definition of anthropometry - hacettepeyunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~deniz/lisans/kin/kinant.pdf ·...

Definition of Anthropometry

Anthropometry is the science which deals with the measurement of the size, weight, and proportions of the human body (Dorland's Medical Dictionary). This lecture will concentrate on non-invasive techniques of determining these parameters.

Return to Lecture Outline.

Size, Structure, Composition

Body measurements can be used to describe the size, shape (form or structure), and composition of individuals. The measurements in the AN325 practical sessions have been chosen because of their relevance to the description of the size and proportions of individuals and samples of the whole population. Basic measurements are used to describe individuals or populations, while some measurements are used for correlation with performance in sport; others are used in public health and nutrition surveys. For a general introduction to anthropometry, read Kippers (1996).

Examples of SIZE measurements include height, length, mass, volume, and surface area.

Examples of STRUCTURE measurements include:

• sitting height/standing height • shoulder width/hip width • thigh length/leg length • neck length/neck circumference

Examples of COMPOSITION measurements include percent body fat, lean body mass (L.B.M.), water content, and ash content.


Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype

All ten measurements are direct measurements of size of the body and different parts of the body (eg. height, mass, epicondylar diameter, calf girth etc.). When they are combined they can provide an indication of the structure (shape, form, proportions) of the body (eg. humeral epicondylar diameter/height, calf girth/height etc.). The final three digit result is more of an indication of composition as we shall see from the definitions of somatotype components later.

Measurements for Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype

Skills

• observation (surface anatomy) • palpation (surface anatomy) • protocol

Concepts in measurement

Protocol - follow instructions exactly left/right differences (Martorell et al 1988) eg IBP (Europe etc = L) vs Heath-Carter (USA = R)

"Reliability of measurement refers to the degree to which the test yields the same results when given on two [or more] different occasions or by the different examiners to the same group of individuals." (Gogia & Braatz 1986). The reliability and accuracy of measurement is summarised in Carter (1980, p 2.2-2.3), Lohman et al (1988, pp 83-86) and Norton & Olds (1996, pp 78-96). Determined statistically by correlations plus t-tests, or regressions. Using a regression between the first and second measure, good reliabilty would exhibit the following characteristics:

1. slope of 45 degrees 2. constant of zero 3. correlation coefficient > 0.90

Using the expression y = mx + c

• What does it mean if the coefficient of x (m) is not equal to one? • What does it mean if the constant (c)is not equal to one? • What does it mean if the correlation coefficient equals zero (r = 0)?

Sources of error (Mueller & Martorell 1988, Woerman & Binder-Macleod) - Error is universal in biological measurement. Sources of error may include inappropriate techniques (eg stature in children) or inaccurate equipment (pay high price for good instruments but all equipment must be calibrated periodically).

Anthropometry is more error prone than osteometry to additional biological errors (compared with osteometry, cf AN327) because of the following biological and technical factors (Bennett & Osborne 1986):

1. subject posture and movement variation 2. instrument application pressure 3. differential tissue thickness 4. diurnal variation 5. location of bony landmarks by palpation

Reliability in females is poorer than in males, mainly due to error sources 3. and 5.

Accuracy is the extent to which an observer achieves the "true" value of a measurement: cf well trained observer (always check observer error periodically within an anthropometric study; refer to Wally Wood's criterion measures in Menzies Study)

• random error (above and below "true" value) • constant error (check protocol/technique/equipment)

eg. tendency for R > L but R - L = D where D is usually < measurement error (Martorell et al 1988)

"Validity constitutes the degree to which an instrument measures what it is purported to measure and the extent to which it fulfills its purpose" (Gogia & Braatz 1986). Mention face validity and predictive equations (expand later).

For an anthropometric survey follow certain guidelines:

1. practise techniques prior to commencement of measurement sessions (refer to Menzies Study)

2. determine reliability (refer to Menzies Study) 3. determine order of measurements in an effort to achieve maximum efficiency

(stations in Menzies Study) 4. have separate recorder who is also a trained measurer (can pick up mistakes

at source - basis of Quality Control)

For quality control follow these guidelines (Johnston & Martorell 1988):

1. hold initial training sessions to achieve standardization to a qualified measurer (Wally Wood in Menzies Study)

2. perform a set of "dry runs" at the outset of the survey (YES) 3. perform periodic checks using repeated measurements of the same subjects

(YES) 4. hold periodic retraining sessions (YES)

• Always perform the repeat measurements "blind". Do all measurements once in order, then repeat all measurements in the same order (can't remember initial results - refer to QCA study - longitudinal design).


Concepts in Proportionality

Size measurements must be taken to calculate shape and it is the combinations which add much more meaning to the raw figures by highlighting differences which often have a functional relationship.

Head Height/Stature =

• 1/2 at eight weeks after fertilization (towards end of embryonic period) • 1/4 at birth • 1/8 in adulthood

eg indices - length/width

thoracic index - quadrupeds vs bipeds

apes vs human

thoracic index = about 100 during the first year (during infancy ribs are nearly horizontal)

decrease below 100 from year 1 onwards (ribs slope downwards in both anterior and lateral directions)

cephalic index - head shape (Aboriginal vs Asian)

trunk length - lower limb relationship = sitting height /standing height

rapid growth during puberty which can be divided into two stages

Stage 1 - rapid growth in stature due mainly to lower limb length growth (refer to sitting height in QCA Study)

Stage 2 - relative increase in transverse diameters (eg. chest transverse diameter, biacromial diameter) (refer to biacromial diameter in QCA Study)

The Androgyny Index illustrates the relative widths of the shoulders and pelvis.

