DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 287 739 SE 048 703

AUTHOR Wood, David S.; Wood, Diane WaltonTITLE Conservation Education: A Planning Guide. Manual

Series M-23.INSTITUTION Peace Corps, Washington, DC. Information Collection

and Exchange Div.PUB DATE Oct 85NOTE 124p.; Some drawings may not reproduce well.PUB TYPE Reports - Descriptive (141) -- Guides Non-Classroom

Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Audiovisual Aids; Conservation (Environment);

*Developing Nations; *Educational Planning;Elementary Secondary Education; *EnvironmentalEducation; Evaluation Methods; Exhibits; ExtensionEducation; Foreign Countries; Global Approach; MassMedia; *Natural Resources; *Program Development;*School Community Relationship

IDENTIFIERS Environmental Education Programs; EnvironmentalManagement; *Peace Corps

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this manual 4s to help individuals and

groups design and implement conservation education programs that willeffectively bring about improved environmental management. Thechapters describe: (1) how to gather environmental and social datafor designing appropriate education programs; (2) how to judge thestrengths and weaknesses of various conservation education methods,ranging from mass media to nature centers, and (3) how to implementand evaluate educational efforts. Each chapter ends with a series ofquestions that the reader can use to ensure that no importantvariables have been overlooked. The manual is intended to be usefulto a wide range of people. While chapters two and three are aimedespecially at the generalist, the entire manual is intended to beuseful to those interested in designing appropriate educationprograms. (TW)

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Peace Corps

CONSERVATION EDUCATION:

A PLANNING GUIDE

By

David S. Woodand

Diane Walton Wood

Illustrated by Heather H. Bentz

Peace CorpsInformation Collection and Exchange

Manual M-23October, 1985

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M,4

CONSERVATION EDUCATION: A PLANNING GUIDE

0 WOOD 1985

This manual may be reproduced and/or translated in part orin full without payment of royalty. Please give standardacknowledgement.

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About the Authors

David and Diane Wood have designed and implemented a variety ofconservation education programs and curricula in the UnitedStates, Canada, Latin America, Africa and the Caribbean. Theyhave masters' degrees in science and environmental educationfrom Cornell University and were conservation educationvolunteers for the Peace Corps in Paraguay from 1977-1981.

David Wood, in addition to working with internationalconservation education, teaches environmental science atSidwell Friends School in Washington, D.C.

Diane Wood, with the International Institute for Environmentand Development in Washington, D.C., directs a programsupporting citizen environmental groups in developing countries.

Heather Bentz, who provided the illustrations for this manual,is a freelance illustrator and fine artist. She is afundraiser with World Wildlife Fund/U.S.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We owe many people our thanks for the contributions theyhave made to this manual. We were fortunate to receivevaluable technical advice from a wide range of specialists whotook the time to review the sections related to theirparticular areas of expertise. Their insights and commentswere most helpful. Technical advisors to this manual were:Dr. Curtis Freese, Director for Latin American Programs, WorldWildlife Fund /7.S.; Dr. Jorge Manring, Toxicologist, NationalWildlife Federation; Mr. John Palmer, Program Coordinator forLatin America, Forestry Support Program, USAID/USDA; Mr.Timothy Resch, Progra:n Coordinator for Africa, Forestry SupportProgram, USAID/USDA; Mr. Mervin Stevens, Training Coordinator,Forestry Support Program, USAID/USDA; Dr. Gary Wetterberg,Program Manager, Forestry Support Program and formerly withU.S. National Park Service Office of International Affairs.The views expressed in this manual, however, are those of theauthors, and any errors are the authors' responsibility.

We also acknowledge the useful suggestions, critiques,materials and support we received from many colleagues andfriends: Lou Ann Dietz; Random DuBois; Filipinas Faina; JacobFillion; Marge Freese; Patrick Gregerson; Thomas Leverman;Edward McCrea; Richard Rowell, Helen Vukasin and Bill Weber.We are also most appreciative of Donna Frelick's editorialcomments and extreme patience.

Special thanks should be given to the many Paraguayans,particularly Hilario Moreno Ortiz, with whom we worked in theNational Forest Service and Ministry of Education. Throughtheir interest in conservation education and their willingnessto try out new ideas, we were able to learn a great deal. Wehave also benefitted from working with Marco Encalada Reyeswith Fundacion Natura in Ecuador, who is directing one of themost effective environmental education programs we have seen.

And finally, we thank our friends and families who haveendured "the book" far too long.

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I know of no more important and critical component of naturalresources planning and management than conservation education.And I know of no one more suited to deal with this vital topicthan Diane and David Wood.

Conservation education is the one component of resourcesmanagement that is at the same time the most responsible forsuccess or failure of a project and the most ignored. Thatseeming paradox is addressed by the Woods in the introductionto this practical and valuable book aimed at a wide range ofreaders.

The paradox should not be overlooked. For ary naturalresources management project to succeed it must have broadsupport and understanding. Requisite support does not comeabout simply because a development organization decides to funda project, because a developing country requests a team ofexperts to prepare a management plan. or because legislation ispassed to protect or conserve an area.

Broad support comes, simply, through understanding the need forsound conservation which leads to a real commitment. Thatprocess involves conservation education for politicians, forproject designers, for government officials affected byconservation, for funders, for resource managers, for thegeneral public and pecple locally affected by conservationactions.

Not only is conservation education ignored, it is most oftelignored by natural resources planners and managers who feeleducation is only an add-on luxury to be afforded by someoneelse. How wrong they are, as the myriad management documentscollecting dust on shelves, and land use conflicts initiated bypoorly planned development projects attest.

The Woods realize the importance of developing and designing aconservation education program by first listening, listening tothe people who are affected by and who can best describeenvironmental problems. They know, and emphasize in thismanual that listening is the key to effective communicationwhich is the key to an effective conservation educationprogram. They know this because they have a great deal ofexperience in developing countries at the ground-leveldesigning and implementing successful programs.

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I recall developing a Peace Corps assignment in Paraguayseveral years ago for one conservation education specialist fortwo years. Diane and David Wood were selected from amonghundreds of qualified applicants to the Smithsonian-Peace CorpsEnvironmental Program for the assignment. titer initiallysaying "But we only wanted one person for two years," Paraguayasked the Woods to remain for four years and to design,implement, and train others for conservation educationprograms. They successfully did. Their experiences inParaguay were only the beginning of what has led them now tobeing considered by many as two professionals who have thededication, the confidence of associates in developingcountries, and the sensitivity to listen, communicate, and thendesign effective conservation education programs.

I am pleased the Woods have shared these experiences with us inthis manual. The Woods have a proven track record, and thosereaders who follow this manual will greatly enhance theirchances for a successful program.

Dr. James A. Sherburne

Director of African OperationsAfrican Wildlife Foundation

TABU.; OF CONTENTS

A2OUT THE AUTHO-- i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

FOREWORD v

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1 - Getting Oriented 5

Guidelines.. 7

Summary 9

CHAPTER 2 - Assessing the Environmental Situation 11

Guidelines 12

Some Serious and Widespread EnvironmentalProblems in Developing Countries 14

Deforestation 14

Diagnosis 18

Soil Erosion 19

Diagnosis 21

Wildlife Depletion 23

Diagnosis 25

Misuse of Insecticides 27

Diagnosis 29

Abuse of Parks and Protected Areas 31

Diagnosis 33

Summary 35

CHAPTER 3 - Technical Solutions toEnvironmental Problems 37

Guidelines 38

Deforestation 40

Soil Erosion 42

Wildlife Depletion 43

Misuse of Insecticides 44

Abuse of Parks and Protected Areas 45

Summary 45

CHAPTER 4 - Identifying the Audience 47

Guidelines 48i

Summary 53

CHAPTER 5 - Identifying the Message 55

Guidelines 56

Summary 64

CHAPTER 6 - Selecting an Educational Strategy 67

Guidelines 69

Extension Programs 71

School Programst

74

Non-governmental Organizations 79

Mass Media 81

Special Printed Materials 85

Exhibits 86

Traveling Road Shows 88

Special Events 89

Audio-Visual Programs 91

Songs, Proverbs, Parables, Dance 92

Miscellaneous Materials 93

One-to-One Communication 94

Summary 95

U

CHAPTER 7 - Implementation ..... 99

Summary

100

CHAT:7TR 8 - Evaluation.........,

. 102

Guidelines.... .. ..

105

106

109

Bibliography 313,

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE

INTRODUCTION

Wherever there are humans, there is "development".Wherever there i- development, humans are interacting with

the environment. People satisfy their basic needs byharvesting and using the earth's natural resources--water,air, plants, fish, wildlife, and soil. In the process,however, people can severely harm or destroy the environmentthat supplies these resources. Too often, human activitydamages the environment's capacity to satisfy human demands;when this happens, the quality of people's lives inevitably

suffers.

No nation is free of environmental problems. Poverty,overpopulation, poor planning, and an overemphasis onshort-term economic gain without regard for its environmentalconsequences are only a few of the causes of environmental

degradation. Fortunately, environmental problems are nolonger considered inevitable. Throughout the world, nationalgovernments and private groups have begun to realize thatimproved management of their countries' natural resources

means an improvement in the lives of their citizens.

International aid agencies have also been increasinglyaddressing environmental considerations. Their assistancehas included designing environmentally sound developmentprojects, encouraging appropriate technology alternatives,funding technical training opportunities, conductingenvironmental assessments, and supporting environmental

research. In many cases, however, large donor agenciesneglect one crucial area: the application of communityeducation to environmental management. Frequently. education

is an afterthought in environmental projects, the shortsentence at the end of a series of recommendations, and afrill to be included only in the event of a surplus of

project funds.

This is a critical omission, as it turns out, becausecommunity education is vital to the success of environmental

management efforts. Rooms full of management plans andresearch results will do nothing unless they are taken off

the shelves and implemented. For this to happen, allcommunity members -- government leaders, farmers, the generalpublic, school children, citizens' organizations, -- must bemotivated to do their part in managing their environment

wisely. The most reliable way to obtain people's cooperationin this endeavor is to demonstrate how it will benefit them.This, in short, is the role of conservation education.

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Broadly defined, conservation education is any type ofeducation that brings about improved natural resourcemanagement and reduces environmental damage. It can includea wide range of subjects, especially within science andnatural resource management, and can be directed, formallyand informally, at a variety of target audiences. Itsobjectives are to 1) help people become aware of andappreciate the value of natural resources and the ecologicalprocesses that maintain them, 2) help people know andunderstand what threatens the well-being of theirenvironment, how the environment should be managed, and howthey can contribute to its improved management, and 3)motivate people to do what they can to improve environmentalmanagement. The task of meeting all three of theseobjectives distinguishes conservation education from othertypes of education and instruction. Teaching people toappreciate their environment is not effective conservationeducation if their behavior does not change also. Likewise,motivating people to act in an environmentally responsiblemanner does no good if people take the wrong actions out ofignorance.

Conservation education in this manual is alsodistinguished from technical training, not by subject matteras much as by target audience and purpose. Technicaltraining is a process of teaching present and futureprofessionals the skills they need to do their :?(Jas. Thus,teaching forestry to future forestry extension agents or soilmanagement to future agronomists is technical training.Teaching schoolchildren the value of planting trees orfarmers the value of soil conservation techniques isconservation education.

For conservation education to be effective, it must betied closely to the environmental and social characteristicsof the community itself. Each education program'sobjectives, information, communication methods, and audiencesmust be carefully identified if the program is to realize itsultimate goal -- improved environmental management.Arbitrarily designed efforts stand little chance of success.

The purpose of this manual is to help the reader designand implement conservation education programs that willeffective'.y bring about improved environmental management.Chapters describe how to gather environmental and social dataneeded for designing appropriate education programs, how tojudge the strengths and weaknesses of various conservationeducation methods, ranging from mass media to nature centers,and how to implement and evaluate educational efforts. Themanual is designed to supplement the Peace Corps ICE manual"Teaching Conservation in Developing Countries," which

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presents practical information on implementing various typesof conservation education projects. Each chapter ends with aseries of questions which the reader can use to ensure that

no important factors are overlooked. It is critical toselect an education method and to implement a program onlyafter running through the assessment procedure outlined in

the manual. Otherwise, the risk is great that inappropriatemethods will be used and that the potential of theconservation education efforts employing them will go

unrealized.

The manual is intended to be useful to a wide range ofpeople, whether they are working in small villages or largeministries in the capital city, and whether they are trained

in a particular environmental specialty or "generalists" withbroad backgrounds. Readers already trained as conservationeducators or with a background in natural resource managementmay already be familiar with the environmental problemsaddressed in Chapters 2 and 3, which are included especiallyfor "generalists"; however, they may find some of theinformation useful content for conservation education

programs. Environmental specialists should find the processpresented in the manual helpful in designing appropriateeducation programs.

Generalists, meanwhile, should not hesitate to consider arole in conservation education because of a lack of specifictechnical training. The resourceful generalist can oftenfind sufficient technical assistance; it is most important tohave an interest in working with people and a concern fortheir welfaLe.

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INTRODUCTION

ZtF. /l

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Getting Oriented

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will not initiate change unless they believe theywill benefit from it. Thus, to change how people treat theirenvironment, conservation education programs must firstconsider what people want and need from the environment. Theconservation educator must begin with the environmentalinterests and concerns the people themselves express.

The conservation educator needs to know other thingsabout the people he is working with, as well. To communicateinformation, he has to know how people communicate and how

they best receive .-.ew information. To determine hisaudience, he has to know not only who is affecting theenvironment, but who affects those people affecting theenvironment, e.g. political leaderr and respected communitycitizens. To be convincing, he has to establish trust, so he

has to be familiar with local customs, beliefs, likes, and

dislikes. His role has to be accepted by the community*.

*Community in this manual refers to both the physical settingand the people with whom the conservation educator will beworking. A community, then, can be a group of families, asmall village, a region, or even an entire country.

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In short, the conservation educator needs to becomeacquainted with the people he will be working with, and theyneed to become acquainted with him. The educator, therefore,needs to begin his task not with a preconceived solution andimplementation plan, but with the intention to learn all hecan about his community and to develop programs workingclosely with it that are appropriate to its needs. Thiscannot be done overnight; it requires sensitivity, curiosity,patience, a willingness to listen, and above all, acommitment to helping people help themselves.

This point is emphasized in practically all developmentliterature, yet it is constantly overlooked. Often,development workers neglect to take into consideration therelevant social, political, and environmental factors thataffect people's behavior. Consider, for example, the storyof the project to provide a community in Senegal with a cashcrop. Outside development workers chose cashew trees withoutasking the villagers which trees they preferred. Theyoverlooked the village belief that cashews were inhabited byghosts. The unfortunate consequence: a mysterious brushfire destroyed the cashew plantation (Hoskins 1979). Thiscostly mistake could have been avoided if the developmentworkers had made the effort to understand the people theywere intending to help. Technical solutions should always bedeveloped with as much input as possible from the people whowill be implementing them.

Some development workers feel they do not have time toget to know their communities before getting started on aproject. They feel a need to "produce" right away to provethey are successful and to establish credibility in thecommunity. More often than not, this feeling isself-imposed, a pressure carried over from "western" cultureswhere tangible results equal success. In many developingcountries such activities as socializing and making friendsare an integral part of development work. It is the only wayto learn those community customs, beliefs and values thatultimately influence project design. The time spent gettingto know and understand people can be crucial in thedevelopment of successful projects. Programs conceived andimplemented in haste usually result in failure.

Because guidelines for learning about communities arealready well presented in other development manuals, thischapter will only sketch briefly some aspects of thisprocess. For further information, the reader is urged toconsult some of the sources listed in the bibliography.

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GUIDELINES

Being An Outsider

Anyone who arrives in a community with the purpose of

effecting change is bound to be regarded as an outsider.Indeed, even a country native can be considered an outsiderin communities other than her own if she is bringing in newideas or approaches. Some people may feel threatened bythese new ideas and the outsiders that espouse them. Thefirst job for the conservation educator, then, is toestablish trust in the community.

Relying On A Counterpart

An outsider can benefit enormously from an "insider", acounterpart who can help the educator understand and workeffectively within the community and, perhaps, carry on theeducator's work after she is gone. A counterpart can oftenbe most helpful by telling the educator honestly and reliablyhow she is perceived by the community and when she ismisperceiving a situation.

The individual officially designated as a counterpart maynot always satisfy all of these requirements, so a network ofinformal counterparts can also be helpful. These can benext-door neighbors, friends, fellow workers, or anyindividuals who are able to view their own culture somewhatobjectively. With only one counterpart, the chances ofinformation being misinterpreted are greater. .A network ofinformal counterparts with a variety of viewpoints can help

the educator gain a more comprehensive understanding of thecommunity.

Assessing the Working Environment

Only by evaluating the working environment can theeducator determine what she can do within it and how quicklyshe can begin. What is the pace of work in thisenvironment? How does the organization to which she isassigned view her? Is it cautious or enthusiastic about herpresence; does it welcome, re-ent, or not really care one wayor the other about it? Does the organization have a firmidea of what it expects from her or does it hope she willdefine her own role? Does it expect her to come up with newideas or simply to follow established agency procedures?Does her perception of her job differ from that of the

organization?

Assessing the Social Environment

The conservation educator cannot expect to changepeople's behavior without an understanding of the socialcontext in which they live. What are their economic,

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political, social, religious, and health concerns? Are thereinfluential local religions, beliefs, superstitions, andtaboos? How do people in this community react to change?Try to learn why other community programs have succeeded orfailed. What led people to experiment and adopt newtechniques?

It is also important to learn who makes and influencesdecisions in the community and who influences what communityresidents do. These people may be eventual targets for theconservation education program or they may prove to beeffective counterparts. Which organizations and individualshave strong influence because of their wealth, position,social status, intelligence, technical ability, farmingsuccess, or political affiliation? Do community factions andfrictions exist?

How do people receive new information and ideas in thecommunity, both formally and informally? What are thecommunication roles of social clubs, churches, communitysquares and plazas, markets, extension agencies, andgovernment offices? How are newspapers, radio, andtelevision used? Are there organizations and individualsthat have a strong influence on communication patternsbecause of their wealth, social status, tradition, etc.?

Finding Out About Predecessors

The first development worker in the community mayencounter anything from wide open enthusiasm to coldskepticism. A conservation educator following in thefootsteps of another worker from "outside", however, willalmost certainly be viewed in light of the community'sfeelings about that worker. Comparisons will be inevitable.Tolerate them as much as possible, and, more importantly, trynot to be territorial. It is a common tendency indevelopment workers to want to see results from their ownefforts. Nonetheless, the wheel need not be reinvented; itis costly to developing communities and breaks down thecontinuity that can bring about meaningful change. Try asmuch as possible to capitalize on what has already beendone.

The most difficult situation is following developmentworkers who have left behind a negative feeling. Theeducator's presence may be resented through no fault of hisown, and he may have a difficult time being accepted by thecommunity. This situation is frustrating as precious timemay have to be spent creating receptivity for developmentworkers in general. In the time available the educator mayonly be able to pave the way for someone else to follow withspecific project ideas.

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Keeping Accurate Records

It is critical to keep accurate and complete records thatdetail important social, political, and technical informationso that development workers who follow can build effectivelyon what has already been learned and accomplished. It is awaste of time for successors to have to start over every twoyears or so.

SUMMARY

Each development worker must determine his own style forworking with, and getting to know, people from a differentculture. Whatever the approach, however, certain questionsneed to be answered in order to design effective conservationeducation programs:

o WHAT ARE PEOPLE"S MAIN INTERESTS AND CONCERNS?

o WHAT ARE SOME WIDESPREAD AND SIGNIFICANT BELIEFS,SUPERSTITIONS, AND TABOOS?

o WHAT ARE SOME IMPORTANT CUSTOMS THAT SEPARATECOMMUNITY RESIDENTS FROM "OUTSIDERS"?

o HOW DO PEOPLE REACT TO NEW IDEAS?

o HOW IS INFORMATION COMMUNICATED?

o Informally

o In the Workplace

o HOW ARE DECISIONS MADE?

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o Informally.

o In the Workplace

o WHO ARE THE COMMUNITY LEADERS?

o Social

o Political

o WHAT ARE PEOPLE'S ATTITUDES TOWARD YOU?

o HOW DOES YOUR HOST AGENCY VIEW YOUR ROLE?

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INTRODUCTION

r/zVz,Assessing the

Environmental Situation

A conservation educator in a developing country canexpect to find far more things to do than there is time for.There is no lack of environmental problems or educationalstrategies to deal with them. But with limited time andmaterial resources, a conserva'ion educator will not be ableto address every possible environmental subject. Prioritieswill need to be set: Should people he taught how to planttrees or how to seed birds? is the first order of businessgetting people to plow on the contour or to pick up communitylitter? Should people first know now to use an insecticideproperly, or should they first learn basic ecologicalprinciples? At some point, certain issues will have to bechosen over others. The most effective way to approach thedilemma is to choose what to do based on sound criteria, noton personal preference.

There are any number of reasons to carry out a particularconservation education strategy--the host agency may requestit, the educator may be experienced with it, or it may beeasy to implement. The best reason to choose a specificapproach, however, is because it has the best chance ofimproving environmental management. If the educator enjoysany flexibility in what can be done, then the approach thathas the maximum positive environmental impact should bechosen.

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Given this criterion, the first step in developing a

conservation education program should be to identify the mostpressing environmental problems that need addressing. Aprogram that treats a relatively inconsequential problem willhave less impact than if it focuses on an important one.This first step is a critical one, since it sets thedirection of the education program. If the direction chosenis not the best one, it can be very difficAt to changecourses and start again.

