can

secure the blessing of God’ “to educate workers to see themselves in

‘shaykh/murid’ relationship with company


Attempt to ‘Muridise' political culture: application religious modes of behaviour to non-religious arenas society

- molding political affiliation in religious frame of reference: relationship becomes ‘allegiance’, personal commitment not to an 'imagined community' like nation, but to person (Abdou Diouf in this case)

- trend testifies not only to infiltration Sufism but also to strategies of modern politics


Corner-stone Sufism: master/disciple relationship:

. - calling into question view that Sufism is ‘out-dated’ or that ‘anti-suffism’ is better adapted to modern world's economic, social requirements.'

- of particular relevance here is master/disciple relationship, rooted in Sufi mysticism of Amadu Bamba


- re-elaborated in colonial, postcolonial circumstances

- now transferred to nationalist discourse

- on the eve of all elections, Senegalese leaders go east to ‘holy cities’ of Touba and Tivaouane in hopes gaining support of spiritual masters (Murid and Tijani, respectively)

[see ‘Senegalese Politicians Court Leaders of Age-Old Muslim Sect’]


Contemporary Culture and Muridism: Yousou N’Dour- best known contemporary follower


“Much of the music performed … displays the influence of N'Dour's adherence to the Mouride’s belief system. Mourides,. …adhere to the teachings of Cheikh AhmadouBamba, a nineteenth-century teacher of the Koran who encouraged his followers to spend their lives preparing for salvation in the afterlife rather than resorting to violence against economic, cultural, and military oppression perpetrated by their enemies.


This salvation is attained by following the instructions of Mouride holy men, called marabouts. N'Dour's songs frequently contain spiritual messages that encourage listeners to obey the instructions of Mourides's marabouts. “

[see ‘Yousou N’Dour: Facts’ in Resources]


Amadou Bamba was exiled by the French, the colonial power in Senegal during his lifetime. So as well as preaching the virtues of hard work, N'Dour says Bamba inspired his followers to travel.

"Mouridism is for me two paths - one is the way to God, the other path is the doctrine of work and dignity. Because if you don't work, you hold your hand out and lose your dignity.“

[see ‘Senegal’s Mourides…’, in Readings]

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