Androgyny Index = 3 X Biacromial Diameter - Biiliocristal Diameter (all measurements represented in centimetres)

The average non-athletic male adult has an Androgyny Index of 91 while a typical female shotputter has an Androgyny Index of 89 (Malina Zavaleta 1976). Typical non-athletic women have an Androgyny Index of 80 so it is a good indicator of sexual dimorphism. The relative pelvic breadth is greater in females at birth, while relative shoulder breadth differences appear after puberty when is a relatively large increase in boys (some boys in QCA Study had 3cm increase in biacromial diameter and 0.5 cm increase in biiliocristal diameter compared with previous year).

Also sexual dimorphism in sitting height/stature which appears at puberty

Ethnic differences

eg. In a Japanese longitudinal study on medical students since WW II (Ohyama et al 1987), the cephalic index, which was already high, has increased; and the relative sitting height, which was high previously, has decreased, almost exclusively due to

increase in lower limb length during the last 40 years. This is an example of secular trend, in which there are changes from one generation to the next.

Dimensionality

Height = length

Area = length (cf muscle CSA - strength)

Volume = length3 (highly correlated with body mass)

A direct relationship between height and mass is not suitable because a "length" is being correlated with a "volume".

The Quetelet Index is a "squared" relationship and the Body Mass Index (BMI) is commonly used in nutritional surveys.

BMI = Height (in cm) / square root of Mass (in Kg)

The Ponderal Index is a "cubic" relationship and is used in the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype for the calculation of the third component (endomorphy).

For growth, actually a power of the height-mass relationship is about 2.5-2.6.

As an example, consider a baby girl at birth who is about 50 cm long and is 3 kg.

A typical adult female is about 150 cm tall and has a mass of 51 kg, so she is now birth length * 3 and birth weight * 17. Assuming a "squared" relationship (32 = 9) she should weigh 27kg, but assuming a "cubic" relationship (33 = 27), she would weigh 81kg.


Human Composition

The human body is composed of;

• skin • fat • muscle (mainly skeletal muscle) • bone (and other connective tissues) • nervous tissue (brain etc.) • organs (heart, liver etc.)

In the typical anthropometric two-component model of the human body, it consists of lean and fat tissue, each with an assumed density.

A dissection study of 25 cadavers (Clarys et al 1984) indicated the following body compositions for males and females:

Males Common Females

28.1% fat 40.5% fat

skin = 8.5% LBM

muscle = 50% LBM

bone = 20.6% LBM

undifferentiated tissues constitute rest of body

Differential growth eg. brain vs reproductive (head size vs secondary sexual characteristics and associated growth of musculoskeletal system)


Somatotyping

The somatotype describes a particular category of body build, determined on the basis of certain physical characteristics ie. it is a shorthand method of describing physique (Bailey et al 1982). Revise somatotypes from AN228/229 lecture.

An "endomorph" is an individual having the type of body build in which tissues derived from the endoderm prodominate. There is a relative preponderance of soft roundness throughout the body, with large digestive viscera and accumulations of fat, and with large trunk and thighs and tapering extremities, as contrasted with ectomorph and mesomorph (Dorland's Medical Dictionary).

An "ectomorph" is an individual having a type of body build in which tissues derived from the ectoderm predominate; there is a preponderance of linearity and fragility, with large surface area, thin muscles and subcutaneous tissue, and slightly developed digestive viscera, as contrasted with endomorph and mesomorph (Dorland's Medical Dictionary).

A "mesomorph" is an individual having a type of body build in which tissues derived from the mesoderm predominate. There is relative preponderance of muscle, bone, and connective tissue, usually with heavy, hard physique of rectangular outline. This somatotype is classified between the ectomorph and the endomorph (Dorland's Medical Dictionary).

The Meaning of the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype

The FIRST COMPONENT indicates endomorphy in which measurements of three skinfold thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac) are combined to indicate the amount of fat in the body. It is corrected for height because the surface area-volume relationship changes with height. How?

Let's discuss the prediction of body fat percentage using anthropometric measurements. This is a good example of validity.

To test validity, there must be at least two alternative measurements taken:

One is the criterion measurement (in the case of % body fat this has traditionally been the "Gold Standard" of underwater weighing).

The second measurement (usually a group of measurements) is the "predictive" anthropometric measurement/s.

Criticisms of prediction of % body fat using anthropometric measurements include:

• underwater weighing provides a measure of body density, NOT % body fat. • underwater weighing may not provide an accurate measure of body density

because of problems with air trapped in the respiratory and digestive tracts. • people are so light when floating in water that any "small" errors will be

relatively large (eg 0.5 kg error in measurement of 3 kg). • % body fat is calculated assuming a two-component model of body

composition with fat and lean tissues having assumed densities.

If these criticisms are accepted, then the criterion measure is suspect and the validity of any predictive equation is obviously questionable (eg. some Afro-American footballers have been found to have negative body fat which is physiologically impossible! How did this happen?). Many authors now recommend use of only the raw skinfold thicknesses data for comparisons, eg. "investigators should utilize anthropometers directly instead of using them to estimate whole body composition" (Johnston 1982). As far back as 1969, Katch & Michael compared six different prediction formulae and found constant errors ranging between -10 and 122% and predictive errors of between 25 and 37%.