Surprisingly, this stage is the one most neglected byconservation educators. It is easiest to implement educationprograms that teach general ecology or nature appreciationwithout discussing specific environmental problems. Withsome minor adjustments, the same program can be usedworldwide with only a minimum of community-based information,and people may very well enjoy it. But the priority for manydeveloping countries is not environmental attitudes, butenvironmental results. More than anything, they needsolutions to grave environmental problems as soon aspossible. Thus, conservation educators in developingsituations have to remember that people's attitudes andawareness are the means to the end, not the end in itself.The final test of a conservation education effort is itsenvironmental impact.

To be effective, conservation educators must first giveserious consideration to assessing the environmental problemsir their communities before beginning to teach. Not allactions altering the environment actually cause environmentalproblems. People need to harvest timber and wildlife, clearland for agriculture, divert waterways for irrigation, andestablish factories which sometimes pollute air and water.Problems arise, however, when these activities reduce theenvironment's ability to provide for current and futuregenerations' needs. The conservation educator has todetermine which actions are actually causing environmentalproblems. To design appropriate programs the educator mustunderstand the environmental problem--why it has occurred,its causes and effects, and what needs to be done to solveit. The following guidelines offer general suggestions onhow to approach this challenge.

GUIDELINES

There are three basic ways to gather the informationneeded to evaluate the community environmencal situation: 1)firsthand field observations, 2) interviews, and 3) a reviewof the literature. Involving counterparts and other peoplefrom the community in these activities increases thelikelihood of making an accurate environmental assessment.

Observations

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Begin by looking at how the local environment is beingmanaged. Are people plowing up and down hills, cutting downforests, recklessly using pesticides, or trafficking inwildlife species in danger of becoming extinct? Always carrya notebook for recording impressions and noting the locationswhere the environment is being mismanaged. Observing what ishappening in the community can indicate which resourcemanagement problems might be serious enough to warrant theattention of a conservation education program. Especiallyfor those who are not trained envirc..mental specialists,however, observations need to be z,upplemented by theinformation that local people can provide.

Interviews

Two types of people can be instrumental in identifyingenvironmental problems. First, trained natural resourcespecialists may be familiar with the community's environ-mental problems and what should be done about them. In somecommunities, these specialists may be found in localagricultural and forestry extension offices or regionalagricultural schools; in the capital city, they may belocated in agriculture and natural resource ministries and inuniversities. Many international aid organizations 'govern-ment and nongovernment) also have natural resource managementexperts on their incountry staffs. The Peace Corps ICEManual, Resources for Development, provides lists of suchorganizations and how to contact them.

Community members can also be of considerable help inidentifying problems. These people may not be resourcemanagement specialists, but they may well have notedlong-term trends that reflect environmental problems. Aretrees, fish, wildlife, or medicinal plants more difficult tofind now than previously? Has agricultural productiondecreased, does the stream flood more frequently, have peopleonce farmed land now given over to weeds and brush, or havepeople been getting sick more since everyone started using anew insecticide? The development worker, in a community foronly a short time, needs to learn some local environmentaland social history. Community residents are usually the bestsource of this information. Try, however, to interviewseveral people regarding a particular environmental situationand always include a counterpart. People tend to tellinterviewers what they think the interviewer wants to heat.

Literature Review

Literature is a third source of environmentalinformation. Appropriate national institutions andinternational organizations working incountry may havetechnical reports on relevant environmental subjects.

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Headquarter offices of many international organizations alsohave relevant written information, much of which is free onrequest. Daily and weekly newspapers can also be quiteuseful, covering newly-passed forestry laws, theestablishment of national parks, plans for oil eploration,flooding problems, and trends in agriculture, forestry, andfisheries. Eventually, such information can be usefullyincorporated in conservation education programs, as well vsbeing a means of identifying the proper focus of a program.

The following section describes some of the mostimportant and widespread environmental issues confrontingdeveloping countries today, and how to detect their presenceand significance. This description may be particularlyuseful for readers not versed in environmental management. indevelopirg countries.

SOME SERIOUS AND WIDESPREAD ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMSIN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

DEFORESTATION

In developing countries, forests ranging from lushtropical jungles to desert scrub provide people with a widerange of valuable products. The vast majority of the peopleLiving in these countries depend upon wood for their cookingand heating fuel; woody plants also provide them with lumber;fruit, nuts, and other foods; forest animals for meat andhides; fodder for domestic stock; plant fibers; medicinalplants and other products. Additionally, forests nreventsoil erosion and help maintain reliable quantities _f cleanwater in lakes and streams. They also provide recreationalopportunities and scenic beauty, many forests being populartourist attractions.

Unfortunately, throughout the developing world, forestland is being cleared indiscriminately and at a pace far toorapid for the forests to sustain. Deforestation thecutting and removal of trees, shrubs and other woody plants -in itself is not harmful if it is carefully controlled bypeople skilled in forest management. People need to cuttrees for the wide varietj of products they provide and tomake land available for agriculture and human settlement.However, uncontrolled deforestation can be very destructiveleading to both the disappearance of valued forest productsand the disruption of ecological processes vital to humansand their environment.

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Disappearance of Valued Forest Products

People in developing countries are cutting down forestsand trees far faster than the :::lants can grow back. Eachyear 11.3 million hectares of forests disappear; by the year2000, the forests of developing countries are lkely toshrink by 40 percent. (Smith, 1981) If this continues,people will inevitably experience drastic shortages of theforest resources they depend on and may ultimately lose themaltogeth5tr. Already, losses of forest resources are creatingenormous human and ecological problems.

Most spectacular has been a dramatic decrease in fuelwoodsupplies. Today, a tremendous fuelwood shortage exists inmany parts of the world, including the Himalayas, southeastAsia, the. Caribbean, Central America, the South AmericanAndes, and much of Africa. Over 90 percept of the people indeveloping countries depend on fuelwood as their chief sourceof fuel. (World Bank, 1978) Shortages force them to spendever-increasing amourts of time searching for wood and totake every branch within reach. In some places, not a treeor bush is left standing. Where wood fuel has been severelydepleted people resort to alternatives such as animal dung.Dung is a valuable agricultural fertilizer; when it is burnedrather than plowed into the soil agricultural productivitysuffers.

The Satal of Africn serves as an example of what ranhappen during extreme cases of deforestation. There,fuelwood harvesting has completely eliminated large expansesof woody growth, resultirg in a dramatic expansion of theSahara Desert. For years it was possible for the 300,000inhauitants of Bamako, Mali to satisfy their fuelwood needsfrom forests less than 50 kilometers away from the city. By1975, this distance had increased to 100 kilometers, and itis predicted that by 1990 Bamako's fuelwood needs willrequire over 100,000 hectares of new forest plantations.(World Bank, 1978)

The rapid deforestation of tropical rain forests, inparticular, is threatening the genetic diversity of theplanet. Tropical rain forests are the most complexterrestrial environments on earth. They contain an estimatedhalf of all of the plants and animals on earth, many of whichhave unknown potential for medicine, agricultul:e andindustry. The International Union for the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources (IUCN) reports in the WorldConservatio Strategy that more than 40 percent of themedica) prescriptions in the United States contain d drug ofnatural origin, yet far less than one percent of the speciesin tropical rain forests have been scientifically studied fortheir potential value to humans. At the rate at whichtropical forests are disappearing, we may very well lose such

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plants before realizing their potential value. We may loseuntapped food sources or even cures for cancer.

With tropical deforestation, we also are witnessing thedisappearance of another invaluable resource: the indigenouspeople who have been a part of the forests for centuries.These people have been able to survive because of a vastknowledge of the plants, animals, and ecological processes oftheir environment, a knowledge which western culture is justbeginning to acquire. Now roads, colonization schemes, andother kinds of forest development are destroying theenvironments of these people, forcing them to abandon theirtraditional ways of life. Cultures which have developed overcenturies are disappearing, along with the unique knowledgethey possess.

Disruption of Ecological Processes

A growing human population needs to continually clearland for agriculture and settlements, unless it can increaseproduction by improving the management of farmland already incultivation. Unfortunately, however, the conditions in manytropical areas prohibit productive long-term agriculture.Indiscriminate clearing and planting, therefore, often resultin ruined land and people as bad or worse off than before.

The prevalent: method of small -scale agriculture intropical rain forest areas is "shifting agriculture." Forcenturies, people have employed this process, which requiresclearing small areas of forest and burning off vegetation andplant litter. This not only makes room for crops, but alsoreleases nutrients from the organic material in thesurprisingly sterile soil. Typically, the land is onlyagriculturally productive for a few years. After this time,insect pests often move in, the nutrients in the thin topsoiland plant litter are used up, and the land begins to requirelarge amounts of insecticide and fertilizer to grow crops.The small-scale farmer frequently cannot afford either, so hemust abandon the plot and clear another area of forest. If

an area's population is sufficiently low to allow clearedareas to lie fallow for at least 10 years, the soil fertilitycan often be restored sufficiently to allow repeatedcultivation. Unfortunately, increasing populations in mostdeveloping nations have increased the demand for arableland. The land is not permitted to lie fallow long enough torestore its productivity. Serious degradation of theoverworked land results.

Government policies often encourage the migration oflandless peasants into tropical forests. Throughout thedeveloping world, poor people need land and a way of making aliving, and establishing colonies on forest land is believedto provide both. Some countries, to strengthen claims of

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sovereignty, also promote settlement in remote areas neardisputed national borders.

Many also encourage forest destruction unintentionally.Whenever a new road is built through the forest, largenumbers of landless citizens soon follow. This would not be

problem if the land could support these human populations.Usually, however, the demands placed on the land lead to a

deterioration in soil productivity, and the peasants mustmove further into the forest to find fertile land. Thecountry, meanwhile, has lost forest which could have providedfor citizens' needs indefinitely with proper management.

Careless removal of forests also severely damages watersupplies. Rain falling upon a forest strikes leaves,branches, and leaf litter, which reduce the force of theraindrops before they ultimately encounter soil. Forest soilis made porous by innumerable microorganisms and plant rootsand rootlets. It easily absorbs the rain, which filtersslowly through it before eventually entering surfacewaterways, like lakes and streams, as groundwater. Thisprocess continually replenishes waterways and preventsextreme cycles of overabundance (flooding) and scarcity(drought). What is more, the forest plants hold the soil inplace, leaving the water clean and Err,e of eroded soil.

When the forest cover is removed, the situation changes.Nothing is left to break the fall of the rain before it hitsthe soil. The increased momentum, combined with the absenceof roots and plant cover, is more than sufficient to dislodgesoil and wash it away. All of the microorganisms, roots, andother forest components keeping the soil porous disappearalong with the trees. Thus the rain does not soak into theground; instead all of it rushes at once down the slopes intothe surface water. Watersheds (areas of ground over whichrainfall flows into bodies of surface water) become wildlyerratic in the amount of water they contain. Sometimesfields and villages are flooded, sometimes streams dwindle totrickles, because no water reserves are maintained to enterthe system gradually through the groundwater. India, forexample, suffers from severe flooding as a result ofdeforestation in the Himalayas of Nepal. Without forestcover, the water rushes down the steep mountain slopes to thelowland villages, killing both livestock and people anddestroying homes and farms. (Grainger, 1984)

Along with the loss of dependable water supplies,deforestation causes massive soil erosion. As water rushesdown hillsides, it takes unprotected soil with it, leavinglandscapes barren, sterile, and incapable of supporting plantlife. Often the land becomes totally useless, and neithertrees nor agricultural crops can grow. In developingcountries such loss of precious land can cause great humansuffering.

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Diagnosing Forestry Problems

Ta determine if forest mismanagement or excessivedeforestation are occuring in his site, the developmentworker can note the following:

° Which forest resources are being harvested--trees,medicinal plants, fruit and nuts, plant fibers, forestanimals? Which products are sold; which ones arereserved for personal use? Is there an effort tocontrol the rate at which these resources are beingharvested? Do residents note whether any exploitedresources are decreasing? Are there wild animals ormedicinal plants which are no longer harvested becauseof lack of availability?

° What is the official forest management policy in thecountry? To what extent is it effective or beingimplemented? [Check the government forestry offices,and any international agencies which might know, suchas the Food and Agricultural Organization of theUnited Nations (FAO) or USAID.] To what extent havepeople bothered to study the forests in the site todetermine the best management practices for them? Towhat extent are forestry use la,.'s known and enforced?

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O What do international development agencies like FAO,the World Bank, and USAID believe the forestmanagement problems are in the country? Do they havefigures or perhaps satellite photographs that detailthe reduction of the country's forests?

O Where do people obtain firewood? Do the people in thecommuaity pay for wood; if so, is it becoming scarcerand more expensive? Have people resorted to usingless efficient fuels like corn stalks or animal dung?Or, have they had to begin using expensive keroseneand gas where they once used wood? Often the fieldstaff of private development organizations like CARE,OXFAM and Save the Children have answers to thesequestions.

O Have hillsides been stripped of woody vegetation? Dopeople living on this land note a decrease i-.. itsproductivity? Is this land used at all? Is soilerosion visible; do you note gullies, retreatingdenuded streambanks, and, during rainstorms, increasedsiltation in waterways?

O In dry or flat sites, do you note dust storms andother signs of wind erosion in areas where the landhas been cleared of woody vegetation?

O In tropical areas where slash and burn agriculture isoccurring, do the farm'rs note whether theproductivity of their land is maintaining itself ordecreasing? Do they have to use increasing amounts offertilizer and insecticide? Inquire into the historyof abandoned plots and ask residents to estimate theaverage amount of time a farm plot can be profitablyexploited. How much forest has been cut? How muchcleared land is still productive? Has any land beenallowed to rejuvenate into forest? If so, how longdid it take?

SOIL EROSION

Soil is essential to human welfare because virtually allterrestrial plants depend on it for nutrients and physicalsupport. Without fertile soil, agriculture fails and peoplecannot produce enough food. It can take a century or morefor nature to form an inch of good topsoil; yet, tragically,soil is considered throughout the world to be something thatwill always be available, regardless of how people treat it.In fact, whenever people clear forests, plant crops, or grazelivestock they are likely to cause fertile topsoil to becarried off by wind and rainwater. This soil loss is callederosion.

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Soil erosion can cause u,...._ .....,olems besides famine.When soil washes into streams, it turns the water murky,reducing its usefulness for drinking or bathing. Floodsincrease in both frequency and severity (see page 15),reservoirs fill up with sediment, and costly hydroelectricprojects are ruined. In dry areas, wind erosion can createvast dust storms and even cause sand dunes to grow andadvance across the land, threatening agricultural land andeven towns and cities.

Wind erosion is found where the soil is relatively dryand where the wind can blow unimpeded across the soil. Watererosion can occur everywhere. Serious water erosion cancarve gullies in fields, and some can grow to dramatic size.On newly-cleared or gradually sloping lands, however, erodingwater flow may be distributed evenly across hillsides, notconcentrating in hills and gullies. This is called sheeterosion, and although it is often difficult to perceive itcan carry off significant amounts of soil.

Erosion occurs e-;erywhere, even in places unaltered byhuman activity. Under natural conditions, however, the rateof soil formation equals or exceeds the rate of soil erosion,so no net soil loss occurs. Problems arise, however, whenhumans accelerate the rate of erosion. They do this whenthey 1) clear plants from soil, leaving it unprotected fromwind and water, and 2) overgraze livestock so that plants dieand ground gets trampled. As explained in the deforestationsection, pages 15-16, plant roots and plant litter, such asdead leaves, are instrumental in keeping soil in place.Consequently, when plants are removed, rain and wind canrapidly dislodge soil particles and carry them off. In NorthAfrica, overgrazing and overharvesting of firewood have beenso severe that the Sahara Desert has been expanding as aresult, replacing grazing and agricultural land with rock andsand.

Soil erosion occurs in developed countries, but it isparticularly severe and widespread in developing situations.This is because population and environmental pressures indeveloping countries force farmers to abuse land and to moveonto land unsuitable for agriculture and vulnerable toerosion.

Unfortunately, much of the soil in tropical areas becomesincapable of supporting agriculture after only a few years.The soil loses its fertility, while high concentrations ofagricultural crops attract outbreaks of insect pests.Farmers can combat these threats with fertilizer andinsecticides, but many cannot afford what they need. And so,they continually move on, clearing new land while abandoningto nature obsolete used land. If left alone for enough time,this land can eventually recover its productivity.

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Today, however, because populations in most developingcountries are expanding rapidly, it is becoming more and moredifficult to find unused land suitable for agriculture.Increasingly, farmers are forced to clear land on hillsidesand other lands that are not only unproductive but severelyprone to soil erosion as well. increasing human populationsalso contribute to wind erosion in arid zones where nomadicgrazing occurs. More people means more livestock andincreased grazing pressure. Accelerated wind erosion isusually the result.

Thus, erosion in developing countries is becoming moreand more severe, while available productive land isdiminishing. And yet, erosion can be effectively reduced byemploying simple and often inexpensive measures, and farmersneed to learn how to implement them and why. In the UnitedStates, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Soil ConservationService has extension agents across the country ready toadvise farmers on soil erosion control. Few developingcountries, however, have the funds or personnel available forsimilar soil education programs. Thus, the developmentworker will often discover a critical need for educationprograms that encourage soil conservation. Given theimportance of soil to human welfare, it is hard to imagine amore worthwhile pursuit than meeting this need.

Diagnosing Soil Problems

Soil erosion is extremely common and wiaespread; thedevelopment worker should always watch for it wherever landhas been cleared without accompanying erosion preventionmeasures. The Peace Corps ICE "Appropriate Technologies forDevelopment Manuals" on Conservation of Soil and Water, andReforestation for Arid Lands provide useful information onsoil erosion and its diagnosis. Note the following:

o Are people farming on sloping land without employingsoil conservation techniques (see Chapter 3, page42)? Are they plowing up and down slopes (whichencourages soil to wash away downhill) or across them(which helps hold soil in place)? Are there rills inthe soil small channels that are created by rainfallflowing downhill? Or, are there gullies, rills solarge and deep that people cannot plow over them?Gullies are sure indicators of severe soil erosion,and some are so large they have actually become smallvalleys.

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gully

rill

o Does muddy water enter streams after storms (a sign ofsheet erosion)?

o Are trees being cut, or is grass being plowed under,leaving the soil unprotected from erosion? Does thecommunity have bare slopes dissected by rills andgullies?

o In arid or semi-arid locations, are there areas withlittle or no vegetation where wind is blowing thesoil? Are there advancing sand dunes? Has the soilaround clumps of vegetation blown away, leavinghummocks and pedestals of soil capped with vegetation?

o Are grasslands in the area so heavily grazed bylivestock that considerable amounts of land areuncovered by vegetation? Are there signs of erosioncaused by water or wind in the fields? If livestockis grazinc in forests, have the animals stripped theground of low-growing Plants?

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o Where do soil scientists say the country's mostserious soil erosion problems exist? Are theyoccurring in your area? Check with extension agents,at the national university and agricultural schools,at the Ministry of Agriculture, and at the offices ofinternational aid agencies.

o Are any agricultural or conservation personnel helpingfarmers with soil conservation techniques? What hasbeen the official response to the country's soilerosion problems at both headquarters and field level?

WILDLIFE DEPLETION

Wildlife provides people with more than just protein:valuable wildlife products include furs and skins, primatesfor medical research, potential domestic animals, and specialproducts such as ivory carvings and tortoiseshell ornaments.("Wildlife" also includes wild plants which are also valuablein providing thatch for shelter, fiber for clothing andweaving, medicines and food. However, in this manual, thistype of "wildlife" is discussed under forestry.) Theseresources benefit a broad range of people. Those who harvestwildlife products can either use or sell them; the"middlemen" who transport, process, and sell these productsalso benefit, as do the people who purchase them.

But wildlife is valuable even when it is not consumed orsold. The ecological importance of wildlife isincalculable. Among other things, wildlife species pollinateplants (important pollinators include, besides insects,various birds, bats, and even oppossums and monkeys), controlpests such as insects and rodents, fertilize and aerate soil,and disperse seeds. Thus humans, by removing too manyanimals, can seriously disrupt the balance of nature andcause ecological, and frequently economic, havoc'.Additionally, many types of wildlife, such as big gamemammals, sea turtles, and colorful birds, serve as populartourist attractions. They are integral in myth, religion,and art and are considered important components of nationalheritage and tradition. (Prescott-Allen, 1982)

Wildlife Management Problems

The health of a wildlife population is closely tied tothat of the environment. Thus when humans mistreat theenvironment, wildlife suffers. When forests are destroyed,watersheds are clogged with eroded soil, or the environmentis contaminated with poisons, fish and wildlife lose thefood, clean water and shelter they need. Sound environmentalmanagement, therefore, benefits wildlife which depends on ahealthy environment to survive.

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Another threat also confronts wildlife overexploi-tation. Paradoxically, despite wildlife's value, developingcountries spend little effort in managing it. Rather, thetendency is to harvest as many wild animals as possible,regardless of the effect on the resource. In fact, wildlife,like the forest itself, needs to be managed on a sustainedyield basis. That is, only a certain number of animalsshould be taken, so that enough animals remain to reproduceand maintain the population. Failure to control harvestrates severely threatens the future of wildlife resources.

There are many reasons why intensive and uncontrolledhunting pressure, rather than sound wildlife management, istypical of developing countries. First, there is usually alack both of ecological information about wildlife and ofpeople trained to obtain it. To be able to harvest theproper number of animals from a wildlife population, it isnecessary to know many factors: What are the animal's food,water, and shelter requirements? How many individuals canthe environment support? When and how fast does the animalreproduce? Obtaining this information requires trainedbiolo)ists and the funds and administrative support to backthem up. All are typically in short supply in developingcountries.

Secondly, people usually feel a great deal of pressure toharvest wildlife at high rates for immediate gain. For some,the issue is as simple as either killing wildlife or goinghungry; for others, restricting a harvest can meansubstantial income loss. Many people living along rivers,for example, depend entirely upon the sale of fish for income.

This pressure to take as many animals as possible cansometimes lead to harvesting methods that excessively damagewildlife populations. For example, harvesting fish withdynamite is effective, but leaves few fish to reproduce,damages the environment, and needlessly kills other speciesthat may be of indirect benefit. Thus, in the long run,dynamite can reduce fish harvests.

it is, of course, in people's long-term interest tomaintain healthy populations of the wildlife they harvest.But, the problem is that wild animals are common property.Thus if one person limits his harvest of animals, there is noguarantee that others will not move in and take the animalsthemselves. The person restraining himself has suffered, butwildlife numbers remain the same. Controlling everyone'sharvest is required, for the sake of the community'slong-range interest, but more is needed than people'sunderstanding and cooperation. Also required are data onwhich to base catch quotas and methods, and effective lawsand enforcement. These are often insufficient in developingcot ntries.

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Sometimes the commercial value of a wild animal is sogreat that people go to great lengths to catch it. Suchanimals include spotted cats like jaguar, leopard, andcheetah that are hunted for their fur; crocodiles for theirskins; sea turtles for their shells; primates for medicalresearch; rhinoceri for their horns, and large and colorfulparrots to serve as pets. The rarer the animal, the higherthe price, and the harder people try to find it. Many ofthese highly-sought animals are in danger of becomingextinct. This problem is as much a result of the demand inconsumer countries as it is of inadequate wildlife managementin developing ones.

In short, wildlife in most developing countries is almostinvariably managed inadequately, if at all yet, in manysituations, the continued health of wildlife populations iscritical to people's well-being. For this reason, thedevelopment worker can often justify devoting some attentionto encouraging sound wildlife management.

Diagnosing Wildlife Problems

Understanding whether there is a wildlife managementproblem in a particular area largely depends on determiningwhether the numbers of wildlife are declining because ofhuman actions and whether this disappearance threatens thesurvival of the resource or the welfare of the people whodepend on it. This can be difficult to determine, becauselow numbers of fish and animals do not necessarily mean thata problem exists. Some environments naturally support fewanimals; some animals are naturally rare or secretive. Iffishermen in the community are bringing in what seems likemeager catches, for example, overfishing is not necessarilythe cause.

A trained wildlife ecologist may be able to assess theenvironment, determine how many animals it can support zndhow many it does, and reach some conclusions. In the absenceof technical expertise, however, other evidence must berelied upon.

° What are the population trends for fish and wildlifein the community? Ask community residents, huntersand fishermen, and, if available, wildlife biologistswhether they have noticed a significant decline in thenumbers of fish and wildlife. If so, do they have anyideas about the causes? Have people noted an increasein access to hunting and fishing areas, or increaseddeforestation, soil erosion, and use of insecticides?Is the decline in wildlife numbers causing anyhardship for community residents? Are hunters havingto travel farther to satisfy their needs?

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Is there any attempt to manage fish and wildlife in thecommunity? Has anyone from the country's university orwildlife agency, or from a foreign institution, developeda management program or rLzommendations, or attemptedany wildlife research which could be used in amanagement program?

Does the country have any laws regulating wildlifeharvest? If so, are they enforced? Some countries, inan effort to control the taking of wildlife in theabsence of adequate management data, pass laws whichforbid practically all hunting. Such laws arefrequently ignored.

Has the country signed the Convention on InternationalTrade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna(CITES) which regulates worldwide traffic of animalproducts and prohibits trade in products derived fromendangered species? If so, are regulations beingenforced? Are the country wildlife and law enforcementagencies aware of the regulations? Can one easilypurchase such endangered-species products as sea turtleshells, spotted cat furs, and elephant ivory in curioshops?

o Are people in the community harvesting endangered species?

What kinds of wild flora and fauna are valuable to peoplein the community?

Do people in the community harvest fish with dynamite orpoison?

If the community is experiencing severe deforestation,massive soil erosion and watershed siltation, or thereckless use of insecticides, it is likely that fish andwildlife are being adversely affected.

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MISUSE OF INSECTICIDES

Insect pests are a common problem for farmers throughoutthe world. Uncontrolled, they can produce severe crop loss,something very few farmers in developing countries canafford. For this reason, farmers usually choose to controlinsects with chemical insecticides if they can pay for them.However, using these chemicals carelessly can lead to serioushuman health and environmental problems.

Insecticides are dangerous poisons, toxic not only toinsects but to humans and other creatures as well. Yet indeveloping countries these chemicals are often used andstored without regard to safety precautions. This can happenfor several reasons. Frequently pesticide directions andprecautionary labels are not translated into appropriatelanguages; when they are, farmers with low levels of literacyoften cannot read them. Agricultural extension agents whocan train farmers in insecticide use are often few and farbetween and many themselves lack adequate knowledge of safeand effective insecticide use in a particular area. In anyevent, the farmer can often obtain insecticiJes over thecounter at the local market or drug store and never encounteran agricultural agent.

Insecticide poisoning can occur when the chemicals areingested through the nose and mouth or absorbed through theskin. The immediate symptoms of mild organophosphatepoisoning resemble flu or head stress headache, nausea,cramps, and excessive perspiration. Large doses of somechemicals can be fatal, while some pesticides can promotecancer, as well as disease of the liver, the kidney, and thenervous system.

Most obviously, poisoning occurs when pesticides aresprayed near people. But poisoning can also occur days afteran insecticide has been applied, because residues can remainin the air and on the vegetation. Insecticides can also washuff the fields during rainstorms and enter the surface waterthat people drink and bathe in. Additionally, people caninhale oi swallow insecticides if they have not cleaned upproperly after using the chemicals or if empty pesticidecontainers are used to hold food or water.

Environmental Hazards

While appearing to offer a straightforward solution toinsect damage, insecticides can also drastically disrupt theenvironment in several ways.

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Many insecticides eliminate both beneficial and harmfulorganisms. Thus they not only affect injurious insects, butalso insects that pollinate trees and crops, serve as foodfor fish, birds and other animals; recycle soil nutrients andprey on crop-eating insects themselves. With beneficialinsects gone, agricultural conditions may actuallydeteriorate in the long run.

Many chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, such as DDT,are widely used because they are cheap and last a long time,as they do not break down, but remain intact in theenvironment for years. Rainfall runoff can wash theseinsecticides from fields into surface water, where theyaccumulate in mud, or enter the food chain as they areabsorbed and ingested by aquatic microorganisms. Largeranimals eat these animals and are eaten, in turn, by stilllarger ones until the process ends with a large bird, a fish,or a human at the end of the "food chain". These hardinsecticides, meanwhile, have been passed along up the foodchain as well, higher concentrations accumulating at everystop. As a result, tile predators at the top of the foodchain, like humans, end up with the highest concentrations ofthese insecticides in their bodies.

Large concentrations of some hard insecticides in bodytissues can kill animals outright or make them incapable ofreproducing. In humans, some of these insecticides aresuspected of causing cancer, liver problems, and otherdiseases. Because of the serious environmental and healthimpact of chlorinated hydrocarbons, the United States hasbanned or severely restricted the use of most of them. Yet,the development worker may frequently encounter them incountries which lack these restrictions.

Many insect pests have developed resistance toinsecticides over time. This has forced farmers to applyincreasingly larger quantities of the poisons, particularlythe relatively inexpensive chlorinated hydrocarboninsecticides which amplifies their detrimental effects andcosts additional money. In some places, "super" races ofinsects have developed, able to withstand any reasonable doseof certain insecticides. Furthermore, because insecticideskill beneficial insects as well, farmers often lose thepredators that control the pests naturally. The result canbe unprecedented crop destruction, because pests are oftenmore prolific reproducers :Alan predators. Destroyingpredatory insects can allot what were formerly minor croppests to become major crop problems.

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Diagnosing Insecticide Problems

Health Hazards

The first step in deterrn.ning whether commu.ities havehealth problems related to insecticide misuse is to find outwhat insecticides are being used. Identifying the chemicalspeople are using can reveal the potential for health andenvironmental damage. Unfortunately, identifyi,_ insecti-cides is not easy, because the same chemical can be marketedunder many different local names in English, German, andother languages. The best way to identify ,chat is beingused, then, is by noting the insecticide's chemicalcomposition and then by checking both the chemicalcomposition and the common name with an agriculturalprofessional, such as an extension agent or researcher.Insecticides can also be found listed in the Farm ChemicalsHandbook (Meister Publishing Company, 37841 Euclid Avenue,Willoughby, Ohio 44094). Agencies with agriculturaladvisors in developing countries often have this book. TheU.S., Canadian, or British fr. Pign missions or otherinternational aid organizati ri such as the United Nation'sFood and Agricultural Organs Jtion (FAO) or the World Bankmay also have a copy. Information can also be obtainedthrough Pesticide Action Network (CAN) International. PANInternational is a worldwide coalition of non-governmentalorganizations working to end pesticide related damages tohuman and environmental health. The North American RegionalCenter for PAN is located at 1045 Sansome Street, Room 404,

San Frarcisco, CA 94111.

A knowledge of the specie =Lsecticides being used ispreferable, but not absolutely necessary. If a community isexperiencing insecticide problems, it can be made evidentthrough a few observations:

- Do people suffer from symptoms that resemble thosecaused by insecticide poisoning--headacnes, nausea,cramps, abnormal perspiration, possibly even nervedegeneration like tremors and loss of muscle control?Young children are especially susceptible. Is there acorrelation between these symptoms and insecticideexposure, i.e. are more people getting sick who areexposed to insecticides than those who are not? Domore people get sick during times of the year whenspraying is occuring? Perhaps a local docto_ oragricultural extension agent can help determine this.However, even if a problem exists, these professionalsmay be unaware of it; poor people often do not reportthese symptoms; when they do, the symptoms are oftendiagnosed as a cold, the flu, or a "bug".

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Are the insecticides used accompanied by applicationinstructions in a language people can understand? Canthe people using insecticides in the community read?

Are pesticides frequently used without proper safetyprecautions? Are they often applied with defectiveequipment (such as leaky backpack sprayers)? Do thepeople using them adequately appreciate that they aredangerous poisons?

- Do the agricultural extension agents in the communityrealize the importance of handling insecticidescarefully? How do they communicate this to thecommunity's farmers?

- What do national and foreign agricultural experts sayabout how insecticides are used?

- Do people often spray insecticides in residential areasand near water supplies? How and where do people cleantheir spraying equipment? The use of water suppliesnear spray areas is often the link to serious communityhealth problems. Identification of these water areascan lead to a strategy to reduce insecticide misuse.

Environmental 'roblems caused by improper insecticide useare very difficult ,o determine, because most of the effectsare only evident over a long period of time. Acquiredresistance of insect pests to insecticides, physiologicalchanges in wild animals, and serious ecological disruptioncan only be seen over time. Nevertheless, you might note thefollowing:

- HF9 dramatic fish kills occurred in water that couldha.e received heavy insecticide dosages? The use ofinsecticides near any surface water can lead toenvironmental problems.

- Is the community using chlorinated hydrocarboninsecticides such as DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor, orendrin? These are capable of causing severeenvironmental damage and have been essentially bannedin the United States for that reason. Does the countryhave any insecticide import restrictions? (Very fewdeveloping countries currently do.)

- Have agricultural experts, national or foreign, notedany environmental problems caused by insecticides? Howdo they feel about the country's insecticide importpolicy? Do any agricultural offices have reportsdescribing insecticide use in the country:

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Do farmers complain that they have to use moreinsecticides every year (in response to increasing pestresistance), or that beneficial insects, such as bees,are becoming scarcer? Do they complain that commercialor backyard beehives are being destroyed byinsecticides?

- Have new insect pests emerged as problems sinceinsecticides have been in use? Such emergence of newinsect pests is a strong indication that insecticidesare not being used properly.

ABUSE OF PARKS AND PRVTECIED AREAS

Nearly all countries, regardless of ecoromic developmentlevel and political system, have established national parksand other categories of protected areas such as biologicalreserves, wildlife refuges and national forests. Nationalparks generally preserve representative samples of naturalecosystems intact, while allowing carefully controlled humanuse. Wildlife refuges, on the other hand, are managed tofavor certain wildlife species and may feature significanthabitat manipulation. National forests are frequentlymultiple-use areas where wildlife is hunted, recreation isencouraged, livestock is grazed, and watersheds are managed,all on a sustained-yield 1,asis.

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Dr. Kenton Miller, in his book Planning National Parksfor Ecodevelopment, lists the following 13 differentprotected area objectives derived from the experiences ofmany countries:

o Maintaining large areas as representative samples ofeach major biological region of the nation in itsnatural unaltered state.

o Maintaining examples of the different characteristicsof each type of natural community, landscape, and landform to protect the representative as well as uniquediversity of the nation.

o Maintaining all genetic materials as elements ofnatural communities, and avoiding the loss of plant andanimal species.

o Providing facilities and opportunities in natural areasfor purposes of formal and informal education,research, and the study and monitoring of theenvironment.

o Maintaining and managing watersheds to ensure anadequate quality and flow of fresh water.

o Controlling and avoiding erosion and sedimentation,especially where they are directly related todownstream investments which depend upon water fortransportation, irrigation, agriculture, fisheries, andrecreation, and for the protection of natural areas.

o Maintaining and managing fishery and wildlife resourcesfor their vital role in environmental regulation, forthe production of protein, and as the base forindustrial, sport, and recreational activities.

o Providing opportunities for healthy and constructiveoutdoor recreation for local residents and foreignvisitors, and serving as poles for tourism developmentwhich are based upon the outstanding natural andcultural characteristics of the nation.

o Managing and improving timber resources for their rolein environmental regulation and providing a sustainableproduction of wood products for the construction ofhousing and other uses of high national priority.

o Protecting and making available all cultural, historic,and archaelogical objects, structures and sites forpublic visitation and research purposes as elements ofthe cultural heritage of the nation.

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Protecting and managing scenic resources to ensure thequality of the environment near towns and cities,highways and rivers, and surrounding recreation andtourism areas.

o Maintaining and managing vast areas of land underflexible land-use methods, which conserve naturalprocesses to ensure open options for future changes inland use as well as the incorporation of newtechnologies.

o Focusing and organzing all activities to support theintegrated development of rural lands, givingparticular attention to the conservation andutilization of marginal areas and to the provision ofstable rural employment opportunities.

Parks and protected areas, then, can be valuable to acountry's future.' Unfortunately, enormous human pressures indeveloping countries often threaten them, as they do forest,soil, and wildlife resources. Poor people, strugyling tosurvive, aaturaIly are drawn to exploiting protected areastha: have the land, water, trees, wildlife and medicinalplaits they need. Reserves in developing countries are oftenvio ated by land squatters and people living nearby who clearthen for farming and harvest their resources.

Developing countries sometimes are not able toeffectively resist these pressures, because their protectedareas are poorly managed and contr _.led. Frequeutly,reserves exist only on paper, ownership of the land remainingin private hands. Even if nationally-owned, many reserveshave no effective management plans. What is more, even withadequate management plans, developing countries often lackenough trained personnel and funds to implement the plans.In fact, in some reserves there may be no personnel at all,thus precluding any effective management and enforcement ofregulations.

Even working at a village level, the development workermay find it appropriate to develop conservation educationprograms that lead to the improved management of reserves,because such reserves may be beneficial locally as well asnationally. Many reserves allow controlled resource harvest;others, protecting watersheds, ensure reliable supplies ofclean water to downstream areas. Still others, although theyallow no resource harvest, provide recreational opportunitiesand income generated by tourism to neighboring communities.

Diagnosing Park and Protected Area Problems

To determine whether there are opportunities forinvolvement along this line, the development worker shouldnote the following:

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o Does the country have any designated national parks orprotected areas? If so, what are their objectives?Are they potentially valuable to the community you areserving?

o If a reserve is nearby, visit it and answer thefollowing questions:

1. How many personnel are assigned to the reserve?

2. Is there anything -- signs, personnel, buildings.brochures, fences, etc. to indicate the purposeor even the existence of the designated reserve?If you cannot find any evidence, chances are :hepeople who live nearby will not be able to find iteither.

3. Are incompatible activities underway such ascolonization, hunting, agriculture, tree and wildplant harvest that clearly violate the purposes forwhich the reserve was set up?

4. If personnel are stationed in the protected area,do they have an effective working relationship withthe people in your community? Do they consider theneeds of adjacent communities when planning thepark's management? Do these communit. .s understandhow the reserve can benefit them?

5. Is there litter, vandalism or other 'vidence of alack of interest in and respect for the park?

6. Are there sanitary facilities? If so, are theywell-placed or are they too close to water sources?

7. What is the extent of public interest in thewelfare of the country's reserves? How do privateconservation organizations, local residents,university teachers and students, the press,resource management agencies, national and localgovernment offices, and law enforcement agenciesfeel about the reserve? (These groups, and others,may be able to contribute significantly towardseeing the reserve treated wisely).

8. Are there conservation organizations in the countrythat could help identify problems concerning theestablishment and management of Leserves and theirsolutions? Besides the national groups mentionedabove try discussing the matter with internationalorganizations which might have representatives inthe country, such as FAO, IUCN or World WildlifeFund.

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SUMMARY

The conservation educator should begin his efforts bylisting the most pressing environmental problems in hisparticular community. The list should be based oninformation gathered from first-hand observations,conversations with community residents and technical experts,and relevant literature.

To determine if conservation education can address theidentified environmental problems, the problems need to beconsidered carefully. Some problems, no matter how pressing,may prove too immense for the development worker toapproach. Others may not be subject to change throughconservation education. Some questions to consider arelisted below.

o WHAT ARE THE MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS CONFRONTINGTHE COMMUNITY?

o WHAT IS THE SCALE OF THE PROBLEM?

Local contained within a particular community. Aproblem can be common throughout the world, but alsolocal in scope. Uncontrolled deforestation is aworldwide problem and a local one, as well, for acommunity facing fuelwood shortages and soil erosion.

Regional - contained within a particular area, anatural region such as a watershed, or a politicalregion such as a department or province.

National - involving all areas of the host country.

International -. involving resources which crosspolitical borders - involving exchanges, marketing,etc.

o IS IT PRACTICAL TO CONSIDER ADDRESSING THE PPrs9LEM?

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o WHAT SORT OF AWARENESS EXISTS ABOUT THE PROBLEM? Dopeople recognize that there is a problem? Are theyconcerned about it? Are they looking for ways tosolve it?

o WHAT IS THE CAUSE OF THE PROBLEM? Try to determinewhy it is occurring. What is the motivation fortaking the actions resulting in environmentalproblems? Is it ignorance, satisfying basic needs, adesire to generate an income?

o HOW SERIOUSLY DOES THE PROBLEM AFFECT THE PEOPLE WITHWHOM YOU ARE WORKING?

o IS THERE A FEASIBLE TECHNICAL SOLUTION TO THEPROBLEM? See Chapter 3.

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3 (7

INTRODUCTION

Technical Solutions toEnvironmental Problems

This manual assumes that conservation education itselfcan be a solution to many environmental problems. However,an education program can only be effective if it isadvocating appropriate technical solutions to thoseproblems. Implementation of technical solutions is shefinal goal of conservation education efforts. Identifyingfeasible solutions is crucial to eventual program success,because the program's content and target audiences willdepend upon them.

Conservation educators cannot conduct effectiveeducation programs without knowing what they want people todo as a result. Often, however, conservation educators failto clearly define their objectives. Instead trey may beginby teaching something that seems appropriate and interesting,usually a general appreciation of ecology and nature.However, a general appreciation will not, by some alchemy,cause people to plow on the contour and manage their forestsproperly. In poorly planned programs the connection betweenthe environmental message and any environmental consequencesis tenuous at best.

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Teaching a farmer to appreciate the beauty of the foreston his land, for example, will not stop him from cutting itdown, if he feels that is the best way to feed his family.Far more effective would be to show him how to manage itprofitably in a way that causes minimal environmentaldamage. If the conservation educator has no practicalalternative to offer the farmer, he cannot expect thefarmer's behavior to change.

Likewise, teaching school children in the capital cityabout wildlife may not benefit the wildlife if those doingthe hunting are nomadic tribesmen. The schoolchildren maybecome concerned, but if there is nothing they can do toaffect the hunting, then the educational program will notproduce environmental results.

Showing people how auto exhaust can harm human healeland the environment may increase their interest in curbingpollution; in a poor country, however, catalytic converterswill most assuredly be impractical. The net result of suchan education program: aware people, but no improvement ofenvironmental conditions.

Thus the conservation educator has to know whatrealistically can be done to improve the environmentalsituation, and her educational effort should be focused onbringing this about. She cannot expect to change people'sbehavior without knowing what she wants them to do. She hasto clearly define how her efforts will lead to animprovement of environmental management.