The SECOND COMPONENT indicates mesomorphy in which measurements of bone diameters and muscle circumferences (corrected for skinfold thickness) are compared with the person's height to provide an indication of general musculoskeletal development. Two upper limb and two lower limb measurements are used and the rating form allows observation of the relative development of each of the four components.

The THIRD COMPONENT indicates ectomorphy in which measurements of height and mass are combined to provide an indication of "linearity". A cubic relationship (cf Ponderal Index) is used for the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype.

The three components of the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype are plotted in two dimensions on a cam-shaped "graph", called a somatochart.

Click here to revise the plotting of the three somatotype components on a somatochart, and the normal adult variation.

The centre of the somatochart is "444" or "333" and represents the "unisex phantom", while the bottom left, endomorphy, corner, is "711", the top, mesomorphy, corner is "171", and the bottom right, ectomorphy, corner is "117".

The typical adult male is "353" while the typical adult female is "543".

A Canadian survey of almost 14,000 adults (Bailey et al 1982) showed the following differences in somatotype:

Males Females

< 30 yrs over 30 years < 40 yrs over 40 years

3.5-5-2 4-5.5-2 4.5-4-2.5 5-4.5-2

(NB. 4-4-4 is rare in my experience - if both endomorphy and mesomorphy are less than 4, you would expect ectomorphy to be greater than 4, however it is often still less than 4).

Somatotypes do not provide information on asymmetry but there may be an interest on left/right differences in particular studies. The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype Recording Form allows this information to be analysed.

A study on left and right handers (Schell et al 1985) showed that there were significant differences between the arm circumferences and biepicondylar humeral widths for the right handers but not for the left handers.

Remember that a series of radiographic studies over 30 years on professional tennis players have shown humeral size and bone density differences between the dominant and non-dominant arm (Jones et al 1977). Observations would suggest that these differences are reflected in anthropometric measures of muscle and bone size.

A study of Czechoslovakian males, aged 11-24 years, showed the changes in somatotype during this period of maturation (Carter & Parizkova 1978). Two stages of maturation are illustrated:

• Stage 1 = 11-15 years during which there is decreasing endomorphy and increasing ectomorphy.

• Stage 2 = 15-24 years during which there is increased mesomorphy and decreasing ectomorphy.

Adult Differences in Size

In terms of height, the 50th percentile U.S. man is the same as the 95th percentile Asian male (Miller & Suther 1983).


Kinanthropometry

Kinanthropometry is the scientific specialisation dealing with the measurement of humans in a variety of morphological perspectives, its application to movement, and those factors which influence movement, including:

i. components of body build, body measurements, proportions, composition, shape, and maturation

ii. motor abilities and cardiorespiratory capacities iii. phhysical activity including recreational activity as well as highly specialised

sports performance

Defined as such, KINANTHROPOMETRY is a scientific specialisation closely allied to;

• physical education • sports science and medicine • auxology (science of growth) plus paediatrics etc • human biology and physical anthropology • gerontology • ergometry


Applications in Sports Science

You may like to revise the somatotypes of different athletic populations.

"Javelin throwers and gymnasts have practically identical somatotypes, although the javelin throwers, at 179.5 cm and 76.7 kg, are much bigger than the gymnasts, at

167.4 cm and 67.1 kg. Thus, kinanthropometric data on size and shape may be of prime importance in biomechanical interpretation of various sport performances" (Hebbelinck & Ross 1974).

Further information about anthropometric studies will be provided, including the study

of Junior Rugby Union players and the study of Cricket fast bowlers.


Questions

• What is anthropometry? • What is sexual dimorphism? What methods can be used to compare an

individual with the rest of the population on an anthropometric parameter? • How accurate might you expect self-reported heights to be? Explain your

opinion. • From what age can height measurements be taken? What alternative is

available for infants? • The average 80 year-old woman is about 7 cm shorter than the average 20

year-old woman. Discuss the factors that might explain this difference. [There are three main contributing factors]

• Distinguish between the terms "weight" and "mass". What are the units for each?

• How accurate might you expect self-reported masses to be? Explain your opinion.

• The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a "square" relationship whereas the ponderal index is a cubic relationship. Discuss your expected relationship between height and mass.

• What are the major body tissues that may contribute to a high BMI? How would you distinguish between the relative amounts of these tissues in the body?

• Why do you think the BMI is used in public health and nutrition surveys? Why do you think the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype uses a cubic relationship?

• Why are the standards for skinfold measurements different for men and women?

• Why does the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype use a "unisex phantom" as the standard for measurements?

• What information do skinfold measurements provide that are not provided by the BMI?

• Should skinfold measurements be "corrected for height"? In other words, would a 10 mm layer of subcutaneous fat all over a person 1.5 m tall indicate the same relative volume of fat as for a person who is 2.0 m tall?

• What do you think the elbow width indicates? What other measurements may provide similar information?

• Why would you expect elbow width to increase with height? • Would elbow width be most influenced by genetic or environmental factors?

• Why do you think the umbilicus is not used as a landmark for the measurement of waist circumference (girth)?

• Why are the greater trochanters of the femora not used as the landmark for the measurement of hip (buttocks) circumference?

• What are the health implications of a relatively high Waist-to-Hip Circumference Ratio (WHR)?

• What are the health implications of a relatively low WHR? • Which body regions are being measured in sitting height? • What differences in the sitting height ratio would you expect between eg. Afro-

Americans and Asians. • Which group do you think would have the highest sitting height ratio? • Do you think there would be a difference between men and women in the

sitting height ratio? • How do you think the sitting height ratio might change during the period from

early childhood to maturity? • What tissues are included in the measurement of the flexed and tensed arm

circumference? Why is the measurement reduced by subtracting the triceps skinfold thickness?

• Would maximum arm circumference be most influenced by genetic or environmental factors?

• How is the maximum measurement of head length determined? • At which position is the maximum skull width most likely to occur? • How is the cephalic index used to describe head shape? • Describe differences in skull shape between that of the average Japanese and

Australian Aborigine. • Why should the subject stand relaxed when measuring biacromial diameter

(shoulder width)? • Which anatomical features contribute to the biacromial diameter? • Which anatomical features contribute to the bideltoid diameter? • Which anatomical features contribute to the biiliocristal diameter (pelvic

width)? • Define the term "androgynous". • What does a high androgyny index indicate in terms of body shape? • What does a low androgyny index indicate in terms of body shape? • What would you expect to be the differences in androgyny index, between

adult males and females?


ANTHROPOMETRY BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Basic anthropometry methodology, sexual dimorphism, adult variation,

and maturation & ageing, and some applications to

health & nutrition surveys, sports science, and ergonomics)

GENERAL

Carter JEL (1972) The Heath-Carter Somatotype Method. San Diego State College, San Diego.

Carter JEL & BH Heath (1991) Somatotyping: Developments and Applications. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Johnston FE (1982) Relationships between body composition and anthropometry. Human Biol 54(2):221-245.

Kippers V (1996) Basic concepts of anthropometry. In B Abernethy V Kippers LT Mackinnon RJ Neal & S Hanrahan: The Biophysical Foundations of Human Movement. MacMillan Education Australia, South Melbourne, pp 57-67.

Lohman TG (1992) Advances in Body Composition Assessment. Human Kinetic Publ, Champaign (Illinois).

Lohman TG (1992) New Developments in Body Composition. Current Issues in Exercise Science, Monograph Number 3. Human Kinetics, Champaign (Illinois).

Lohman TG, AF Roche & R Martorell (Eds.) (1988) Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Human Kinetics, Champaign (Illinois).

Norton K & T Olds (Editors) (1996) Anthropometrica: A Textbook of Body Measurement for Sports and Health Courses. University of New South Wales Press, Sydney.

Weiner JS & JA Lourie (1969) IBP Handbook No. 9. Human Biology: A Guide to Field Methods. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

Return to Bibliography.

METHODOLOGY

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Altman DG & JM Bland (1994) Quartiles, quintiles, centiles, and other quantiles. Brit Med J 309(6960):996.

Bassey EJ (1986) Demi-span as a measure of skeletal size. Ann Human Biol 13(5):499-502.

Beattie P et al (1990) Validity of derived measurements of leg-length differences obtained by use of a tape measure. Phys Ther 70(3):150-157.

Becque MD, VL Katch & RJ Moffatt (1986) Time course of skin-plus-fat compression in males and females. Human Biol 58(1):33-42.

Beneke R et al (1991) Muscle cross-section measurement by magnetic resonance imaging. Eur J Appl Physiol 63(6):424-429.

Bennett KA & RH Osborne (1986) Interobserver measurement reliability in anthropometry. Human Biol 58(5):752-760.

Boldsen J, CGN Mascie-Taylor & B Madsen (1986) Analysis of repeated reported adult statures. Amer J Phys Anthrop 69(4):537-540.

Borkan GA, DE Hults SG Gerzof & AH Robbins (1985) Comparison of body composition in middle aged and elderly males using computed tomography. Amer J Phys Anthrop 66(3):289-296.

Brenner JF, VA Casey JT Dwyer & SM Bailey (1994) The measurement of body fat distribution using somatotype photographs and computer assisted imaging techniques. Ann Human Biol 21(1):23-38.

Brodie DA & RG Eston (1992) Body fat estimations by electrical impedance and infra-red interactance. Int J Spts Med 4(13):319-325.

Buckle PW (1985) Self reported anthropometry. Ergon 28(11):1575-1578.

Bulbulian R (1984) The influence of somatotype on anthropometric prediction of body composition in young women. Med Sci Spts Exer 16(4):389-397.

Cameron N (1979) The methods of auxological anthropometry. In F Falkner & JM Tanner (Eds.): Human Growth. 2. Postnatal Growth. Plenum Press, New York, pp 35-90.

Cameron N (1984) The Measurement of Human Growth. Croom Helm, London.

Carr RV et al (1989) Sitting height: an analysis of five measurement techniques. Amer J Phys Anthrop 79(3):339-344.

Carter JEL (1980) The Heath-Carter Somatotype Method, 3rd Edn. San Diego State College, San Diego.

Chinn S (1992) A new method for calculation of height centiles for preadolescent children. Ann Human Biol 19(3):221-232.

Chumlea WC & AF Roche (1986) Ultrasonic and skinfold caliper measures of subcutaneous adipose tissue thicknesses in elderly men and women. Amer J Phys Anthrop 71(3):351-357.

Chumlea WC, AF Roche & E Rogers (1984) Replicability for anthropometry in the elderly. Human Biol 56(2):329-337.

Clarys JP & MJ Marfell-ones (1994) Soft tissue segmentation of the body and fractionation of the upper and lower limbs. Ergon 37(1):217-229.

Clarys JP, AD Martin & DT Drinkwater (1984) Gross tissue weights in the human body by cadaver dissection. Human Biol 56(3):459-474.