GUIDELINES

Some solutions, like following instructions for properinsecticide application or implementing basic, well-provensoil conservation measures, are relatively simple. Others,like implementing effective tropical forest or wildlifemanagement programs, require a great deal of data andtechnical know-how. Adequate data and expertise, however,are usually scarce in developing situations, oftenprecluding he implementation of desirable environmentalmanagement practices. The development worker may encountermoments of frustration when searching for practicalalternatives to unsound environmental practices. At timeshe may have to settle for less-than-ideal solutions.

It is important to locate people who can assist inidentifying realistic solutions to environmental problems.Two information sources may be helpful. The first isinstitutions, both national and international, with trainedpersonnel. Useful national institutions can includeuniversities, agricultural extension offices, and ministries

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of agriculture, forestry, and health. Internationalagencies with people trained in natural resource managementinclude foreign aid organizations--USAID, the Food andAgricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), andthe World Bank--and various private voluntary organizations(PVOs) -- Catholic Relief Services, Save the Children, CARE,OXFAM, Africare, and others.

Resource management and conservation organizations inthe United States and elsewhere can also help. They cansend literature and information and may have people familiarwith the situation who can help through correspondence andperhaps even visits. The Conservation Directory producedannually by the National Wildlife Federation in Washington,D.C. lists such organizations providing brief descriptionsof their primary activities and addresses.

A request for information or assistance from any ofthese organizations s:Iculd be as specific as ,ossible indescribing the problem, the community's resources and theassistance needed. A detailed request is much more likelyto elicit an appropriately tailored response.

"Generalist" conservation educators should not hesitateto evaluate the technical solutions being advocated byexperts in light of what i:hey know of the community. Often,such experts are so removed from the social factorsinfluencing a problem that their solutions can beunrealistic. It is a common error for resource managementefforts to employ a "top-down" approach in implementingcommunilylevel projects. Frequently,.a management agencywill develop a solution in the contral oftice and thenpresent it to a rural community, expecting the people toaccept and imrlemenc it no questions asked. Thecore.,etlk..4-n educator may be able to provide expert plannerswith vaivable information that leads to the cesign of moreappropriate technical solutions. In fact, tcchnicalsolutions may have 'o be continually revised throughout theproiect to ensure that they are viable.in the context of aparticular community.

It shoul.; be no surprise that the secon9 source ofinformation for help in identifying technical solutions willbe the people who are to be the focus of the educationprogram. There are twr reasons for this. First, anysolutions to be advocated by the education program will haveto be acceptable to the people being educated. Peoplegenerally have no commitment to solutions that do notreflect their input and,participation. Thus it is criticalto know their preferences and concerns. A reforestationeffort must ' : based on a knowledge of whether people prefer

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trees that provide firewood, forage for livestock, fruit,lumber, or shade. It is important to know whether theyprefer certain tree species for each use. The only way toknow is to ask the people who will actually be planting andusing the trees. For example, in developing countries, itis often the women who handle tree planting and harvestingchores. The opinions of their husbands regarding the propertrees to plant may Lot reflect the community's real needs.

Secondly, the people being educated possess a great dealof knowledge about local conditions. Often, there are goodreasons for doing what they do, based upon generations oftrial-and-error. They may not have undergone formaltraining or have college degrees, but they probably havelearned about their environment through experience andtradition. Their knowledge can provide the foundation onwhich to build a truly appropriate education program.

The following brief discussion provides an overview ofsome practical environmental solutions to the environmentalproblems described in Chapter 2. It is by no means adetailed technical guide, but is rather an aid todetermining which approach might be appropriate for a givensituation. Detailed information on implementing specifictechnical solutions can be found in a number of manualslisted in the bibliography.

DEFORESTATION

The ideal solution to the disappearance of forestresources is to manage them on a sustained yield basis.That is, people need to harvest resources only as fast asthey can be replenished and in a way that does not damagethe environment which produces them. In this manner, peoplecan consume natural resources, but still be assured of acontinued supply. When people harvest forest resourcesfaster than they can grow back, the resources inevitablydisappear.

Unfortunately, in the vast majority of cases, not enoughis known about the forests in developing countries to beable to manage them for sustained yield. In fact, a 1984U.S. Congressional Office of Technology Assessment Report ontropical forest management concluded that not a singletropical forest has ever been successfully managed in such afashion. Much additional research, funding, and technicaltraining are needed before sustained yield forest managementbecomes widespread. The development worker, then, willalmost certainly not have the necessary technical informationavailable to encourage sustained yield forestry.

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The most feasible solution to the reduction of forestresources, tnen, will probably be planting trees (calledreforestation when planting trees where they have beenpreviously, and afforestation when planting where no treeshave been). Planted and managed trees can do much for acommunity: provide fuelwood, timber, fruit, and fodder;protect the soil from wind and water erosion, preventwatershed siltation, and help relieve natural forests ofharvesting pressure. Some trees and shrubs can growremarkably quickly on poor soils and in arid conditions andprovide several different products at once. Many treespecies are available to suit a wide range of needs, andcare is require'; to select the trees or shrubs best suitedto each community's particular soils, climates, economicneeds, and social preferences. Naturally, the people ineach community should play an integral role in selecting thetypes of trees and shrubs best suited for them, if they aregoing to be doing the planting, cultivating and harvesting.

Another effective and practical solution to fuelwooddepletion is the use of more efficient stoves and burningpractices, both of which can significantly reduce the amountof wood needed for cooking. Much research is beingconducted at present into improving stove effectiveness andinto developing stoves which burn materials other than wood,such as garbage and crop refuse, that may be cheaper andmore accessible. Some new stoves even employ solar power.

Agroforestry is the term used to describe a system ofgrowing tree crops along with agricultural crops. Farmerscan thus use the same land to produce field or vegetablecrops and, after some years, trees as well. Each siterequires an agroforestry program specially designed for itsspecific characteristics, so considerable technical input isusually required. Nevertheless, many agroforestry effortsare being implemented around the world, and much interest inagroforestry exists. The development worker should be ableto find the technical support needed to implement anagroforestry project, at least on a small scale.

Controlling access to forests can also effectivelyprevent forest resource destruction. To ensure long termproductivity, land should only be put to the use for whichit is suited. Nevertheless, sites for new roads andsettlements are often chosen without considering whether theland becoming accessible can support the settlers who willinhabit it. Typically, people move into a virgin area, cutdown and burn potentially productive forest, and plantcrops. However, those farms and settlements are doomed tofailure if the soil or slope of the land cannot withstandthis level of human activity. The people who rely on the

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land eventually suffer reduced yields of both crops andforest products, while the country loses forest resourcesthat could have, with proper management, provided jobs anduseful products indefinitely.

Forest reserves can safeguard watersheds, ensurecontinued production of forest resources, and keep rareplant and animals species from disappearing. As discussedunder the parks and reserves section, however, (page 31)managing such places in developing countries can be achallenge. In addition, government action at the nationalor regional level is usually required to establish newreserves.

SO I L EROSION

The best way to manage soil is to use land only for thepurposes for which it is best suited. To determine how atract of land should be used, soil and land use specialistsshould survey the area and develop a soils map. The mostversatile type of land is flat with deep fertile soils;other types of land, such as hillsides or terrain :Dveredwith shallow or infertile soils, shculd only be used forcertain purposes while employing effective soil conservationmeasures. For example, while intensive agriculture may beappropriate on a level river floodplain, the slopes aneither side might best be planted in grass for graz.ng or,if very steep, left in forest cover. Using land within itslimitations can ensure that it will provide for human needsindefinitely. Misusing land will result in the loss of itsproductivity.

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Untortunately, many developing countries have had littleof their lanai evaluated for its capability, while thosewhich have gathered adequate data often lack the services tobring this information to the farmer or to influence farmingpractices. Consequently, the way land is used in developingcountries is usually not based on the land's characteristics.The development worker may find it appropriate to serve as acatalyst for the gathering of land capabil:ty informationor, if it already exists, to encourage farmers to treattheir land according to the restrictions indicated by theinformation.

To conserve soil, various techniques can be used. Theseinclude contour plowing, striperopping, stabilizing gullieswith plantings or check dams, mulching, rotationalcultivation, controlling grazing, reforestation, and simplyleaving land covered with grass or forests. Wind erosion,in particular, is usually controlled by planting grass andwoody plants that can hold the soil in place, act aswindbreaks, and even stabilize advancing sand dunes.

Technical expertise will be required to select theconservation measures appropriate for each situation.Several techniques are relatively simple to implement;others, such as building ponds and dams, require substantialtechnical input. Many of the simplest measures are veryeffective, and the development worker typically stands agood chance of finding enough technical assistance to beable to use them. Nevertheless, while technical solutionsmay be available, tradition, the use of certain farm toolsand animals, and the need to survive on a daily basis maylimit their implementation.

WILDLIFE DEPLETION

Encouraging sound management of forest:, soil, andcoastal resources and the proper use of insecticides willall substantially benefit wildlife. Additionally, asexplained earlier, wildlife should be harvested on asustained yield basis in controlled seasons, with techniquesthat damage the environment and resource as little aspc-Able.

At the community level, the conservation educator canimplement programs that significantly benefit wildliferesources by doing the following:

1. If there are laws, and if they are enforced, thedevelopment worker can help explain why following

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them is in the community's long-term interests. Thetaking of and trafficking in endangered species hasto stop for the future of the resource. However, ifwildlife laws are not enforced, it cannot be expectedthat people will follow them (see page 22).

2. Should more ambitious programs prove impractical, thedevelopme..t worker may find it worthwhile simply todevelop in people a respect for wildlife and interestin its we'fare. This can lead to improved treatmentof wildlife and to greater adherence of soundwildlife regulations, once they are developed andenforced.

MISUSE OF INSECTICIDES

The best way to reduce health damage due to insecticidesis to teach people to handle insecticides properly. It iscritical that people follow recommended safety precautionsal...: avoid insecticide application that threatens residentialareas, farm workers, and water supplies. Safe disposal ofleftover pesticides and empty pesticide containers shouldalso be stressed.

To minimize environmental damage from insecticide use,it is best to control insects using integrated pestmanagement techniques (IPM). IPM combines the use of avariety of mechanical, cultural and biological pest controlmethods with the minimal use of pesticides as backup. Somesuccessful techniques include using biological controlagents such as predatory insects, changing planting andharvesting timetables and methods, using pest-resistant cropspecies and varieties, and manipulating environmentalcharacteristics to discourage the presence of pests. IPM isa net., field, and although innovative methods are regularlybeing introduced, much research is still needed,particularly in developing countries.

Unfortunately for the development worker, IPM techniques,like techniques used for sustained yield management oftropical forests (page 39), are site specific. To use themsuccessfully, the development worker must have sufficientdata about a site, which may not already exist. In theabsence of the data needed to design an integrated pestmanagement program, the best option may be to find effectiveand economically feasible alternatives to chlorinatedhydrocarbon insecticides and to encourage farmers andagricultural extension agents to use them. The technicalassistance required to do this should be available throughthe agricultural organizations and agencies active incountry.

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ABUSE OF PARKS AND PROTECTED AREAS

Much can be done at the national level to encourage theestablishment and effective management of national parks andprotected areas. Inventories of the country's naturalresources are a first step in determining what kinds ofresources exist and where. Such inventories can provideguidance for planning park systems, as well as individualprotected areas. Enabling legislation, providing amechanism to set aside and protect land, is usually aprerequisite to establishing a park system. Then personnelneed to be ;:rained to manage the areas, land has to bepurchased or other arrangements made according to thespecific objectives of the conservation unit, and effectivemanagement strategies must be developed.

The development of a sound management plan will be to noavail unless it can be implemented in the protected areaitself. Planning teams should include local residents tothe extent possible. Unless it is remote and unthreatened,the site should have full-time professional staff to manageand protect it. Invariably, it will also need thecooperation of the people living in or near it. Thesepeople should be encouraged to observe the reserve'sresource exploitation restrictions, and they should know howthe park can benefit them. Reserve personnel, in turn,should allow the area to serve the needs of the localresidents as much as possible without compromising thereserve's objectives.

Enforcement of regulations will be necessary, but itwill be significantly more effective and pleasant if thepeople being affected understand the reasons for theregulations and how the reserve can benefit them. Aneffective working relationship, characterized by two-waycommunication, is essential.

SUMMARY

Conservation education's goal is to encourage theimplementation of solutions to environmental problems. Thusit is critical to identify effective and feasibleenvironmental solutions if environmental results are to beachieved. The fol_pwing questions may help in identifyingpractical solutions.

0 ARE PEOPLE AWARE A PROBLEM EXISTS?

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o WHAT IS THE IDEAL SOLUTION TO THE ENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE COMMUNITY?

o HAS THIS SOLUTION BEEN DEVELOPED WITH SUFFICIENTTECHNICAL ASSISTANCE AND LOCAL INPUT?

o WHAT RESOURCES ARE NEEDED TO CARRY OUT THE SOLUTION?

- Financial: Is an investment of money required?Where can it be obtained? (Ministry, foreign donor,community fund raisers, etc.)

- Human: How much labor is needed? Are workerswilling, available, and adequately trained?

- Material: What building supplies and other materialsare needed? Are they available locally? If theymust be obtained in another location, is there enoughtime and money allocated to the task?

- Time: How long will it take to implement thesolution? If it is a long-term project, can it bebroken down into phases or steps that allow thecommunity to feel a sense of progress toward thefinal goal?

How can these resources be obtained?

o WHO WILL HELP IMPLEMENT THE SOLUTION? See Chapter 4.

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INTRODUCTION

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Identifyingthe Audience

The environmental problems to be dealt with, and theirsolutions, have been identified; now, the peopLa who willactually implement these solutions must be identified.These people will constitute the education program's targetgrcup(s). In identifying these groups, the developmentworker must consider not only the people directly causingthe problem, like the farmer producing soil erosion or thehunter overharvesting wildlife, but also the communitymembers who can influence these people as well. It may benecessary to go beyond farmers, for example, to reachgovernment officials, the general public, or influentialcommunity leaders. There may, in fact, be several targetgroup possibilities, with the most obvious not always beingthe most appropriate. People in a position to support orinitiate wise environmental management who are noteffectively doing so are as much a target for education asthose who directly cause degradation. What is more, aneducation program may best be focused on several differentaudiences.

An education program cannot be expected to producedesired environmental results if directed at the wrongpeople. With this in mind, some guidelines are providedhere to help the reader sort through target grouppossibilities a focus on the ones that can make adifference.

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GUIDELINES

The target group of a conservation education programmust be able to:

o significantly contribute to an environmental problem'ssolution; and

o perceive the behavior changes advocated by theeducation program as being in its best interests.

It is crucial to identify target groups that meet bothof these requirements in order to achieve the desiredenvironmental results. The development worker needs toapproach this task with as few preconceptions as possible.The target group possibilities are virtually endless; somegroups, however, appear frequently enough to be mentionedhere:

People directly affecting natural resources. This isusually the easiest group to identify. They can beseen cutting down trees, overharvesting fish andwildlife, misusing pesticides, and neglecting to usesoil conservation measures. Unfortunately, they arefrequently cast as the primary villains on theenvironmental scene, even though they often have fewalternatives to doing what they do. Conservationeducation programs directed at these people arefrequently most appropriate when they offer specificmethods for managing resources and explain why it isin the community's best interest to do so.

Extension Workers or Resource Management Educators.As a rule, these people work for forestry,agriculture, or other national extension services.They usually do not harvest natural resourcesthemselves, but introduce new products and techniquesto those who do. The development worker, therefore,may find it appropriate to assist extension agentswith conservation education programs or even to helptrain them in environmental management. Involvingextension workers in education efforts can maximizethe program's ultimate impact, since those workers canreach many more people. They can also effectivelyestablish communicatin links between communityresidents and distant, but significant, governmentofficials and other decision-makers. Through thesefieldworkers, the conservation educator can alsocreate a capacity to maintain the program once he hasleft.

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Local Leaders, Government Officials. Governmentofficials and local leaders can significantly affectenvironmental management both by passing and enforcinglaws and by initiating and supporting projects thataffect natural resources, for better or worse. Theyare responsible for projects to construct dams androads, colonize large tracts of land, encourage ordiscourage reforestation; they fund health, sanita-tion, education, and extension programs; and they actto establish parks and reserves. To deal effectivelywith this group, the conservation educator needs todetermine which government officials and agencies canaffect the environmental problems at hand and how.The funding, interests, official mandates, andunofficial impact of personnel and agencies needs tobe understood. Casting a wide net when consideringgovernment agencies and local officials can ensurethat none are undUly neglected.

Influential Community Members. These people can bemembers of the political party in power or communityresidents who are respected and listened to. Thedevelopment worker should spend the time to identifythese "opinion leaders." Since the people theeducator wants to influence will often follow theexample of such informal community leaders, this canbe a very productive target audience.

The General Public. This group (along withschoolchildren) is most often the target ofenvironmental education programs. Unfortunately, thisis Dften because of convenience, not potentialsignificance to environmental problems. Everycommunity has a "general public" and the mass mediamethods most often used in communicating with it areusually readily available. Moreover, a mass approachoften does not require the detailed communityknowledge that a mere narrowly targeted programdemands and can seem easier to implement. Such"short-cut" approaches, however, usually fail toadequately address environmental problems.

This is not to suggest that the general public cannothelp bring about improved resource management. On thecontrary, a public appeal can be extremely effective,especially in creating receptivity for more detailedfollow-up environmental education programs. But thedevelopment worker should be careful not to overlookan approach to more appropriate group., that couldproduce faster and more effective results. Thedevelopment worker should have , specific reason for

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directing a program at a general public instead ofanother gropp. Exactly how the general public canhelp to solve an environmental problem should beclearly stated in the objectives of the program.

Schoolchildren. Conservation educators often addressthis group hoping to create environmentallyknowledgeable adults. This is always a desirablegoal, but may not always be the conservationeducator's first priority. Serious environmentalproblems may require immediate attention, and schoolchildren may not be able to contribute to such aneffort. Nonetheless, schoolchildren can be anappropriate target group if some of the followingconditions are met:

1) Are a significant number of schoolchildren likely,some day, to play a rule in managing the environment? Will they be future farmers, governmentdecision-makers, or members of an influentialgeneral public?

In many rural areas, conservation education can bejustified because so many of the children drop outof school early to work on family farms. For thisreason, the development worker should considerdesigning rural school-based education programsthat have objectives similar to those of adulteducation programs in the same area. For example,teaching basic soil conservation and reforestationtechniques to rural school children can beappropriate.

2) Can teaching schoolchildren effectively reachcommunity adults?

A school conservation education program can involveparents through school field trips and treeplanting, litter clean-up, and other communitycampaigns. In effect, school conservationeducation programs can supplement adult extensionservices.

3) Can schoolchildren significantly affect presentenvironmental problems; e.g. can the children plantwindbreaks or fuelwood plantations?

4) Are all other necessary environmental educationefforts already being carried out, so that onlylong-range attitude development needs attention?(This would be unlikely in most developingcountries..)

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5) Has the host country itself requested thatconservation education be incorporated into theschool program?

After identifying the audiences most capable ofcontributing to environmental management, the developmentworker must determine which of these possible groups canperceive the actions advocated by the program to be in theirbest interests. Education changes people's behavior throughlogic and common sense. Its use is based on the assumptionthat people will do what they think will most benefit them.People cannot be expected to change behavior they think bestaddresses their needs. (These needs can be as basic as aplace to live, a job, and enough to eat; or as intangible associal status and ego satisfaction.) When people must beconvinced to do something which may not be in their bestinterests, education is not the tool to use. Law enforce-ment, financial compensation, social pressure, orpropaganda, for example, must be used instead.

In Somalia, for example, people living in the Luugrefugee camp in January 1984, had cut so much firewood thatthe land around the camp had become a baking and barrendesert. Women had to walk long distances to gather the woodthey needed. Relief workers and the Somali forestrydepartment were working with the refugees to reforest thearea, yet the refugees had to be paid to plant trees. Why?Because the refugees had no idea where they would be in fiveyears when the trees would be ready for harvesting. Here,then, payment, not education, was the way to motivate people.

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Often, the people closest to an environmental problemare least able to alter their actions. Take, for example,farmers who are overharvesting wildlife and trees in anatural forest. To convince the farmers to do otherwise, anenvironmental education effort has to advocate practicalalternatives that can meet their need for animal productsand wood. Without alternatives, the effort will not be ableto convince the farmers to change, even if their actions aredetrimental to the natural resources and the community.

Another way to change the farmers' behavior may be todirect an educational effort at people who can motivate thefarmers to change, and has it in heir best interest to doso. For instance, the educational program may be directedat community leaders who can provide the farmers withfinancial incentives to plant trees, or at neighbors beingharmed by the farmers' behavior who can pressure leaders toprride farmers with alternatives.

Thus conservation education programs can sometimes moreeffectively affect people's behavior when focused indirectlyat them. For this reason, conservation educate - should notassume that the people whose behavior ultimately needs tochange are the best or only target audience for theireducational efforts.

Fundacion Natura, a non-governmental environmentalorganization in Ecuador, has developed one of the largestand most effective environmental education programs in LatinAmerica. In large measure, it has been successful becauseit has focused its efforts on priority environmentalproblems and it has carefully selected those target groupsmost capable of solving them. Thus, although many ofEcuador's environmental problems revolve around peopleliving in rural areas, Natura has directed considerableeffort toward reaching government decision-makers becauseNatura has concluded that government support andparticipation are critical for successful environmentalmanagement programs.