Cole TJ (1985) A critique of the NCHS weight and height standard. Human Biol 57(2):183-196.

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Dempster WT & GRL Gaughran (1967) Properties of body segments based on size and weight. Amer J Anat 120(1):33-54.

Department of Endocrinology, The Adelaide Children's Hospital (1989) Boys 2 - 18. Pharmacia Growth Service. MR37 available from GOPRINT.

Department of Endocrinology, The Adelaide Children's Hospital (1989) Girls 2 - 18. Pharmacia Growth Service. MR38a available from GOPRINT.

Diamond FB, J Guevaraa-Guirre & AL Rosenbloom (1994) Accurate determination of height using an inexpensive measuring device. Clin Pediatr 33(3):172-174.

Duquet W, B van Gheluwe & M Hebbelinck (1977) A computer program for calculating the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype. J Spts Med Phys Fit 17(3):255-262.

Eckerson JM et al (1992) Validity of bioelectrical impedance equations for estimating fat-free weight in lean males. Med Sci Spts Exer 24(11):1298-1302.

Engstrom CM, GE Loeb JG Reid WJ Forrest & L Avruch (1991) Morphometry of the human thigh muscles. A comparison between anatomical sections and computer tomographic and magnetic resonance images. J Anat 176:139-156.

Fanelli MT et al (1988) Estimation of body fat from ultrasound measures of subcutaneous fat and circumferences in obese women. Int J Obesity 12(2):125-132.

Forwood MR, RJ Neal & BD Wilson (1985) Scaling segmental moments of inertia for individual subjects. J Biomech 18(10):755-782.

Frost GS & C Corish (1989) Reproducibility of upper-arm anthropometry in subjects of differing body mass. J Human Nutr Diet 2(6):403-406.

Fuller MF et al (1990) Body composition - the precision and accuracy of new methods and their suitability for longitudinal studies. Proc Nutr Soc 49(3):423-436.

Gallup B et al (1989) Anthropometry: a look at six techniques for monitoring 3-D human shape. SOMA Eng Hum Body 3(2):35-42.

Gogia PP & JH Braatz (1986) Validity and reliability of leg length measurements. J Orthop Spts Phys Ther 8(4):185-188.

Himes JH & AF Roche (1982) Reported versus measured adult statures. Amer J Phys Anthrop 58(3):335-342.

Housh TJ, WG Thorland & GO Johnson (1983) An evaluation of intertester variability in anthropometry and body composition assessment. J Spts Med Phys Fit 23(3):311-314.

Janssens V, P Thys JP Clarys H Kvis B Chowdhury E Zinzen & J Cabri (1994) Postmortem limitations of body composition analysis by computed tomography. Ergon 37(1):207-216.

Jenkins KA, VH Heyward KL Cook VL Hicks JA Quatrochi WL Wilson & BC Colville (1994) Predictive accuracy of bioelectrical impedance equations for women. Amer J Human Biol 6(3):293-303.

Johnston FE (1982) Relationships between body composition and anthropometry. Human Biol 54(2):221-245.

Johnston FE & RW Mack (1985) Interobserver reliability of skinfold measurements in infants and young children. Amer J Phys Anthrop 67(3):285-290.

Jurimae T (1992) Body composition of University students by hydrostatic weighing and skinfold measurement. J Spts Med Phys Fit 32(4):387-393.

Kippers V (1996) Basic concepts of anthropometry. In B Abernethy V Kippers LT Mackinnon RJ Neal & S Hanrahan: The Biophysical Foundations of Human Movement. MacMillan Education Australia, South Melbourne, pp 57-67.

Kispert CP & HH Merrifield (1987) Interrater reliability of skinfold fat measurements. Phys Ther 67(6):917-921.

Koff E, JC Borod B White & M Nicholas (1983) Asymmetries of body part size, mobility, and usage - relationship between structure and function. Acta Anat 117(4):382-388.

Lee CH & GA Shaykian (1989) A microcomputer application in engineering anthropometry. Comput Industr Eng 17(1-4):491-495.

Lohman JG (1984) Preface to body composition assessment: a reevaluation of our past and a look toward the future. Med Sci Spts Exer 16(6):578.

Lohman TG (1992) Advances in Body Composition Assessment. Human Kinetic Publishers, Champaign (Illinois).

Lohman TG, AF Roche & R Martorell (Editors) (1988) Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Human Kinetics Books, Champaign (Illinois).

Martin AD et al (1992) Effects of skin thickness and skinfold compressibility on skinfold thickness measurement. Amer J Human Biol 4(4):453-460.

Martinson H & MJ Stokes (1991) Measurement of anterior tibial muscle size using real-time ultrasound imaging. Eur J Appl Physiol 63(3-4):250-254.

Mayhew J (1990) Biological variation and technical errors in skinfold measurements. J Osteopath Spts Med 4(2):19-24.

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Narici MV, GS Roi & L Lardoni (1988) Force of knee extensor and flexor muscles and cross-sectional area determined by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. Eur J Appl Physiol 57(1):39-44.

Norgan NG (1994) Relative sitting height and the interpretation of the Body Mass Index. Ann Human Biol 21(1):79-82.

Norton K & T Olds (Editors) (1996) Anthropometrica: A Textbook of Body Measurement for Sports and Health Courses. University of New South Wales Press, Sydney.