To this end, Natura has developed slide programs to showto small groups of government officials in variousministries. Slide shows have been followed by questions anddiscussions and accompani I by a Natura-prepared environ-mental booklet. Also, in part to further motivategovernment to take action, Natura has communicated with thegovernment's constituents, the general public, withtelevision and radio programs describing Ecuador'senvironmental problems and their s3lutions. In this way,Natura has successfully encouraged a public mandate forsound environmental treatment.

SUMMARY

Conservation education has an environmental impact bychanging people's behavior. However, in every environmentalsituation, E'ome people have a greater impact on the environ-ment through their actions, and are more likely to beinfluenced by an education program than others. Theconservation educator can waste a good deal of effort tryingto educate inappropriate audiences. They may learn enthu-siastically, but the environment may not benefit from theirnew knowledge and attitudes. Thus it is crucial to choosethe proper target audiences for effective conservationeducation programs.

The following questions should be of hcip in selectingaudiences:

o WHO IS DIRECTLY AFFECTING THE NATURAL RESOURCES UNDERCONSIDERATION?

o IS IT IN THEIR INTEREST TO CHANGE THEIR BEHAVIOR?

o WHAT WILL CHANGE THEIR BEHAVIOR? (e.g. lawenforcement, education, government policy, socialpressure, financial incentives)

o WHO WILL BENEFIT FROM THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THEMEASURES ADVOCATED BY THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM? Canthey play a role in getting the measures implemented?

o ARE THERE INFLUENTIAL COMMUNITY MEMBERS WHC CAN HELPCONVINCE PEOPLE TO CHANGE THEIR BEHAVIOR? WHO?

o ARE THERE INFLUENTIAL COMMUNITY MEMBERS WHO CANPROVIDE INCENTIVES FOR PEOPLE TO CHANGE THEIRBEHAVIOR? (e.g. financial inducements, lawenforcement, social pressure, government policy)

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o DOES THE ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTION REQUIRE GOVERNMENTINPUT? (e.g. laws, policy, leadership, lawenforcement, funding, support for new programs)

o WHICH GOVERNMENT AGENCIES CAN CONTRIBUTE TO SOLVINGTHE PROBLEMS? How?

o WHAT DO THE IDENTIFIED TARGET AUDIENCES NEED TO KNOWIN ORDER TO CHANGE THEIR BEHAVIOR? See Chapter 5.

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Identifyingthe Message

I NTRODUCT I ON

Knowing what environmental issues merit attention,whether viable technical solutions exist, and which peopleare most capable of helping to implement these solutions,the development worker can determine the information to becommunicated in a conservation education program. As eachenvironmental situation is different, the content of everyconservation education program is different as well. Thischapter can assist in identifying and organizing the typesof infor-ntion most appropriate for each particularsituation. Specific information that can form the actualcontent of the lessons can then be assembled from other..echnical manuals and local'y available sources.

Careful selection and organization ,f a conservationeducation program's content is crucial for its success.This task can be challenging since there is often abundantinformation that can be presented. It is easy to be led offon tangents by information that is interesting or thatsomehow pertains to the environment. The conservationeducator must be selective, choosing only the informationthat will bring about desired changes in environmentalbehavior, ruthlessly editing out the rest.

The educator needs to develop lean and directeducational efforts that confront environmental problemshead-on, unencumbered by excess informational baggage. Theguidelines below may help it developing such efforts.

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GUIDELINES

The first step in determining program substance is tolearn why people are belaying in a way that needs changing.Where do target audiences lie on the following continuum?Are they:

1) Aware the environmental problem exists?2) Aware of their relationship to the problem: how it

affects them, and how they are contributing t(, it?3) Aware of the problem and their relationship to it,

but not aware of its solution?4) Aware of the problem, solution, and wha': they should

do, but not convinced that changing their behaviorwill benefit them? Not motivated to chenge theirbehavior.

Depending on the audience, it may not be necessary tobegin the education program at Step 1. Wherever theedu :ator begins, however, it will be necessary to move theaudience along the rest of the continuum through Step 4 toobtain positive results. Encouraging people to adopt anenvironmental solution will be futile if people are notconvinced that a problem exists and that it affects them.Likewise, if people do not understand their relationship tothe problem, they may easily implement inappropriatesolutions.

For audiences at Step #1, the education program'smessage should be straightforward, simple, yet informative.Detail should be minimal, concentrating more on catchi,igpeople's attention. Accuracy, however, is crucial andshould never be sacrificed to appeal to public opinion.Emotionalizing information is appealing in many countries,but the effort can backfire if the information is perceivedas being inaccurate or sensationalized.

For those groups at Step 2, a more substantive messageis needed. Here, people's general awareness of an issueshould be developed into an understanding of how they areaffected by and are affecting the environmental situation.The environmental problem should always be related to theaudience's particular interests. For example, firewoodshortages and flooding of residential areas might bepresented to villagers as the consequences of thedeforestation of a watershed, since these consequencesaffect them directly. The disappearance of rare birdspecies and the loss of scenic beauty that are also theresult of deforestation will be of less concern to thisaudience. Here knowledge of the community can becomecritical. Problems must be brought home to have an impact.

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Step 3 is a turning point for the conservation educatorand is where many programs fall short of their intendedgoal. People must clearly understand what they should do tohelp solve an environmental problem. It is counterpro-ductive to generate in people a concern about anenvironmental problem and then abandon them. They canbecome frustrated and apathetic and may even refuse toparticipate in later (and perhaps more constructive)attempts to address the same issue. Environmental solutionscan bl3 as simple as requesting children not to throw candywrappers on the ground, or as major as recommending thatfarmers change their planting and plowing methods. Whateverthe solution, the education progiam mutt identify it Andpresent it in a way that relates to the audience's it.terest.

If the ..ludiences targeted for a conservation educationprogram fall at Step 4, further investigation may berequired. There are many reasons why people do not dosomething that appears to the outsider to be clearly intheir best interest. It may simply be a matter of notperceiving the proposed action as beneficial, but may easilybe more complicated. Their reluctance may be due toreligious taboos, traditional customs, political discord, ordistrust of a foreigner. Perhaps the leaders, official orotherwise, selected to serve as role models in the programare, in fact, not trusted by the people. One very likelypossibility is that the solution being advocated wasdeveloped without sufficient local participation. Thesolution may have some serious flaws clearly perceived bythe community but not by the "experts" who deve,uped it. Tfthere appears to be no "logical" explanation for people'snegative reactions, the process and assumptions which led tothe selection of that particular solution should bereviewed. Take time to go back to determine where somethingmay have been missed or misinterpreted.

Bill Weber and Amy Vedder, Peace Corps Volunteers inZaire from 1973 to 1975, received a research grant from theNew York Zoological Society in 1977 to conduct a compre-hensive study of problems related to the conservation of themountain gorilla and its forest habitat in Rwanda'sVolcanoes National Park. Within the park, their workincluded an initial census of gorilla numbers, as well as astudy by Amy of gorilla ranging and feeding ecology. Beyondthe park's boundaries, however, Bill focused his attentionon social anC economic factors which could affectconservation efforts.

Before developing the content of the environmentaleducation program, he focused on his audience. He began bybecoming familiar with the knowledge and attitudes of thepeople living in the park's vicinity. To do this, he hired

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Rwandans who were either students at the national universityor local teachers, because he quickly discovered that hispresence at interviews would produce inaccurate responses.The Rwandans would immediately guess what his attitudes wereand would tend to match their answers to fit them. This isa common problem in interviewing situations worldwide; thusthe development educator should take special care to selectan approach that is the least threatening in his particularsetting.

The results from the survey clearly showed that peoplesaw no value of the forest or its wildlife beyond harvestingthe trees or animals. Answers to questions such as "If youcannot cut the trees, does the forest have any other value?If you cannot hunt the animals, does the forest have anyother value?" indicated a wile-spread failure to recognizenon-consumptive values. In fact, the forest's presenceensured a reliable supply of clean water, and the gorillashelped the region financially by attracting fc:eigntourists. Having determined what people did not know butneeded to know in order to change their behavior, Bill andAmy set out to change the situation, employing a variety oftechniques, including town meetings, school programs, andslide shows. By 1984, a survey showed that now fully 80% ofthe people in the region could cite non-consumptive reasonsto protect the forest and its wildlife, versus only 35% fouryears earlier. (Weber, personal communication)

SELECTING THE PROGRAM'S CONTENT

After identifying what the target audiences needgeneral awareness, practical guidance, motivation, or acombination of all three the following process, based onPozner's and Rudnisky's guide to curriculum development forteachers (1978), can be used to help ensure that theprogram's content is relevant to the environmental problemsat hand.

Write a problem statement that describes the environmental issueto be addressed by conservation education.

The first step is to have a clear and concise statementof the environmental problem the program is intending toaddress. The issue can be as broad as the absence of apublic conservation ethic or as specific as eroded hillsidesthat require reforestation. The diagnoses carried out inChapter 2 should provide the basis for writing thisstatement.

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Problem Statement Example: People in the village arecutting down trees in the vicinity faster than they can growback; extensive deforestation has resulted. The conse-quences have been a growing fuelwood shortage, which hascaused a great deal of hardship. Women and children whocollect the wood must now devote practically an entire dayto collccting a load of wood. In the process, they oftenenter government-protected forest lands to illegally cuttrees. This deforestation has also wreaked havoc on theenviro.iment; with the woody vegetation gone, the soil isblowing away and the wildlife has disappeared.

° Prepare a rationale or a justification for the proposedconservation education program.

The rationale explains why a conservation educationeffort should be applied to the environmental problemdescribed in the-problem statement. It has two purposes:A) to justify expending time and resources on a conservationeducation program, and B) to serve as a reference point fordeveloping the program's specific objectives. The rationaleshould specify both the solutions to the environmentalproblem and how educating people to be targeted by theeducation program will help to implement these solutions.The more carefully a rationale is thought through anddeveloped, the easier it will be to identify the informationto be t'ught.

Rationale Example: The solution to the deforestation liesnot in restricting fuelwood harvest, because people need thewood, but in a) establishing fuelwood plantations and b)developing energy conservation techniques. The townleaders, more than anyone, must understand the importance ofplanting trees and be motivated to do so, because they canorganize and inspire the community effort needed to get thejob done. Thus an education program directed at them cansignificantly contribute to solving the deforestationproblem.

° State the program's g221.

The rationale explains why a conservation educationprogram is needed; the goal statement explains what theprogram intends to accomplish. This statement should comefrom the chalysis of where the target groups fall in thecontinuum presented above. It should clearly describe theoverall desire(' outcome of the conservation educationeffort, without being so general that it could pertain toany conservation education program.

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Goal Statement Example: To illustrate to the town leadershow to establish village woodlots and employ effectiveenergy conservation measures and to motivate them to do so.

4) Develop the program's intended learning outcomes.

The program's intended learning outcomes (ILO's) arewhat people need to learn so that the program's goals willbe realized. They can be "facts, statements, ideas,principles, capabilities, skills, techniques, values, orfeelings" (Posner, 1978, p. 16). ILO's can be as concreteas knowing how to put a tree in the ground, how to cleaninsecticide application equipment, and how to plow on thecontour; or as intangible as appreciating the value of anatural reserve or wanting to protect a sea turtle nestingbeach.

To determine a program's ILO's, simply ask: what dopeople have to understand and believe in order to changetheir environmental behavior? In the beginning, to organizethoughts, it may help to simply jot down a list of allpossible subjects as they randomly occur. Then go over thelist and ask what will produce the desired behavior results,and what will distract from the purpose at hand.

For example, if the goal is to encourage town leaders toinitiate community woodlots, a beginning list may look likethis:

The town leaders should:

1) Know there is a fuelwood shortage.

2) Know how to water the trees and keep livestockfrom grazing in the woodlots.

3) Know the carbon and water cycles.

4) Know that deforestation can cause soil erosion.

5) Know that soil erosion can cause reduced cropyields.

6) Want to plant woodlots and use more efficientwoodstoves.

7) Know where to get seedlings and woodstoves.

8) Know how to organize the community.

9) Know there is a worldwide fuelwood shortage.

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10) Know that the trees can serve as nesting sitesfor various songbirds.

11) Know how trees are pollinated.

12) Know which trees can most benefit the town.

13) Knot that fast-growing trees can provide fuelwoodin five years.

14) Understand that plants use sunlight throughphotosynthesis to produce energy.

15) Know how to operate a woodstove.

16) Know how to identify 20 native tree species andknow something of their natural history.

11) Know that the villagers must have some incentiveto maintain the woodlots.

This list could then be refined and edited. Numbers 1and 8 in this hypothetical example could perhaps beeliminated because, let's say, the town leaders alreadyknow this information. Meanwhile, numbers 3, 9, 10, 11, 14,and 16 could be rejected because they would be tangential tosolving the environmental problem and solution beingconsidered. The remaining possibilities could then beorganized so they follow a progression that appears logicalto the educator:

The town leaders should:

1) Understand that deforestation can cause soilerosion.

2) Understand that soil erosion can cause reduced cropyields.

3) Recognize that planting trees can reduce soilerosion.

4) Know that fast-growing trees can provide fuelwoodin five years.

5) Know which tree species can most benefit the town.

6) Know what is needed to maintain and protect thetrees and who is best suited to do this.

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7) (Inderstand that improveJ woodstoves can reducefuelwood use and thus conserve wood.

8) Know what is involved in operating woodstoves.

9) Know where to get tree seedlings and woodstoves.

10) Want to plant woodlots and use more efficientwoodstoves.

11) Identify the factors which will motivate thevillagers to maintain the woodlots.

Using this process the educacor converts environmentaland social knowledge of a community into an educationalstrategy. By stating what needs to be done and why, andlisting what is to be taught, the program can fit theenvironmental problems at hand, not the educators' owninterests and biases. The ILOs provide a framework thatkeeps the program on track. The level of detail and sophis-tication of the material to be communicated to achieve theILOs will depend on the age and background of the targetaudience. A certain amount of creativity and selection isinvolved. Just telling people the concepts illustrating theILOs will not capture their interest.

SOME BASIC EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES TO KEEP IN MIND

People generally try to incorporate new information intoalready-held belies and knowledge.

To accept unfamiliar ideas and knowledge, people need toadjust attitudes and beliefs. For most individuals this isvery difficult. In fact, since change can easily causestress and confusion, most people resist altering entrenchedbeliefs.

For this reason, the probability that a conservatioeducation program will ultimately be successful in changingattitudes and behavior will be directly related to the easewith which the progiam's message can be accommodated bypreviously-held attitudes. This means that it is criticalfor the conservation educator to know the significantbeliefs of the people to be educated. The educator who hastaken 4-he time to understand the community will beimplementing programs with a crucial advantage.

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An educator will oe far more likely to inspirebehavioral change if the education program is related toexisting concerns and presented in terms familiar to theaudience.

It is far easier to get people to do something if theyfeel it will address an existing concern than it is todevelop a new concern from scratch and then convince peopleto adopt a certain behavior to address it. (Nonetheless,developing an awareness for an environmental problem isoften a necessary first step). For example, if fuelwoodshortages and flooding of residential areas are already ofconcern to villagers, that concern can be the basis of aprogram of action to address the deforestation of thewatershed that is the underlying cause of those problems.Similarly if local fishermen are concerned over the loss ofa commercial fish species that may result from theCdstruction of a mangrove swamp, they can be motivated totake action to preserve the swamp.

In Haiti, intensive efforts to motivate farmers to planttrees on badly-eroded hillsides had largely failed.Anthropo3ogist Gerald Murray discovered that this wasbecause the efforts had ailed to relate the tree-plantingto the farmers' primary concern: maximizing profits.Farmers had been paid to plant seedlings, but not to takecare of them, and the seedlings had not taken hold. Murrayrecommended that project personnel simply make it clear tothe farmers that planted trees could be a profitable cashcrop.

The Haiti Agroforestry Outreach Project, funded by USAIDand administered by the Pan American Development Foundation,CARE, and Operation Double Harvest, put Murray's suggestionsto work. The result: from 1981 to September 1984, morethan 21,000 small landholders were caring for trees plantedon their farms. (Conway, 1984)

Of course, people's concerns are not always economic andthe educator should be alert to other interests. The desirefor status and respect, for example, can be a powerfulmotivator. The authors have found that national pride isoften a useful attitude upon which to base behavioralchange. Thus we have seen, on several occasions, peoplewith no real interest in nc.ture or outdoor activity becomemotivated to preserve natural areas because these areasrepresent a unique and valuable national heritage that., canbe admired by both nationals and foreigners.

People, when learning new information, look forpatterns, generalities, relationships, and organizedstructured whole:), rather than separate details.

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People try to fit facts into contexts so they make senseand can be remembered. They do not learn and form attitudessolely by retaining isolated facts. As anyone who hascrammed for an exam knows, rote memorization only works inthe short term. (Novak, 1977)

Thus broad concepts should first be presented tolearners so they have a framework in which to incorporatefurther information. Details get lost over time when notlinked to general themes. For example, using the case ofdeforestation, town leaders are unlikely to benefit from anenvironmental education program that starts off presen,ingthe structure and functions of the parts of a tree. Onecould say that this is useful information that could enablethe leaders to better care for tree plantations, but theleaders will most likely have forgotten this information bythe time they :inally understand the need for such woodlots.

A better approach would be to begin with a generalconcept of reforestation - what it is and why it should beof concern to the leaders. This broad concept, onceunderstood, would allow the leaders to incorporate morespecific information about the species and growth patternsmeaningfully. A program should be structured so that thelearners move from more general to more specificinformation, from the "big picture" to the smaller details.

SUMMARY

The conservation education program is now beginning totake on substance. At this point, the conservation educatorcan decide what a program's content will include andexclude, based on her earlier investigations. The planningprocess involves writing a problem statement, a rationale, agoal statement, and a list of intended learning outcomes.Carefully done, this effort can keep a conservationeducation program focused on the environmental problem athand and prevent the educator from becoming distracted byperipheral issues and irrelevant information.

The following questions are provided to assist there der in making Cure he or she has followed the process:

° WHAT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM WILL THE CONSERVATIONEDUCATION PROGRAM BE ADDRESSING?

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WHY SHOULD THE PROGRAM BE DIRECTED AT THISENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM, INSTEAD OF OTHERS?

HOW CAN THE CONSERVATION EDUCATION PROGRAM LEAD TOA SOLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM?

WHAT ARE THE INTENDED TARGET AUDIENCES FOR THEEDUCATION PROGRAM? WHY SHOULD THEY RECEIVE THEPROGRAM'S ATTENTION AT THE EXPENSE OF OTHERPOSSIBLE GROUPS?

O WHAT KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES MUST THE TARGET GROUPSHAVE IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO EFFECTIVELY CONTRIBUTETO SOLVING THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM? DO THEPROGRAM'S ILO's INCLUDE THIS INFORMATION?

WHAT INFORMATION HAS BEEN GATHERED ABOUT THEAUDIENCES' BELIEFS, CUSTOMS, LEVEL OF EDUCATION?

O HOW SHOULD THE INFORMATION BE COMMUNICATED? SeeChapter 6.

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Selecting anEducational Strategy

INTRODUCTION

Many c.ducational strategies can be used in conservationeducation, ranging from producing posters to developingnational forestry extension programs. Like every otherfacet of conservation education, strategies must fitexisting environmental, political, and social situations ifthey are to be fully effective.

Conservation education strategies widely used in theUnited States may be totally inappropriate in developingcountries, for a variety of reasons. Unfortunately,however, U.S. conservation educators working in developingcountries commonly select education strategies because theyare familiar, not because they are the most effectivestrategies available. Thus educators who have worked asinterpretive naturalists will set up nature centers andconduct teacher workshops, without considering whetherworking with farmers or government leaders would have agreater environmental impact.

Development workers involved in conservation educationare more likely to have positive environmental impact ifthey carefully consider all the possible strategiesavailable to them before implementing any. They need notfeel tightly constrained by prior experience with aparticular approach; one of the best features of developmentwork is that it offers willing and adaptable peopleopportunities to work effectively in areas new to them.

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Lou Ann Dietz, an education specialist and former PeaceCorps Volunteer from Brazil, has implemented severalsuccessful education strategies as part of the U.S. NationalZoo's Golden Lion Tamarin Project in Poco das AntasBiological Preserve in Brazil. The golden lion tamarin is asmall monkey that is now facing extinction in its south-eastern Brazilian range. In response, the National Zoo istransplanting zoo-reared animals into the reserve. LouAnn's husband, Jim, is the on-site biologist in charge ofthe project; Lou Ann's job is to educate local people aboutthe value o- the monkey and the reserve, so that both willbe secure, to the benefit of both monkey and human.

To begin the effort, Lou Ann worked closely withBrazilians to identify different target audiences and tolearn their environmental attitudes. She found, as did BillWeber in Rwanda (see page 57), that a survey of attitudescarried out.by local teachers provided critical informationto guide the program's content and methods. The informationshe gathered along with her understanding of the people'scustoms and concerns led her to select a combination ofstrategies for the conservation education program. In anarticle published in the National Zoo's magazine Zoogoer(Dietz, 1985) Lou Ann writes:

Our activities have ranged from organizingpress events inside the Reserve to producingfor schoolchildren free notebooks with atamarin cover and conservation message. Wehave aired public service massages on radioand TV, trained teachers in ecology, taughtlandowners how they can save on property taxby establishing private forest refuges, andlectured local officials, schools, conserva-tionists, farmers, university students, andscientific congresses. We have developedposters, audio-visual programs, leaflets,stickers, buttons, t-shirts, and decals.Approximately 4,700 people have passed throughour travelling exhibit and hunareds have seencur production of a children's play abouttamarin conservation.