Pearman P et al (1989) Comparison of hydrostatic weighing and biolectric impedance measurements in determining body composition pre- and post dehydration. J Orthop Spts Phys Ther 10(11):451-455.

Reid JG, PA Costigan & W Comrie (1987) Prediction of trunk muscle areas and moment arms by use of anthropometric measures. Spine 12(3):273-275.

Robinett-Weiss N, ML Hixson B Keir & J Sieberg (1984) The Metropolitan Height-Weight Tables: perspectives for use. J Amer Diet Assoc 84(12):1480-1481.

Roche AF (1984) Anthropometric methods: new and old, what they tell us. Int J Obesity 8(5):509-523.

Ross R, L Leger D Morris J de Guise & R Guardo (1992) Quantification of adipose tissue by MRI: relationship with anthropometric variables. J Appl Physiol 72(2):787-795.*

Ross WD (1985) The design of a parallax-correcting anthropometer for replication in nonspecialized machine shops. Amer J Phys Anthrop 66(1):93-96.

Schmidt PK & JEL Carter (1990) Static and dynamic differences among five types of skinfold calipers. Human Biol 62(3):369-388.

Svendsen O et al (1991) Measurement of body fat in elderly subjects by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, bioelectrical impedance, and anthropometry. Amer J Clin Nutr 53(5):1117-1123.

Ward R & G Anderson (1993) Examination of the skinfold compressibility and skinfold thickness relationship. Amer J Hum Biol 5(5):541-548.

Weiner JS & JA Lourie (1969) IBP Handbook No. 9. Human Biology: A Guide to Field Methods. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.

Weiss LW & FC Clark (1985) Ultrasonic protocols for separately measuring subcutaneous fat and skeletal muscle thickness in the calf area. Phys Ther 65(4):477-481.

Weits T, EJ van der Beek & M Wedel (1986) Comparison of ultrasound and skinfold caliper measurements of subcutaneous fat tissue. Int J Obesity 10(3):161-168.

Withers RT, NP Craig CT Ball KI Norton & NO Whittingham (1991) The Drinkwater-Ross anthropometric fractionation of body mass: comparison with measured body mass and densitometrically estimated fat and fat-free masses. J Spts Sci 9:299-311.


SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

Bailey DA, JEL Carter & RL Mirwald (1982) Somatotypes of Canadian men and women. Human Biol 54(4):813-828.

Cronk CE & AF Roche (1982) Race- and sex-specific reference data for triceps and subscapular skinfolds and weight/stature. Amer J Clin Nutr 35(2):347-354.

Felson DT, YQ Zhang MT Hannan & JJ Anderson (1993) Effects of weight and Body Mass Index on bone mineral density in men and women: the Framingham study. J Bone Min Res 8(5):567-573.

Hattori K et al (1991) Sex differences in the distribution of subcutaneous and internal fat. Human Biol 63(1):53-64.

Malina RM & AN Zavaleta (1976) Androgyny of physique in female track and field athletes. Ann Human Biol 3(5):441-446.

Micozzi MS et al (1986) Correlations of body mass indices with weight, stature, and body composition in men and women in NHANES I and II. Amer J Clin Nutr 44(6):725-731.

Ross WD et al (1988) Relationship of the body mass index with skinfolds, girths, and bone breadths in Canadian men and women aged 20-70 years. Amer J Phys Anthrop 77(2):169-173.

Shephard RJ, R LaBarre J-C Jequier H Levallee M Rajic & M Volle (1985) The "unisex phantom", sexual dimorphism, and proportional growth assessment. Amer J Phys Anthrop 67(4):403-412.


ADULT VARIATION

Abeysekera JDA & H Shahnaraz (1989) Body size variability between people in developed and developing countries and its impact on the use of imported goods. Int J Industr Ergon 4(2):139-149.

Abrahams S, CL Johnson & MF Majjar (1979) Weight and height of adults 18-74 years of age. United States 1971-1974. United States National Center for Health Statistics 11(211), Hyattsville (Maryland).

Al-Haboubi MH (1992) Anthropometry for a mix of different populations. Appl Ergon 23(3):191-196.

Armstrong LE et al (1990) Mass-to-surface area index in a large cohort. Amer J Phys Anthrop 83(3):321-329.

Bronks R & AW Parker (1985) Anthropometric observation of adults with Down Syndrome. Amer J Mental Defic 90(1):110-113.


Ellis KJ (1990) Reference man and woman more fully characterized - variations on the basis of body size, age, sex, and race. Biol Trace Element Res 26-7:385-400.

Haslegrave CM (1986) Characterizing the anthropometric extremes of the population. Ergon 29(2):281-302.

Malina RM, KH Brown & AN Zavaleta (1987) Relative lower extremity length in Mexican American and in American black and white youth. Amer J Phys Anthrop 72(1):89-95.


Ohyama S et al (1987) Some secular changes in body height and proportion of Japanese medical students. Amer J Phys Anthrop 73(2):179-184.

Sonnenschein EG, MY Kim BS Pasternack & PG Toniolo (1993) Sources of variability in waist and hip measurements in middle-aged women. Amer J Epidemiol 138(5):301-309.


HEALTH & NUTRITION SURVEYS

Alexander H & A Dugdale (1990) Which waist-hip ratio? (Letter) Med J Aust 153(6):367-368.

American College of Sports Medicine (1983) Position Statement - proper and improper weight loss programs. Aviat Space Env Med 54(8):751-754.

Ashwell M, TJ Cole & AK Dixon (1996) Ratio of waist circumference to height is strong predictor of intra-abdominal fat. Brit Med J 313(7056):559-560.

Bachrach LK et al (1990) Decreased bone density in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa. Pediatr 86(3):440-447.

Bale P, J Doust & D Dawson (1996) Gymnasts, distance runners - anorexics body composition and menstrual status. J Spts Med Phys Fitness 36(1):49-53.

Bouten CV, WDV Lichtenbelt & KR Westerterp (1996) Body mass index and daily physical activity in anorexia nervosa. Med Sci Spts Exer 28(8):967-973.

Cole TJ (1985) A critique of the NCHS weight for height standard. Human Biol 57(2):183-196.

Cole TJ (1986) Weight/heightp compared to weight/height2 for assessing adiposity in childhood: influence of age and bone age on p during puberty. Ann Human Biol 13(5):433-452.

Colliver JA & OE Owen (1990) Reassessment of body mass indices. Amer J Clin Nutr 52(3):405-408.

Cox BD & MJ Whichelow MJ (1996) Ratio of waist circumference to height is better predictor of death than body mass index. Brit Med J 313(7070):1487.


Dugdale AE (1984) Nomograms for monitoring nutritional status. Ecol Food Nutr 14:59-62.

Ersoy G (1991) Dietary status and anthropometric assessment of child gymnasts. J Spts Med Phys Fit 31(4):577-580.

Felson DT, YQ Zhang MT Hannan & JJ Anderson (1993) Effects of weight and Body Mass Index on bone mineral density in men and women: the Framingham study. J Bone Min Res 8(5):567-573.

Friedl KE, RJ Moore LE Martinez-Lopez JA Vogel EW Askew LJ Marchitelli & RW Hoyt (1994) Lower limit of body fat in healthy active men. J Appl Physiol 77(2):933-940.

Frisancho AR (1990) Anthropometric Standards for the Assessment of Growth and Nutritional Status. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Hartz A et al (1990) The association of waist hip ratio and angiographically determined coronary artery disease. Int J Obesity 14(8):657-666.

Hattori K et al (1991) Sex differences in the distribution of subcutaneous and internal fat. Human Biol 63(1):53-64.

Himes JH (Ed.) (1991) Anthropometric Assessment of Nutritional Status. Wiley-Liss, New York.

Houmard JA et al (1991) An evaluation of waist to hip ratio measurement methods in relation to lipid and carbohydrate metabolism in men. Int J Obesity 15(3):181-188.

Johnston FE (1985) Validity of triceps skinfold and relative weight as measures of adolescent obesity. J Adolesc Health Care 6(3):185-190.

Kasai K, LC Richards T Brown (1993) Comparative study of craniofacial morphology in Japanese and Australian aboriginal populations. Human Biol 65(5):821-834.

Kooh SW, E Noriega K Leslie C Muller & JE Harrison (1996) Bone mass and soft tissue composition in adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Bone 19(2):181-188.

Lindboe CF & M Slettebo (1984) Are young female gymnasts malnourished? An anthropometric, electrophysiological, and histological study. Eur J Appl Physiol 52(4):457-462.

Lohman TG (1992) Advances in Body Composition Assessment. Human Kinetic Publishers, Champaign (Illinois).

Mackie A et al (1989) An introduction to body composition models used in nutritional studies. Clin Phys Physiol Meas 10(4):297-310.

Manson JE, GA Colditz & MJ Stampfer (1994) Parity, ponderosity, and the paradox of a weight preoccupied society. J Amer Med Assoc 271(22):1788-1790.

Merzenich H, H Boeing & J Wahrendorf (1993) Dietary fat and sports activity as determinants for age at menarche. Amer J Epidemiol 138(4):217-224.

Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (1983) 1983 Metropolitan height and weight tables. Stat Bull Metrop Life Found 64(1):3-9.

Micozzi MS & TM Harris (1990) Age variations in the relation of body mass indices to estimates of body fat and muscle mass. Amer J Phys Anthrop 81(3):375-379.

Micozzi MS et al (1986) Correlations of body mass indices with weight, stature, and body composition in men and women in NHANES I and II. Amer J Clin Nutr 44(6):725-731.


Odea J & S Abraham (1995) Should body-mass index be used in young adolescents? Lancet 345(8950):657.

Robinett-Weiss N, ML Hixson B Keir & J Sieberg (1984) The Metropolitan Height-Weight Tables: perspectives for use. J Amer Diet Assoc 84(12):1480-1481.

Rookus MA et al (1987) The development of the body mass index in young adults, I: age-reference curves based on a four-year mixed-longitudinal study. Human Biol 59(4):599-616.

Ross WD et al (1988) Relationship of the body mass index with skinfolds, girths, and bone breadths in Canadian men and women aged 20-70 years. Amer J Phys Anthrop 77(2):169-173.

Roubenoff R & JJ Kehayias (1991) The meaning and measurement of lean body mass. Nutr Rev 49(6):163-175.

Thornton J (1990) How can you tell when an athlete is too thin? Physician Sptsmed 18(12):124-126,129-130,133.

Treble GF & AR Morton (1994) A recipe for success or tragedy? Selection for Australian rhythmic gymnastic representatives. Spt Hlth 12(2):5-10.

Voorhoeve HWA (1990) A new reference for the mid-upper arm circumference? J Trop Pediatr 36(5):256-262.

Warneminde M (1992) Surge of the 'bonsai children': Martin Warneminde reports on the increasing achievements of Australia's young gymnasts - and concerns about their welfare. Bulletin 113(5808, Feb 25):44-45.