Six schools have organized field trips tothe Reserve, where the reintroducedanimals--already accustomed to people--havebeen a special source of delight to theyoungsters. During one visit, a daring youngtamarin came down from a tree, found a treefrog, and ate it in front of 25 ecstatic highschool students.

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Although public enthusiasm is growing, weknow the changing of attitudes and behaviorsis a slow process that will have to continuelong after most of us have returned to theUnited States. Fortunately, an energeticBrazilian biologist, Elizabeth Nagagata, isnne project member who plans to stay. Shewill continue the educational work she hashelped begin--keeping public enthusiasm aliveand continuing to supply scientificinformation so that conservation of the forestand all its elements--including the goldenlion tamarin--will come to be regarded notjust as something in vogue, but as a crucialissue meriting continuing action.

This chapter discusses some guidelines for choosing astrategy or several and briefly describes severalcommonly-employed strategies. The strategies described hereare certainly not the only choices available. Manydifferent educational approaches have been used in varioussituations around the world; it is also quite possible thata development worker could develop an entirely new andappropriate strategy that has not yet been applied toconservation education. Sometimes, as Lou Ann Dietz's andBill Weber's programs illustrate, the best strategy is acombination of several coordinated together. The strategy,after all, should fit the situatio:, and the conservationeducator could easily have to address a situation with aunique combination of environmental and socialcharacteristics. Regardless of the situation, however, thedevelopment worker will best approach the problem with anopen mind, without preconceptions.

GUIDELINES

A conservation education strategy should do two things:*(1) reach the program's target audiences and (2) effectivelycommunicate the program's information. There are severalfactors the educator will want to consider about the targetaudience and the educatinnal program's message whenselecting an appropriate conservation education strategy:

- How do the target audiences receive information? Dothey listen to the radio or television, read acertain newspaper or magazine; watch for bulletins

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posted in the town square; communicate with friendsat the central market? Do they listen to the localextension agent, the religious leaders, or the localpolitical leader at party meetings? Who areconsidered reliable community leaders, role models,and conveyors of information? Can any existingcommunication mechanisms be used in a conservationeducation p::ogram? (The conservation educator can,of course, come up with new methods of communi-cation.)

How literate is the audience? Can the people read orwrite? Are they "visually literate" that is, dothey have experience in interpreting two-dimensionaldrawings and photographs?

How much information does the audience need to knowto change its environmental behavior? Is the messageto be communicated short and simple, or long andcomplicated? Will it have to be repeatedperiodically or will one presentation suffice? Willthc, education program be long or short term?

Certain practical factors are important, as well:

- Who is available to carry out the educationalprogram? How much time can they devote to theprogram? How much training, supervision anddirection do they need?

How much time does the development worker have todevote to the program? For the program to succeed inthe long -un, what must be done before thedevelopment worker leaves?

How much money, equi.. at, and other resources arelikely to be availabL-37 Are there any potentialoutside agencies able to provide these resources?

Depending on the aiswers to these questions, aneducation strategy can be chosen which fits both theaudience and the program content. A number of strategyoptions are described blow.

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Extension Programs

Extension programs are designed to teach adults specificmethods for improving their standard of living. Typicallyextension programs treat health, home economics, agricul-ture, and forestry topics; extension workers carry theirmessages to individual homes or to local organizations madeup of people with similar interests, such as homemakers,mothers with young children, or farmers. In relaying theirmessages, extension workers can employ a broad range ofcommunication techniques and strategies, including thoselisted below.

Extension programs are the only mechanism available inmany developing communities for effectively presentingsubstantial amounts of environmental information to adultswith the intention of changing their behavior. To show afarmer how to plow on the contour, plant fast-growing trees,or apply a less harmful insecticide on his land, a

conservation educator will almost always have to workindividually with the farmer, most likely in the farmer'sfield and usually more than once. The only educatoravailable in most countries to do this work is the extensionagent.

Elmo Drilling, a former Peace Corps volunteer in thePhilippines tells of an effective use of extension agents.Farmers were being paid to plant trees to compensate themfor giving up land they would have used for agriculture.They were thus encouraged to take seedlings, but there was

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no guarantee they would plant them. The program had noeducation component, and the farmers had n' motivation tocare for the trees. Fortunately, this was recognized early,and the Philippine government hired extension agents tovisit the farms and educate them about the planting and careof the trees. The money spent subsidizing he tree plantingwould likely have been wasted were it not for the extensionagents. (Walton, 1982)

Audience: Individual adults or groups of adults with commoninterests.

When Appropriate: When lame quantities of information needLn be adapted to specific situations and when thisinformation can best be demonstrated through personalcontact with target groups. A farmer may understand thetechniques of contour plowing but he will probably needsomeone to demonstrate how to use them on his land before hefeels comfortable in applying them himself.

Strengths: Extension programs are generally the mosteffective means of communicating large amounts of eaviron-menhal management information to adults. While othereducational approaches can increase people's awareness inenvironmental issues, extension programs are often needed tobuild on such awareness before people's behavior ultimatelychanges. F(,1- instance, mass media can communicate suchtopics as soil conservation, forest and wildlife management,and insecticide use to farmers, but someone will probablystill have tc r-ome out to the farmers' homes and demonstratehow to apply this information.

Well-trained and motivated extension agents unders,andtl people with whom they work. They know both thetechnical subject matter and how to present it, as well ashow to develop an understanding of their communities. Thusthey can tailor their efforts to fit their audiences.Extension workers can also spend considerable time with eachperson they are educating.

Weaknesses: Because one extension agent roaches relativelyfew individuals and typically spends a good deal of timewith each of his "clients," extension programs arecomparatively expelsive. In developing countries, agentsare often poorly-trained and may be poorly-paid andpoorly-motivated as well. What is more, extension servicesare frequently seriously understaffed, and many are unableto provide the personnel they do have with adequatetransportation, teaching aids, and on-the-job technicaltraining. All of this can be crucial, hecause an extension

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program's success depends on the extension workers'ccimitment, skill, and ability to get to the people they arcexpected to serve. Often extension workers receive theirtraining in the capital city and acquiro information that isnot useful to rural communities.

Implications for Implementation: The support of officialsat all appropriate levels of the extension organization -national, regional or local - is needed before extensionPrograms can be used to communicate environmental messages.Sometimes, extension programs do not exist, so a great dealof time working with appropriate government officials willbe required before such an effort can begin. Where thissupport exists, conservation educators may become involvedin several ways to help extension programs become effectivein encouraging sound natural resource management. Somepossibilities:

Training extension agents by organizing, presenting,or finding financing for workshops, ol by writingtraining materials.

- Preparing teaching aids for the extension agents touse: slides, displays, coloring books, posters, etc.

- H-'ping extension agent counterparts with thetechnical or educational aspects of their work.

- Helping extension agents coordinate their effortswith other entities, e.g. with schools, privateconservation organizations, and mass media.

The Peace Corps ICE manual Agricultural Extensionprovides extensive and valuable advice for developmentworkers involved in extension programs.

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School Programs

Important environmental concepts and practices can becommunicated in school classrooms through formal programs ofstudy. This information can be presented either through acurriculum as distinct as math or history, or it can beintegrated with other study programs, such as within scienceor social studies. Most frequently, conservation educationprograms have to fit into other study programs, becauseschools infrequently have either the ..andate to developconservation education curricula or the additional time inthe school (lay to add new areas of study.

Conservation education programs in the United Statesusually teach students basic ecological principles and howhumans affect and are affected by their environment. Theyalso usually try to encourage students to appreciate thenatural world. Some, in addition, discuss currentenvironmental problems and how students can contribute totheir resolution.

For several reasons, however, the U.S. approach a

heavy emphasis on ecology and nature ,reciation is oftennot practical in developing countries:

o It can be very difficult to train and motivateteachers to carry out such programs. Teachers indeveloping countries, particularly in rural areas,may be poorly trained, poorly-paid and poorly-motivated. Often, they will have progressed nofurther than junior high school themselves. Acurriculum that includes extensive natural sciencematerial may simply be tqo much for them to handle.

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o There is usually insufficient time to lay extensivefoundations of ecology and science. School days indeveloping countries are often three-four hours longor less. What is more, children, again particularlyin rural areas, often end their schooling after a fewyears to work on family farms.

o The environmental problems of developing countriesare often so severe, yet their solutions so basicthat it is best to present this informationstraightforwardly in school, withcut trying to makestudents junior ecologists or naturalists first.Furthermore, extension services in developingcountries are usually not large enough to reach morethan a few of the people that could benefit fromthem. Schools, therefore, may very likely be thelast place where people can learn important environ-mental management concepts and techniques. Givenlimited time, should rural school students learnabout food chains and what is "biotic" and "abiotic",instead of learning how to combat soil erosion andhow to plant tees? Which approach will have agreater environmental impact?

Some U.S. conservation education curricula encouragestudents to analyze environmental issues and make uptheir own minds about which side they Eupp)rt. Thisapproach differs significantly from the "rotememorization" approach to teaching that is the normin many developing countries. In many cases, it isnot realistic to expect students and teachers toadapt to a different way of learning at the same timethey are luarning a new conservation subject.

In most developing countries, the best way to useschools as vehicles for improving environmental management,particularly in rural areas, is to team students soundenvironmental practices that solve relevant environmentproblems and how such practices can benefit them.Generally, such curricula should address the followingissues:

o The natural resources that are important to thestudents and why.

o How these resources can be damaged by humans.

o How damaging these resources affects the students'wel:are.

o How these resources should be managed.

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° How to use specific environmental managementtechniques: e.g. planting trees, stabilizing gulliesin fields, picking up litter, etc.

Schools also provide an infrastructure through whichconservation education can be presented to adults. Not onlycan students share information learned at school with theirfamilies but also the community can be drawn into theprograms' environmental activities. Various schoclactivities can involve the entire community, like tree-planting and litter clean-up campaigns and demonstrations orexhibits on deforestation, pollution, soil management, andwildlife.

Furthermore, local professionals, such as extensionagents, foresters, national park guards, health office-s,and others can be invited to schools to participate inconservation education programs. This gives them, and themessage they are trying to communicate a higher communityprofile. In this way, schools can serve as effectivesupplements to adult extension programs.

Audience: Children of all ages, and of both rural and urbanbackgrounds. Indirectly, the families of the children andother community adults.

When Appropriate: When students can apply conservationeducation material immediately, e.g. when they can planttrees on family farms or start community litter campaigns.When the goal is to train to...ori.ow's adults to be able tomake wise environmental decisions. When the material to betaught is simple enough to be taught by teachers untrainedin environmental management and easily understood bystudents. When school activities can conscruz;-.ively involvethe rest of the community.

Strengths: School programs can reach a large number ofstudents and cover detailed substantive material. Becausethe audience is likely to participate in a school programover many years, difficult and complicated concepts can begradually and mear'ngfully presented. A conservation ethiccan be instilled while students are still forming attitudesand values. Schools can also be used to educate adults, asdescribed above.

Weaknesses: A significant gap may exist between the timewhen students learn something and the time when they :aye achance to apply it. During this time, students can forgetmuch of the information taught in a conservation educationprogram. Thus a school program may be effective only whencombined with an adult extension program that builds on whatthe schools have taught. Because of this aap, school

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program:, may not be as appropriate for confronting presentenvironmental problems as programs directed at adults.

Some school study programs are so structured that thereis no flexibility for adding new material. School policymay be to teach students the basics in reading, math,history, and science, and no room may exist for topics suchas tree-planting and soil conservation.

School programs can require a great deal of time andeffort to prepare. Existing curricula must be reviewed, newcurricula must be developed, financed, and approved;materials must be printed, and teachers must be trained intheir use. It can be very difficult to convince poorlysupported rural teachers to do additional work witiout somesort of compensation.

Implications for Implementation

There are several steps in introducing a conservationeducation program in the schools:

o Analyze the existing curriculum. Determine if thecountry's curriculum has a conservation educationprogram of study. If so, does the program address thecountry's environmental problems, or does it merelyteach ecology or natural history without relatingthese to environmental management? if not, can such aprogram be developed as a separate entity, or 'an itbe incorporated into existing pro-rams?

o Obtain Ministry of Education support for developing acurriculum. Even if Ministry officials are notdirectly involved, keep them informed of the program'sprogress. Ultimately, they will be the decidingfactor for institutionalizing the curriculum on thenational level.

o Develop a curriculum with a counterpart orcounterparts. The counterpart will be able to helpmake the curriculum appropriate to the culture and theschool system. Trained counterparts can also con '-inuerefining the curriculum, training teachers to use it,and producing additional study material after thedevelopment worker has left. Where conservationeducation is being introduced to a school system forthe first time, it is critical that teachers beinvolved in the design of the curriculum itself.Because they are not likely to have environmentaltraining it will take longer, but there will be a muchhigher probability that the teachers will implementthe curriculum. Furthermore, they will become

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environmentally conscious through the process ofdeveloping the curriculum. We have seen very fewsuccessful school programs when the outsider designedthe curriculum himself or borrowed a model from adeveloped country.

o Pilct test in schools. This will reveal severalfeJtures about the curriculum.

o Can it be understood and used by the teachers?

o Can it be understood and enjoyed by the students?

o Are the materials required by the curriculum'sactivities available in the school communities? Inmany schools, chalk and a chalkboard are the onlyteaching materials available. The existence of suchcommon items as cellophane tape, crayons, scissors,construction paper, clay, and feltboards should notbe assumed. Do not, however, underestimate humaningenuity. Many of the functions of these itemscan be fulfilled by using local materials.

o Evaluate and revise the curriculum.

o Train other teachers to usct the curriculum. Attentionto this phase is critical. A conservation educationcurriculum will do little good if it is only usedeffectively in the communities where it waspilot - tested.

o Print and distribute the curriculum. In countrieswhere textbooks are scarce, every effort should bemade to use cheap materials like newsprint ormimeograph paper. Curriculum guides need not bebulky, lengthy documents.

It is tempting to use existing curricula from othercountries, adapting them by changing the place namesand the plants and animals cited. This, however, isonly a short term solution. For one thing, theconcepts and approaches in curricula from developedcountries are usually not relevant in developingsituations. But also, pr,senting teachers with anexisting program deprive-: them of the chance to reviewand organize rele-ant information to meet theircommunity's needs. The process of designing acurriculum from scratch is as important as itseventual implementation.

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Clubs and Non-governmental NonprofitEnvironmental Orgarizations

Various kinds of clubs, including nonprofit organiza-tions, professional societies, and both adult and youthgroups, can contribute to environmental management. Amongother things, they can carry out such environmentallybeneficial community projects as tree planting and littercampaig-s, study environmental problems and recommend theirsolutions, lobby for environmentally responsible legislationand policy, educate the general public on environmentalissues, and provide funding for natural resource managementprojects. Thus conservation education efforts can beproductive when directed at making private groups interestedand effective forces in environmental management.

A wide variety of clubs and organizations can beenvironmentally effective. Some can be formed solely tofurther conservation goals, such as natural historysocieties, outing clubs, conservation associations, andgroups which provide volunteer assistance in managingunderfunded national parks and reserves. Many becomeeffective lobbying and advocacy organizations. Otherorganizations, such as the Lions Club, Rotary Club, andChamber of Commerce, have become effectively involved inconservation even though they have other interests as well.Agriculture and rural development cooperatives are oftensufficiently organized to implement environmental projects.Youth groups like Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts and 4-H clubs cancarry out a broad range of conservation activities andeducate both their own members and the general public. Forexample, the extraordinary African wildlife clubs of theSudan, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, and Kenya feature animpressive array of creative educational activities forlarge numbers of young people.

Private organizations able to contribute to conservationrange in size and scope from local community groups of onlya few people to international organizations with largememberships. They can be sophisticated and well-organizedassociations, with by-laws, logos, and regular meetingschedules; or informal ad-hoc groups. Some have their ownnewsletters, sponsor special events, create arts and crafts,sponsor ficld trips, and develop community service projects.

Often such groups include influential people in theirmemberships. Experience has shown that non-governmentalorganizations can warrant the development worker's attenticnbecause they are generally the most effective change agentsfor improving the quality of life for poorer citizens.

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Audience:

Organization memberships of 311 ages and with a broadrange of interests, objectives, and capabilities.

When appropriate:

When a recognized need can be addressed by a particulargroup and when addressing the need is within an existinggroup's interests and resources or within the interests ofenough people to organize a new organization. Involvementin environmental issues must be based on sound environmentalmanagement principles; groups that react emotionally toenvironmental issues out of ignorance are, in the long run,counterproductive.

Strengths:

Because of their diversity, private organizations caneffectively contribute to conservation in a number of ways.People belong to such groups because they are committed tothe organization's objectives and enjoy volunteering theirtime to carry out the activities. Thus if a conservationeducation program can help an organization meet itsobjectives, the conservation educator can count on commitedmemberships willing to work at carrying out effectiveprojects. Frequently, such organizations have evolved as aresult of a particular need recognized by a group of

citizens. Motivation is generally high and tne developmentworker can move right to the task of educatiu71. Citizens'groups are often aware of social and cultural factorsinfluencing environmental problems and are less likely topresent inappropriate suggestions for change.

Youth conservation clubs can usually pass on moreconservation information to their members than schoolsbecause raey do not have tne general education responsi-bilities that schools do. Consequently, they can be moreflexi.ble. Youth club leaders can also be very highlymotivated and committed to club goals.

Weaknesses:

Money is very often in short supply, so a shortage ofmaterials may exist. Without money, it is difficult toobtain an office, maintain paid staff, and establishcredibility with a logo, address, telephone and stationery.While the volunteerism may be a strength, it can also causecertain problems. For example, long-term conservationprograms that reiuire continuity may suffer if members loseinterest. Also, an effort must often be made to makeconservation projects enjoyable, which can significantlycompromise program goals. Finally, when environmentalproblems are controversial, conflict can result amongmembers regarding which issues to address.

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Implications for Implementation:

Working with well established groups requires a minimalcommitment of resources. Members are already used todrawing on their owr resources to support activities and canbe quite resourceful in developing materials and raisingfunds for conservation efforts.

Starting new organizations is more costly in time andmoney. First, it must be clear to potential members thatorganizing themselves to become involved in conservationwill be an enjoyable and a valid use of their time. Timemust also be expended in developing infrastructures,policies and procedures before newly-formed clubs can getinvolved in conservation programs. Even so, organizing neednot be expensive. Meeting places can be members' homes;materials can often be procured through donations.Volunteers, by nature, are resourceful if highly motivated.

New organizations are often started by one or twodynamic individuals who, over time convince others tosupport the same cause. A development worker should becareful not tr, take on this role entirely alone, or the clubmay not survive for long after the worker leaves.

Mass Media - Television, tadio, Newspapers

In the United States, the mass media frequently treatenvironmental subjects in a superficial way, reporting onlynewsworthy events like nuclear plant accidents or thecontroversial policies of the Secretary of the Interior.

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The mass media in developing countries act in the same way;covering n_wsworthy events like rallies, meetings, pressconferences, and ceremonies. Usually, such coverage is onlyeffective in increasing people's awareness, not insignificantly expanding their environmental knowledge andchanging their behavior.

But mass media in developing countries also becomeinvolved in in-depth education. This is because extensionservices and school educational materials are typically in

short supply in developing countries, so mass media arerelied upon to take up the slack at a minimum of expense.Also, many government T.V. systems are desperate for localprogramming that will allow them to show something betterthan "Leave it to Beaver" or "Kojak" reruns. Thus, theconservation educator in developing countries can often find

a capable newspaper or radio or television station willingto collaborate on in-depth educational programs.

Both government and privately-owned mass media frequentlypresent such programs. Many types of educational programshave been produced in mass media, including:

o Educational radio or newspaper series directed atrural populations, covering such topics as health andchild care, literacy, home economics, and agriculturaltechniques. Some try to entertain their audiences inorder to attract them, the education messages oftenbeing deliared through dramatization. These programsare often supplemented by extension workers who workwith groups of listeners/readers to expand upon thJmaterial presented in the media.

o Weekly newspaper school supplements that featureactivities teachers can use in school. This is a veryeffective way of providing information when a shortageof school materials exists.

o Weekly columns on environmental topics, such as accuntry's wildlife.

o Contests. It Paraguay, one newspaper printed daily aportion of a photo of a species of the country'swildlife. The portions were cut out and pasted into abooklet provided by the paper. The first person tocomplete the booklet won a prize, and all contestantswere eligible for a drawing for other prizes. Eachphotograph was accompanied by text which described theanimal and gave interesting natural historyinformation. This way the newspaper sold copies andthe readers learned about the wildlife in their

country.

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Mass media can also communicate environmental informationin ways more familiar to the U.S. coverage of environ-mental issues and events, editorial columns, advertisements,etc. Such treatment of environmental information is usuallyonly effective in increasing people's awareness, not inpresenting detailed information.

Radio is usually the most effective mass medium forpresenting extensive information to rural people; manycannot afford television and many cannot read, but many poorfamilies have radios. On the other hand, newspapers candisplay drawings and diagrams, while television programs,though they will reach fewer people and are expensive toproduce, can be very Effective in increasing environment-alawareness, if not in presenting detailed information.

In selecting a mass media communication strategy, thefollowing questions need to be answered:

o How detailed and complicated is the information to bepresented? How often will it need to be repeated?

o Will extension agents be required in the vill,ole:, L,expand upon the message? If so, who is available dndhow much training do they need?

o What types of mass media reach the educationalprogram's intended audiences? Which newspapers dothey buy? Do they have access to radio or television?

Audience:

Mass media are appropriate for communicating with largenumbers of people throughout a country or region. Audiencescan either be undifferentiated - the general public - orspecific, like farmers, homemakers, or schoolchildren.

When Appropriate:

Mass media are best at treating information in a generalway and at increasing people's awareness. Special programand article series, however, can treat material in moredepth. Truly involved and complicated material can bepresented only when expanded upon by on-site personnel(extension agents). In effect, mass media supplementextension programs in such situations.

Strengths:

The use of mass media can reach large numbers of peopleless expensively than any other method. They are unexcelledin reporting currant issues and events. Used creatively,

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mass media can effectively present information appropriateto a wide range of situations.

Weaknesses:

Although the media can reach large audiences, they havelittle control over people's participation. People can turnoff their radios and televisions or not buy a newspaperwhenever they choose. Presentations can be compromised attimes if they have to keep audiences "entertained" to retaintheir interest. Detailed information must be parceled outslowly and simply so as not to bore audiences.

Implications for Implementation:

The best way to have a conservation message presentedthrough a mass medium is to work closely with an employee ofthe medium chosen. The educator can provide the material tobe presented; the technician can adapt it to the medium'spolicies, purpose, and audience. Usually, mass mediapersonnel are quite receptive to proposed cooperativearrangements. They consider such arrangements to be a wayto obtain free expertise that can help them meet theirobjectives of educating the public, selling more newspapers,providing public services, attracting aJvertisers, etc.

Development workers should avoid taking the primary rolein publishing or producing their own articles or programs.The communication effort is much more likely to besuccessful over the long term if counterparts and communitymembers are integrally involved in all aspects of theproject from the beginning. As always, the developmentworker's task should be to facilitate the work of others whoultimately will be responsible for carrying on the projectin the future.

Cooperative arrangements can sometimes save theconservation educator the trouble of locating funds andother resources, as occasionally the media will providethem. Often, however, the educator will have to findadditional financial support, especially when usingtelevision. Support can come from private business sources,or it can come from international aid organizations. Forexample, an Ecuadoran private conservation group, FundacionNatura, is the designated sponsor of some environmentalprograms produced by the British Broadcasting Company, theCousteau Society, and other organizations. This has allowedthem to present their logo and a simple conservationeducation message during the time set aside in the programsfor advertising.

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Because of the size of the audience that potentially canbe reached through mass media, a great deal of effort mustbe put into planning how they will be used. One small errorcan reach thousands of people and be difficult to undo.Unless the message is short and simple, requiring nofollow-up information, time is needed to prepare severalprograms in advance. A long lapse between presentations ina series will lose audience attention and programcontinuity.

Special Printed Materials: brochures, flyers,coloring books, comic books, story books,

"photonovels" etc.

Special printed materials can effectively communicateconservation information in a wide variety of situations.They can be handed out in schools, in extension offices, atoral presentations, to households, in public meeting places,and many other places. Some can even be sold. For peoplewith limited literacy skills, comic books and "photonovels"can be prepared. The publications can vary in length,substance, and quality, depending on the objective.

Audience:

All ages, both literate and, when appropr'atelydesigned, illiterate.

When appropriate:

These types of materials are best suited forcommunicating simple concepts to large numbers of people.They ai-e most effective when supplementing otherconservation education efforts, such as extension and schoolprograms, but they should always be able to stand on theirown to educ'te people who are not participating in suchprograms.

Strengths:

Printed materials can inexpensively communicateinformation to a large number of people, and they can bereferred to repeatedly at the reader's convenience. Theycan be designed to be appropriate for relatively smalltarget audiences, unlike printed mass media. Some types canbe sold to raise money for other conservation efforts.

Weaknesses

As with mass media, special publications depend on thereader's willingness to pick them up and read them.Compared with mass media, the production of special

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publications costs the educator more morey per personcommunicated with. If the educator produces thepublications independently of a mass media apparatus, itwill be necessary to find personnel - writers, cartoonists,photographers, layout artists, printers, etc. - materials,printing facilities, and the money to pay for them. Thiscan be very difficult in developing countries.

Implications for Implementation:

Publications can be printed simply on mimeographequipment, or more expensively with photographs, colorreproductions, and typesetting. Developing specialpublications can require specially trained personnel. Asystem for distribution of the material:, should be developedbefore undertaking production and thought should be given toshowing the materials with groups that might find themuseful other than the audience that has been specificallytargeted.

Exhibits and Demonstrations

Exhib....s can range from a Poster un a bulletin board toa large scale display, diorama, or f.eld demonstration of aspecific reforeitatior. or soil conservation technique. Theycan be established in a variety of locations: publicsquares, schools, town office buildings, h-.,alth centers, andextension offices, to name a few.

Conservation exhibits can also be established infacilities exclusively dedicated to that purpose. Suchpla -es - called nature or outdoor education centers arewidespread in the United States, where they can be found innational parks and wildlife refuges and where tney aremanaged by private conservation organizations, schooldistricts, and all levels of government. These centers canhave a wide range of features, including nature trails,demonstration areas, and indoor exhibits. Nature centersare also used for civic meetings, seminars and lectu-es,cultural events, and teacher training workshops.

Audience:

The general public, all ages. In addition, speciallyTargeted audiences; for example, farmers might be reachedwith an exhibit in an agricultural extension office or afood market.

When appropriate:

Exhibits can be effective if the audiences targeted bythe educational effort are known, or can be convinced $-t,

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frequent certain places for a sufficient length of time.They are most effective in presenting short messages andsimple practical information.

Strengths

Demonstrations of conservation principles and techniquescan be very effective in affecting people's attitudes:people tend to believe something they can see in real lifemore than in an illustration. If they can see soilconservation techniques being applied effectively in a

field, or planted trees growing and yielding usefulproducts, they will probably understand better how suchpractices can benefit them than if they only hear about themor see them described on a printed page.

Attractive and interesting exhibits can attLactaudiences to oral presentations, at which ti:tie furtherinformation can be presented to them. After an initialinvestment of time and money, exhibits can last indefinitely.

Weaknesses:

For exhibits to be effective, people must come to seethem, and the educator has minimal control over who sees theexhibits (traveling exhibits have different drawbacks seenext section). Exhibit materials and the space where theyare presented can be costly. Specialists may have to behired to construct and design complicated displays anddioramas. Maintenance is required, and vandalism isfrequently a problem.

Implications for Implementation:

If materials cannot be donated, exhibits can be costly.Outdoor exhibits need some type of shelter and signs to drawpublic attention; even the simplest exhibits require paper,space, and protection. Permission is often needed fordisplays in public buildings. Often someone is needed tomaintain the display, to make sure the information is keptup to date, and to keep the exhibit clean and attractive. Apoorly-maintained exhibit can be counterproductive. (SeeJudith Brace et al, Peace Corps Manual Teaching Conservationin Developing Countries for excellent and detailedsuggestions on exhibi', design.)

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Traveling Road Shows

These can include exhibits, films, slide shows, puppetshows, and even live animals that travel from pl3ce toplace, usually in a van or other vehicle.

Audience:

The general public, all ages.

When a7propriate:

For delivering simple messages to the general public inremote areas. The information presented can range frompractical guidance in conservation techniques to generalecological concepts. As such presentations are usuallyshown only a few times in one locality at one time, thistechnique can do little more than raise people's awarenessof and interest in environmental subjects.

Strengths

Traveling road shows do what stationary exhibitscannot: they go where the people are, rather than waitingfor people to come to them. One van with materials cancover a great deal of territory and offer several educationstrategies at the same time. Traveling road shows cansupport long-term conservation education programs alreadybeing implemented in rural communities by helping themmaintain momentum and reinforcing what is being taught.

Weaknesses:

The appeal of this type of strategy can be deceptive.It is flashy and attracts a great deal of attention, but itis often costly and ineffective as an education tool. As

notl C..)

the shows move frequently, they can only treat the subjectmatter superficially. They require much time, money, andgasoline; and many personnel. Often, substantial numbers ofpeople come to see these presentations, motivated bycuriosity and boredom, but little meaningful behavior changecan be expecte6 without substantial follow-up. Simplygathering an audience doe:. not guarantee that effectiveeducation is taking place. Educators must spend a goodamount of time driving from one place to another andmaintaining equipment, much of it expensive and susceptibleto damage from traveling over bumpy, dusty roads.

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Implications for Implementation:

Most successful road shows require their owntransportation which leads to additional expense. Sometimesa driver is needed, vehicle maintenance is usually costly,and in many countries fuel is scarce, expensive, and onlyerratically available. Road shows generally requiregenerators for electrical power, slide projectors, andexhibits; all can be damaged being transported on ruralroads.

Special Events

Educational strategies can be presented as part ofspecial events or campaigns, such as annual tree-plantingdays, wildlife weeks, and anti-litter campaigns. Suchevents can provide the impetus for further educationalefforts that can dr7matically increase people's awareness ofenvironmental isLa, Special events are very effective forconcentrating efforts on a single topic. They can attractspeakers, inspire rallies and conferences which attractmedia attention, and motivate schools and mass media toaddress selected issues. What is more, the sense ofimportance and specialness of an event does wonders forenlisting people's participation in the event. Impressivebursts of energy can appear when the time commitment isshort, the publicity extensive, the goal clearly worthwhile,and the fellowship and espri: de corps of fellow workersabundant. The net result of special events can be increasedeffort leading to increased education producing heightenedawareness.

One example of a large-scale event is the U.S. NationalWildlife Federation's (NWF) annual National Wildlife Week.Each year, a different topic is chosen as the focus of theweek; recent topics have included soil, water, the baldeagle, and U.S. public lands. To celebrate the event, NWFproduces education kits that include teacher activity guidesand posters, and distributes them free of charge to schoolsacross the country. Public affairs announcements for

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television are also produced, usually with a celebrity asspokesperson. The Federation's magazines and press releasesdiscuss the issue, and media events such as speeches andconferences are held.

When appropriate:

For increasing the general public's awareness ofenvironmental issues; for galvanizing people's participationin implementing educational strategies.

Strengths:

Special events are very effective in rallying volunteerparticipation and in f-)cusing the public's attention onselected environmenta issues.

Weaknesses:

The intensity of special events cannot be sustained forlong. After a concerted effort, both program worker andaudience may lose interest, energy, and commitment. Theprogram itself loses its sense of urgency. The esprit decorps of volunteer workers may be replaced by a let-downfeeling; thus, special events may make it more difficult toenlist volunteer participation in the future. Usually,increasing public awareness only begins to change people'senvironmental behavior. Unless such events are followed byongoing educational efforts, people will forget the event'smessage.

Implications for Implementation:

The success of special events depends a great deal ontheir scale and the people working on implementing them.Usually volunteer participation is essential: peoplevolunteering to give speeches, write press releases, makeposters, contact friends in the government, attend rallies,plant trees, write letters, and staff fund-raising events.Thus, an educator organizing a special event should expectto spend a good deal of time recruiting, organizing, andmotivating volunteers.

Events receive significantly more exposure when theybecome official national events. Government leaders canlend endorsements, the services of their agencies, andperhaps even funds to the programs. With governmentsanction, organizers can gain access to school systems,enlist agricultural extension to help spread the word, andconvince high-level officials to speak at rallies. What ismore, official government events are more likely to attractpress interest.

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Audiovisual Programs

Slide shows, narrated either by a speaker or by atape-recorded message, can be used to communicate with a

wide range of audiences, from schoolchildren to farmers togovernment leaders. They can effectively keep people'sattention and communicate environmental concepts;discussions and additional instruction can follow.

When Appropriate:

When communicating moderately in-depth information.Slide shows are most effective in changing environmentalbehavior when used as a supplement to more intensiveeducational efforts, such as extension or school programs.Used alone, a slide show can raise people's awareness ofenvironmental issues.

Audience:

All ages, both general public and specialized audiences.

Strengths:

Proficient speakers can usually communicate theimportance of environmental messages and encourage listenersto take action more effectively than printed or other formsof mass media can. In addition, they can provide follow-upadvice and answer questions. Slides can obviously helpspeakers get their point across. Slide shows accompanied bypackaged scripts or tape-recorded speeches can enable schoolteachers and others to effectively communicate environmentalinformation, even though they may not be familiar with thesubject matter. Tapes can be prepared in multiplelanguages. The promise of slides can attract people inrural areas to presentations, and slides can hold theirattention.

Weaknesses:

Taking, processing, and presenting slides can require a

great deal of time. Slide processing in developingcountries is often unreliable and expensive, and equipmentand spare parts for projectors can be difficult to locate.Dusty and rough roads can ruin slide projectors and taperecorders, and hot, humid weather can cause mold to grow onslides. Visual communication may be ineffective in certaincultures.

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Songs, Proverbs, Parables, Dance

In many developing countries, these and other forms oforal communication predominate over written forms. Indeed,some cultures are not easily able to interpret either wordsor two-dimensional images. Oral means of communication canhave great impact on people's beliefs and behavior, beingused to communicate tribal and clan histories, religiousdogma, taboos, and traditions as well as current events.

When assessing a community, find out whether such formsof communication prevail. If so, can the conservationmessage be effectively communicated in such fashion?

Audience:

All ages.

When Appropriate:

When such forms of communication are considered reliableways of transferring information.

Strengths:

In certain cultures, such forms of communication are tnemost effective ways of communicating information. They canoften communicate what to western eyes seems to be amazinglycomplex and detailed information.

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Weaknesses:

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It can be difficult for a western development worker toadequately appreciate the potential of such means ofcommunication and to effectively work with them. In suchcases, counterparts can play critical roles.

Miscellaneous Materials

The conservation educator can also communicate verysimple messages ,Ising a variety of miscellaneous media, suchas bumper stickers, T-shirts, posters, and buttons. Usingsuch materials can effectively increase people's awarenessof environmental issues and of the organizations producingthe materials. In addition, some of these materials, likeT-shirts, can be sold to raise money. Several conservationorganizations, including the Association for Conservation ofNatural Resources in Costa Rica, the Honduran EcologicalAssociation, and the Paraguayan National Forest Service havesuccessfully sold T-shirts advertising their mission.Meanwhile, on the Caribbean island of St. Lucia, enoughbumper stickers have been produced with the illustration ofan endangered island parrot to cover half the cars on theisland. And, various countries have produced postersillustrating endangered wildlife. Fundacion Natura inEcuador successfully collaborated with one of Quito's majorhotels to produce table placemats for its restaurantsillustrating some of Ecuador's endangered plants and animalsand providing natural history information.

Audience

The general public.

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When Appropriate:

For communicating simple messages to increase people'sawareness of environmental issues, events, andorganizations. To raise money.

Strengths:

Expressing simple messages through such media can reachpeople that would otherwise not encounter environmentalinformation. Selling such materials can raise money whilecommunicating.

Weaknesses:

The messages that can be communicated using suchmaterials must be very simple and can only be expecte' toincrease people's awareness. Usually, more intensiveeducation methods will be required to bring aboutsignificant change in environmental behavior. Such methodsare most effective in reaching the general public, ratherthan specially targeted groups.

One-to-One Communication

The situation may arise when the conservation educatorwill have the most environmental impact by educatingcarefully-selected individuals, rather than groups. Such astrategy is warranted when an individual can significantlyinfluence the behavior of others. Both formal leaders, suchas key governmental or political party officials, andinformal leaders, such as respected community citizens, canqualify for such attention. Governmental officials can,.write and enforce laws and policy and organize communitydevelopment programs such as tree-planting campaigns.Meanwhile, people will often follow the advice and imitatethe actions of informal community leaders, because theyrespect and trust these individuals.

To communicate effectively with such individuals, theeducator will have to proceed as with any target au-hence:present the message so that it addresses the leader'sinterests and employ a strategy that can effectively get theinformation across. The educator may try to educate a groupof people to which the targeted leader belongs, perhapsusing some of the strategies listed in this chapter. Or, itmay be most productive simply to speak with the leaderinformally or socially. The effort may require one meetingor a series of informal contacts spread out over manymonths. Each leader and environmental situation will bedifferent.

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Audience:

Formal and informal community leaders.

When Appropriate:

When one or a few individuals are the key to influencingpeople's environmental behavior.

Strengths:

Working with just one influential leader to change hisbehavior can affect the behavior of many other people andgenerate a genuine commitmerJ: that will keep the individualinvolved over the long term. The approach often requiresnothing in equipment. Once a community leader has agreed touse his influence to change people's behavior, he can be aproductive ally for the educator il organizing and directingpeople and in enlisting financial and logistical support.In other words, the leader can become an effectivecounterpart.

Weaknesses:

In focusing an effort on just one individual, all eggsare put in one basket. If the leader is not convinced ordoes not come through with promised assistance the educatormay have lost valuable time that could have been spent onbroader approaches. What is more, the official may move inthe hierarchy to a position less useful for environmentalconcerns.

Implications for Implementation:

For this approach to work, it is ciitical that theeducator accurately identify the influential leaders in acommunity, their potential effectiveness (i.e., how manypeople will follow the leaders' direction or example), andhow their behavior and opinion can best be influenced. Thusonly the educator who understands his community can use thisstrategy effectively.

SUMMARY

There are many possible education strategies availableto the conservation educator, and it is quite likely thatmore than one strategy will be able to contribute to eachprogram. Selecting strategies requires considering theaudiences to be reached, the amount of information to becommunicated, and the situation's logistical, financial andotheL limitations.

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Selecting and developing strategi.es should involvecounterparts as much as possible. Strategies should also beevaluated for their potential cost in human resources. time,and finances. Chapter 7 provides guidance in reviewing thistype of information.

Review the following questions while selecting astrategy or strategies.

o WHAT WILL BE THE EDUCATION PROGRAM'S TARGETEDAUDIENCES? Age, occupation, relationship toenvironmental problem

o HOW DO THE MEMBERS OF THESE AUDIENCES GENERALLY LEARNNEW INFORMATION? Newspapers, T.V , evening schoolprograms, extension materials

o IS THE EDUCATIONAL MESSAGE SUPERFICIAL, ESSENTIALLYPROMOTING AWARENESS AND TRANSMITTING LIGHTINFORMATION? Methods for superficial treatment (whenused alone):

Mass mediaExhibits and postersBrochures and bookletsTraveling road showsSpecial events and campaignsAudiovisual programs

o IS THE EDUCATIONAL MESSAGE PRIMARILY PRACTICAL,OFFERING THE AUDIENCE "HOW-TO" INFORMATION TOENCOURAGE THEM TO TAKE SPECIAL ACTIONS? Methods forpractical information:

o Field trips, demonstration plotso Brochures, posters, flyerso Newspaper supplementso Extension programs

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o IS THE EDUCATIONAL MESSAGE TO BE AN INTENSIVETREATMENT OF THE SUBJECT MATTER, COVERING COMPLICATEDCONCEPTS? Methods for intensive information:

o School curriculao Training workshopso Extension programso Seminars, One-on-One Communicationo Clubs

o IS THE STRATEGY FEASIBLE GIVEN THE SITUATION'SLIMITATIONS?

- Logistical limitations e.g., accessibility of targetaudieaces, available transportation, available timeyou can spend on the project.

- Equipment limitations - What equipment is needed, andhow available is it?

- Financial limitations - How much money is available(or potentially available through outside grants)?

- Personnel limitations How many people are needed tocarry out the program's strategies, and what skills dothey need to have?

- Policy limitations - What restrictions do the programshave to heed that have been sec by the host agency,the agency which is paying extension workers orteacher's salaries, or any other relevant agencies?

o WHAT WILL BE YOUR ROLE IN IMPLEMENTING THESTRATEGIES? See Chapter 7.

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7

Implementation

I NIRODUCT I ON

Now the development worker has an education programready for implementation, one that specifies what will betaught and why, and who will be taught and how. The planshould also include a budget and an estimate of thepersonnel needed to implement the project. At this point,there will be a host of tasks that will need to be carriedout: funding and equipment are needed and personnel must befound and trained, inter-agency agreements signed, andlogistics worked out.

As trained available personnel are usually in shortsupply in developing countries, the development worker mayeasily end up carrying out critical implementation tasksthat fall outside the realm of conservation education. Forthose who enjoy doing a variety of tasks and working to makeplans a reality, this can be the most exciting part of thewhole project.

This chapter briefly discusses the roles the developmentworker might play in implementing conservation educationprograms.

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GUIDELINES

Although program implementation is treated here as aseparate phase, it actually begins during program design.If there is one undeniable axiom in development, it is thatprograms must be designed with the participation of thosewho ultimately will be implementing them. The best-designedprogram will lie forever on some dusty shelf unless someonepicks it up and does some'-hing with it. That person will befar more committed to the project if be or she feels itreflects his or her ideas and concerns. A person can onlyfeel that way from participating in the project'sdevelopment.

The development worker will still have several roles toplay in implementing the conservation education program.Most frequently, this will mean serving as a catalyst,obtaining and organizing host agency interest andparticipation. Development workers will frequently findthat they must do some tasks themselves--for example,approaching a funding agency, arranging meetings betweendifferent agencies, or organizing a personnel trainingworkshop. The development worker should carefully considerwhether the program will benefit by involving a counterpartin these tasks from the start. It may seem inconvenient andtime-consuming, but the development worker's effectivenesswill, in the long run, prove more effective because of it.

Quite simply, counterparts should work alongside thedevelopment worker, especially if the work will need tocontinue after the development worker has left. Willfunding agencies need to be approached again next year, orwill personnel training workshops have to be presentedperiodicr.11y? Somebody will have to know how to do thesetasks in the development worker's absence for the program tobe effective. The ultimate goal of the conservationeducator is to develop a program that continues after she isgone. Few effective conservation education programs endafter one or two years (the average stay of a developmentworker).

In reality, however, there may be nobody immediatelyavailable who has the time and training to work side-by-sidecontinually with the development worker. Informalcounterparts in the workplace or community then become evenmore important, as mentioned in Chapter 1.

If an uncomfortable amount of responsibility is loadedon the development worker alone, it is important to becertain that the worker's host agency is fully committed asthe project develops. There are several ways to help ensurethis.

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1. Prepare a chronogram of the work that has to be doneto implement the project. This should state what needs tobe done - e.g., fund-raising, signing inter-agencyagreements, arranging project logistics - and when. Certaindeadlines will have to be met; things will have to beaccomplished, for example, before the development worker'sdeparture, the year-end budget expires, or the rainy season'begins.

The original chronogram, however, will probably be basedun only a very rough estimate of the tasks needed to be doneand the time that will be required to do them. Most likely,the development worker and counterpart will be tryingsomething new in their community, and they will largely beunable to predict what will happen. In fact, it usuallybecomes apparent that things take much longer to do thanoriginally surmised. Some tasks, in fact, may beimpossible; the money, personnel, equipment, or agencycommitment hoped for just are not there. The developmentworker should not only be prepared to frequently veer awayfrom the chronogram, but be ready to change the entireeducation program to fit newly-perceived realities.Chronograms might best be updated on a regular basis.

2. As much as possible, in-country resources should berelied upon for financing, personnel, and equipment.

The development worker may easily have access to foreignsources of funding and equipment that the host countryagency does not. Such sources can provide crucialcontributions to a project; the risk, however, is that theproject will develop a dependence on sources which maybecome iaccessible when the development worker leaves. Theproject may then expire unless it has developed acontinually reliable source of needed resources.

When searching for funding sources, it is important todetermine whether outside funding will be needed only onceor continually. If funding is needed continually, thedevelopment worker should help the project develop securefunding sources within the community. Large foreign donoragencies may be able to provide some money to get a projectstarted; they probably will not be willing to provide fundson a regular basis.

Small but effective methods of local fund-raising shouldbe encouraged: T-shirts, posters, handicrafts, bake-sales,dances, raffles, and contests, for example. In addition,the more the community or the host agency puts into theproject the more committed they will be to the project'ssuccess.

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3. Make sure that the host country agency responsiblefor implementing the education project periodically performstasks that contribute to the project's implementation.

If the development worker is carrying out much of theimplementation work alone, it is possible to get so absorbedin the work that the commitment of the host country agencyto the project is not considered. The agency should beinvolved not just at the beginning and end of the project,but also periodically throughout. Is the development workerwriting a funding proposal? Perhaps a host agency officialshould sign it, visit the potential funding donor in person,and pledge agency counterpart funds or their equivalent inpersonnel and equipment. Is the development workerorganizing a personnel training workshop? Maybe the hostagency director should give an opening day speech and signand hand out certificates at the workshop's closingceremony. Is the development worker trying to organize aninter-agency cooperative agreement? A high-level hostagency person should attend the meetings and sign theultimate agreement.

4. Have the project identified as a host country agency,not a Peace Corps or outside development agency, project.

Throughout the program's design and implementation, thedevelopment worker should have made clear to the host agencyhow the program contributes to the agency's interests. Now,even if the development worker has been chiefly responsiblefor the program's development, he should take only minimalcredit for the work done. Written materials, for example,should name the host agency not the development agency asthe main publisher of the materials. Local press andtelevision coverage of the project should be encouraged,identifying the host country agency as the project'ssponsor. This can significantly increase host agencycommitment to making the project a success.

SUMMARY

Chances are conservation educators working in adeveloping situation will themselves play important roles instarting and 1., cementing the projects they have helpeddesign. The challenge confronting them is not only carryingout these responsibilities successfully, many of which maybe totally unfamiliar, but also in making sure that hostcountry agency commitment to the project and its ability tocarry it out are not lost.

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The chapter discusses several techniques to help ensurecommunity and host agency involvement:

o Preparing a chronogram listing the project activitiesthat need to be carried out and, from it, determiningwhat the development worker must do and what hostagency personnel and community members should do.

o Developing sources of funding, equipment, andpersonnel that the project can tap into after thedevelopment worker's departure.

o Working with a counterpart whenever possible,particularly on tasks that must be carried out afterthe development worker leaves.

o Making sure the host country agency responsible forcarrying out the project participates periodically inits implementation.

o Making sure the host country agency and communitymembers receive appropriate credit for the project.

Questions

o WHAT ARE THE TASKS THAT NEED DOING TO GET THE PROGRAMSTARTED?

o WHEN DO THEY ABSOLUTELY HAVE TO GET DONE? WHEN WOULDIT BE PREFERABLE TO HAVE THEM DONE?

o WHICH TASKS SHOULD AND CAN BE DONE BY HOST COUNTRYPERSONNEL; WHI'.2H ONES HAVE TO BE DONE BY YOU; BY:IMMUNITY MEMBERS?

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o HOW CAN THE HOST COUNTRY AGENCY PARTICIPATE IN EACHTASK TO KEEP ALIVE ITS INTEREST IN THE PROJECT ANDDEMONSTRATE ITS COMMITMENT?

o WILL THE PROJECT NEED CONTINUAL SOURCES OF FUNDING,EQUIPMENT, AND OTHER RESOURCES? IF SO, HAVE YOUTAPPED SUCH SOURCES? DO HOST COUNTRY PERSONNELAND/OR COMMUNITY MEMBERS HAVE THE ABILITY TOSUCCESSFULLY APPROACH SUCH SOURCES?

o DOES THE HOST AGENCY FEEL THE PROJECT TO BE ITS OWN?

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EvaluationINTRODUCTION

Evaluation should be carried out while the educationprogram is in progress as well as after the effort hasended. Carrying out periodic evaluations while the programis in progress can enable the development worker to makemid-course changes and improve the program's effectiveness.Evaluating at the end of the effort can benefit others whofollow. This includes not only people in the worker's site,but people working on similar projects in other communitiesas well. There is a notable scarcity of documentedconservation education case studies, so objective anddetailed accounts of program successes and difficulties cansignificantly help others. (Peace Corps' InformationCollection Exchange office was specifically established tohelp in this exchange of information.) Program-endevaluation can also prove valuable to the developmentworker's host agency. With data from the evaluation, theagency can decide how to implement sue' programs in thefuture and, in fact, whether the time and expense investedin the program could best be spent elsewhere.

The conservation educator can accomplish a great dealthrough continuous scrutiny of his own efforts on theproject, but can also benefit from the perspectives ofothers. Understandably, people are often reluctant to havetheir "performance" evaluated. Obviously, a developmentworker who has worked hard to accomplish something does notcare to have an outsider come in and criticize the effort

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and perhaps even the worker himself. Properly done,however, a program evaluation is not a personal critique.It is a tool to aid the worker and others to betteraccomplish their goals.

Progress in program design and procedure are impossibleunless people can learn from the efforts of those who havepreceded them. Realistically speaking, it may take theeducator two years just to establish a program, and theremay be no opportunity to evaluate it. Nevertheless, becauseevaluations are so worthwhile, every effort should be madeto do them.

GUIDELINES

The ultimate test of a conservation education effort iswhether it has led to improved environmental management. Aconservation education program cannot be consideredsuccessful unless it is reflected in people's behavior andunless that behavior change favorably affects environmentalproblems. Sometimes, many years may pass before a program'seffect can be appraised, but the program's progress towardits goals can still be evaluated while it is beingimplemented.

Unfortunately, many people attempt to evaluate programsby simply evaluating the materials produced by the program.A set of wildlife posters, for example, can be attractiveand accurate and may be displayed throughout a country.They do not, however, represent a successful conservationeducation effort if wildlife are not being managed anybetter because of them. Perhaps the people indiscriminatelykilling wildlife do not live in communities where theposters are displayed. Or, the reason that wildlife isbeing killed may not be because people do not appreciate it,but because they have been offered no alternative. In thesecases, the posters would not have reached the right targetaudiences, or they would not have addressed the reasons forthe wildlife mistreatment. They would be attractive, butirrevelant.

Consider, also, the case of one conservationorganization that wanted to help customs agents recognizeendangered orchids being transported into the country. Todo this, the organization sponsored a set of watercolorpaintings of the orchids, which everyone agreed werewell-executed and attractive. There was only one problem:most orchids are transported as rootstocks, not blossoms, sothe paintings looked like nothing the custom agents would

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encounter. Thus the educational effort failed toeffectively address the problem, in spite of the quality ofthe materials produced.

The first step in effective evaluation is the clearidentification of the program's intended objectives.Obviously, it is impossible to determine how successfully aprogram has achieved its goals unless the goals are clearlystated. Here, the program's Intended Learning Outcomes(ILO's), as described in Chapter 5, become critical. Asthey clearly outline what the program was to accomplish, itis easy to run down the list to check a program's progress.

Next, it is important to see if people have actuallyacquired the knowledge, attitudes, and skills - theprogram's ILO's - that have been transmitted. Have farmerslearned how contour plowing controls erosion, how to operateinsecticide application equipment correctly, and whyplanting trees on the hillside is a good idea? Do coastaldwellers understand the value of the mangrove swamp and whythey should not harvest sea turtle eggs recklessly? If thepeople seem to have failed to grasp this information and putit into practice, it could be because: 1) they have notbeen exposed to the message - e.g., they do not listen to aradio or read the newspapers where the message has beencommunicated; 2) they have not understood the message -e.g. the message was written and they cannot read, or it wastaught in a complicated manner, or 3) they do not believethe message because it is either inconsistent with theirestablished beliefs and customs or they do not trust theeducator or the agency he represents.

Even if people seem to have learned and believed theprogram's message they may still have not changed theirbehavior for severe']. reasons. Perhaps the attitudes theprogram has been trying to change were not the reasons forpeople's behavior in the first place. The educator may havebeen trying to teach people how to appreciate a mangroveswamp and may even have been successful. People may still,however, be clearing the swamp because they absolutelyrequire the firewood. In this case a lack of appreciationwas not the reason the swamp was being cleared. A differentmessage would be needed to change behavior.

It is also possible that some people's attitudes mayhave changed because of the educational effort, but thesepeople were not the ones affecting the resource. In thiscase, the target audience has been misidentified. Awildlife educational program presented in the capital city'snewspaper may be ineffective if the people hunting wildlifeare nomads in the country's interior. A nature trail in a

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'''' --.-

park may do little to improve how the park is treated if thepeople walking the trails are foreign tourists, while thepeople cutting down the park's trees are local residents.

Quite possibly, also, people have not changed theirbehavior as much as expected, but there is nothing in theprogram that needs adjustment. Changing people's attitudesand behavior does not happen overnight, and time may be allthat is needed. People, typically, are hesitant abouttrying something new. A small farmer, for example, does notusually enjoy a large margin for error. Plowing his fielddifferently or planting trees on his land may be profitableor it may not. At least he knows what to expect with hiscurrent methods; changing his methods could, for all heknows, make matters worse. He may think that what he istold makes sense, but the risks of changing are too great.

The continuum in Chapter 5, p. 55, illustrating thelevel of awareness and motivation of target audiences canassist in evaluating a program's progress. If people arenot even aware a problem exists, it would be unrealistic toexpect a program to have immediate results changing people'sbehavior. Moving people through the stages in thiscontinuum is the role of a conservation education program,and how effectively it is doing this is a measurement of itssuccess.

Almost assuredly, it will not be possible at thebegining of a program to predict how long it will take toaffect people's behavior or how many people will need tochange their behavior for the program to be considered asuccess. If the measures for people to adopt are totallynew to them, no one may actually be implementing them aftera two-year effort. That does not necessarily mean that theprogram needs revision or that it is not worthwhile. Onlyone person plowing on the contour after the educationprogram may constitute a reasonable success.

What is often necessary is for someone in the communityto take the lead, preferably somecne who is wioelyrespected. Farmers in this case can then see first-hand theconsequences of changing their practices, which is usuallymore convincing than hearing about the consequences orseeing them illustrated in a pamphlet. Getting that firstperson to try something new may be the hardest part of theeducational effort; after that, others may follow suit ontheir own.

Getting accurate data that reflects people's knowledgeand attitudes before and after the program will be achallenge. It is easiest to determine whether people havelearned the material, and most difficult to determine whythey are behaving as they are. Formal questionnaires and

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controlled interviews can provide accurate information, butmay be impossible given the working relationship developedbetween aaucator and program participant. People may betaken aback when a relaxed and friendly educator suddenlyconfronts them with paper, pencil, and formal questions.Informal data gathering, or the other hand, will produceless precise data, but will pr'hably be more feasible.

It always helps to bring up -he need for an evaluationat the earliest stages of program development. During ateaching session, for instance, simply ask the peoplequestions to see if they have learned and understood whathas been taught. Or, if teaching manual skills, ask thatparticipants demonstrate them. Listening and askingquestions as part of normal conversation can also revealmuch that people are thinking. Keep in mind, however, thatpeople often say what they think evaluators want to hear.They may be friends, they may know what the educator thinks,and they will not want to disagree.

Explaining behavior, on the other hand, is lesscut-and-dry than determining what people know, and theeducator may have to rely largely on intuition. It canalways be expected that people are unsure about adopting newways of doing things, even if such measures appear to theoutsider entirely reasonable. If people are unsure (or, ifthey are refusing to change their behavior for otherreasons, such as social pressure or lack of trust in theeducator), they frequently will not tell the educatordirectly. They may simply shrug or evade the question whenasked to explain. Here, the educator may find it useful toconsult counterparts.

SUMMARY

Evaluation is a vital, yet frequently neglected, part ofeffective conservation education programs. Ongoing programevaluation is extremely useful when trying to increase aneducational program's effectiveness. For those who like tobe creative in solving problems, it can also be enjoyable.Program -end evaluation will probably be required byhost-country or sponsoring agencies so that they candetermine where best to allocate time and effort. Inaddition, such evaluation can prove critically important toothers trying to accomplish similar goals.

Questions

If people are not using the measures advocated by theeducation program:

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HAVE THEY LEARNED AND DO THEY UNDERSTAND AND BELIEVETHE PROGRAM'S MESSAGE? IF NOT, IS IT BECAUSE THEY:

Have not encountered the message? Review theeducational methods to see if they have reached theinttnded audiences. Who came to the teachingsessions; who listened to the radio programs, readthe series of newspaper articles, or saw postersdelivering the message? Required: An adjustment ineducation method.

Have not understood the message? Ask the people toanswer questions that indicate their understandingof the material. Required: An adjustment in howthe content is presented.

Do not believe it because it is inconsistent withtheir beliefs and traditions? Ask counterparts,close friends, or the people being educated ifrelevant customs and beliefs have been neglected.Required: 1) Adjustment in how the program'scontent is presented, or 2) adjustment in theprogram's technical solution, or 3) additional timefor people to become accustomed to message.

Do not trust the educator or the agency herepresents? Ask counterparts or close friends.Required: Time or a change in strategy.

IF THEY HAVE GRASPED THE PROGRAM'S MATERIAL, ARE THEYNOT CHANGING THEIR BEHAVIOR BECAUSE:

o There is a lack of concern about the environmentalproblem? Required: Increased attention paid todeveloping concern.

Social pressure exists? Do influential peopledistrust or not believe the educational program'smessage? Required: Inclusion of group applyingsocial pressure as a target audience of theeducational program.

ICJ

o The actions advocated by the education program areunrealistic or economically unsound? Ask the peopleyou have been trying to educate if they have doubtsabout the effectiveness of the measures advocated bythe education program. Required: An adjustment ofthe technical solution.

o People are nervous about the consequences ofchanging behavior? Have you been able to discountother possible reasons for the lack of implementingthe education program's measures but still sense ageneral reluctance? Required: 1) time, or 2)concentration of educational efforts on communityleaders, or 3) change in education methods, perhapsincluding demonstrations or field trips to siteswhere actions being advocated by the educationaleffort are being used successfully, or 4) financialor other incentives to encourage people to takechances on changing their behavior (i.e. payment forplanting trees or tax incentives for leaving landfallow or implementing soil conservation techniques.

° IF PEOPLE ARE IMPLEMENTING THE MEASURES ADVOCATED BYTHE EDUCATION PROGRAM, BUT THE CONDITION OF THEENVIRONMENT HAS NOT IMPROVED, IS IT BECAUSE:

o The technical solution advocated by the program isinappropriate? What do outside experts say?Required: An adjustment in the program's technicalsolution.

o The people whose behavior has changed are not thoseaffecting the natural resources in question? Whomhas the education program reached? Are they thepeople affecting the environment? Required: Anadjustment in the program's target audience.

o More time is needed to evaluate the situation. Theeffects of changing certain environmental practicesoften appear gradually.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Technical I.C.E. Manuals available through Peace Corps,Information Collection and ExchEige, 806 ConnecticutAvenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20525, U.S.A.

A Manual on Conservation of Soil and Water. Reprint R-38.982 (208 pages).

Brace, Judith and Ralph R. White and Stephen C. Bass,Teaching Conservation Developing Nations. ManualM-7, 1977.

Gibbons, Michael J. and Richard Schroeder. AgriculturalExtension. Manual M-18, February 1983 (309 pages).

Resources for Development. Manual M3A, 1981.

Weber, Fred. Reforestation in Arid Lands. Manual M-5,1977 (248 pages).

*Bunch, Roland. Two Ears of Corn: A Guide to PeopleCentered Agricultural Improvement. Oklahoma City,Oklahoma: World Neighbors, 1982.

Cain, B.J. and John Comings. The Participatory Process:Producing Photo-Literature. Amherst, Massachusetts:Center for International Education, University ofMassachusetts, 1977.

Caulfield, Catherine. Tropical Moist Forests. London,England: Earthscan, International Institute forEnvironment and Development, 1982.

Committee on Selected Biological Problems. EcologicalAspects of Development in the Humid Tropics.Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1982.

Conservation Directory 1985. Washington, D.C.:Conservation Education Service of National WildlifeFederation, 1412 Sixteenth Street, N.W. 200036 ($15.00+ 1.55 shipping).

Conway, Frederick J. Social Science Research in ForestryProject Design: A Case Study. Prepared forUSAID/S&T/RD September 1984.

Dietz, Lou Ann. "Brazilian Sanctuary." Washington, D.C.:Smithsonian Institution, Zoogoer, July-August 1984.

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*Ffolliott, Peter and John L. Thames. Environmentally SoundSmall-Scale Forestry Projects: Guidelines forPlanning. New York, N.1.: Codel and Vita Publications,1983.

*Forestry for Local Community Development. Rome, Italy:Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedRations, Forestry Paper #7, 1978.

Forestry Sector Policy Paper. Washington, D.C.: WorldBank, 1978.

Grainger, Alan. Desertification. London, England:Intf'rnational Institute for Environment andDevelopment, Earthscan, 1984.

Havelock, Ronald G. The Change Agent's Guide to Innovationin Education. New Jersey: Educational TechnologyPublications, 1973.

*Hoskins, Marilyn. Women in Forestry for Local CommunityDevelopment. Washington, D.C.: USAID, 1979.

Miller, Kenton. Planning National Parks for Ecodevelopment:Cases and Methods from Latin America. Ann Arbor,Michigan: Center for Strategic Wildiand ManagementStudies, The School of Natural Pesources, University ofMichigan, 1978.

*Mohonk Trust. Environmentally Sound Small-ScaleAgricultural Projects: Guidelines for Planning. NewPlatz, NY: The Mohonk Trust and Vita, 1979.

Novak, Joseph. A Theory of Education. Ithaca, New York:Cornell University Press, 1977.

Poore, Duncan. Ecological Guidelines for Development inTropical Rain Forests. Morges, Switzerland:International Union for Conservation of Nature andNatural Resources, 1976.

Posner, George and Alan Rudnitsky. Course Design: A Guideto Curriculum Development for Teachers. New York andLondon: Longman, 1978.

Prescott-Allen, Robert and Christine. What's WildlifeWorth? London, England: Earthscan, InternationalInstitute for Environment and Development, 1982.

Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings.Washington, D.C.: Environmental Protectir Agency,Publication #540/980-005, 1982.

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*Smith, Nigel. Wood: An Ancient Fuel with a New Future.Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute, WorldwatchPaper 42, 1981.

*Timberlake, Lloyd. Africa in Crisis: The causes, thecures of environmental bankruptcy. London, England:Earthscan, International Institute for Environment andDevelopment, 1985.

Walton, Diane F. and David S. Wood. "EnvironmentalEducation as Applied to Tropical Forest Management."Washington, D.C.: Office of Technology Assessment,U.S. Congress, 1982 (unpublished manuscript).

Waterhase, D.F. FAO Activities in the Field of PesticideResistance. Washington, D.C.: Proceedings of the 15thInternational Congress on Entomology, 1976.

World Conservation Strategy. Gland, Switzerland: Preparedby International Union for Conservation of Nature andNatural Resources, with advice, cooperation andfinancial assistance of United Nations EnvironmentProgram and World Wildlife Fund and in collaborationwith Food and Agriculture Organization and UnitedNations Education, Science and Culture Office, 1981.

*Available through ICE mid-1986.

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