Weigley ES (1984) Average? Ideal? Desirable? A brief overview of height-weight tables in the United States. J Amer Diet Assoc 84(4):417-423.

Willett WC et al (1991) New weight guidelines for Americans - justified or injudicious (Editorial). Amer J Clin Nutr 53(5):1102-1103.


MATURATION AND AGEING

Alberman E et al (1991) Early influences on the secular change in adult height between the parents and children of the 1958 birth cohort. Ann Human Biol 18(2):127-136.

Ashizawa K & M Kawabata (1990) Daily measurements of the heights of two children from June 1984 to May 1985. Ann Human Biol 17(5):437-443.

Bachrach LK et al (1990) Decreased bone density in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa. Pediatr 86(3):440-447.

Bale P (1992) The functional performance of children in relation to growth, maturation and exercise. Spts Med 13(3):151-159.

Bale P, J Doust & D Dawson (1996) Gymnasts, distance runners - anorexics body composition and menstrual status. J Spts Med Phys Fitness 36(1):49-53.

Barlett HL et al (1991) Fat-free mass in relation to stature - ratios of fat-free mass to height in children, adults, and elderly subjects. Amer J Clin Nutr 53(5):1112-1116.

Bassey EJ (1986) Demi-span as a measure of skeletal size. Ann Human Biol 13(5):499-502.

Becque MD et al (1992) Fat patterning of adolescents: allometry of fat folds. Amer J Human Biol 4(4):521-525.

Bemben MG, BH Massey DA Bemben RA Boileau & JE Misner (1995) Age-related patterns in body composition for men aged 20-79 yr. Med Sci Spts Exer 27(2):264-269.

Berkey CS, X Wang DW Dockery & BG Ferris (1994) Adolescent height growth of United States children. Ann Human Biol 21(5):435-442.

Bernink MJE, WBM Erich AL Peltenburg ML Zonderland & IA Hvisveld (1983) Height, body composition, biological maturation and training in relation to socio-economic status in girl gymnasts, swimmers, and controls. Growth 47(1):1-12.

Beunen G (1992) Physical activity and growth, maturation and performance: a longitudinal study. Med Sci Spts Exer 24(5):576-585.

Bielecki T & RC Hauspie (1994) On the independence of adult stature from the timing of the adolescent growth spurt. Amer J Human Biol 6(2):245-247.

Billewicz WZ, AM Thomson & HM Fellowes (1983) Weight-for-height in adolescence. Ann Human Biol 10(2):119-124.

Blanksby BA (1995) Secular changes in the stature and mass of Western Australian secondary school children. Amer J Human Biol 7(4):497-505.

Borkan GA, DE Hults SG Gerzof & AH Robbins (1985) Comparison of body composition in middle aged and elderly males using computed tomography. Amer J Phys Anthrop 66(3):289-296.

Borkan GA, DE Hults & RJ Glynn (1983) Role of longitudinal change and secular trend in age differences in male body dimensions. Human Biol 55(3):629-641.

Bowden BD, J Johnson LJ Ray & J Towns (1976) The height and weight changes of Melbourne children compared with other population groups. Aust Paediatr J 12(4):281-295.

Cameron N (1979) The methods of auxological anthropometry. In F Falkner & JM Tanner (Eds.): Human Growth. 2. Postnatal Growth. Plenum Press, New York, pp 35-90.

Cameron N (1984) The Measurement of Human Growth. Croom Helm, London.

Carter JE & J Parizkova (1978) Changes in somatotypes of European males between 17 and 24 years. Amer J Phys Anthrop 48(2):251-254.

Casey VA, JT Dwyer CS Berkey SM Bailey KA Coleman & I Valadian (1994) The distribution of body fat from childhood to adulthood in a longitudinal study population. Ann Human Biol 21(1):39-55.

Chinn S (1992) A new method for calculation of height centiles for preadolescent children. Ann Human Biol 19(3):221-232.

Chumlea WC, AF Roche & E Rogers (1984) Replicability for anthropometry in the elderly. Human Biol 56(2):329-337.

Claessens A (1992) Growth and menarcheal status of elite female gymnasts. Med Sci Spts Exer 24(7):755-763.

Cole TJ (1986) Weight/heightp compared to weight/height2 for assessing adiposity in childhood: influence of age and bone age on p during puberty. Ann Human Biol 13(5):433-452.

Cronk CE, AF Roche R Kent C Berkey RB Reed I Valadian D Eichorn & R McCammon (1982) Longitudinal trends and continuity in weight/stature2 from 3 months to 18 years. Human Biol 54(4):729-749.

Department of Endocrinology, The Adelaide Children's Hospital (1989) Boys 2 - 18. Pharmacia Growth Service. MR37 available from GOPRINT.

Department of Endocrinology, The Adelaide Children's Hospital (1989) Girls 2 - 18. Pharmacia Growth Service. MR38a available from GOPRINT.

Dugdale AE, V O'Hara & G May (1983) Changes in body size and fatness of Australian children 1911-1976. Aust Paediatr J 19(1):14-17.

Dugdale AE et al (1981) Food habits and nutritional status of Brisbane schoolchildren. Med J Aust 2(8):407-409.

Ersoy G (1991) Dietary status and anthropometric assessment of child gymnasts. J Spts Med Phys Fit 31(4):577-580.



Hitchcock NE, RA Maller & AI Gilmour (1986) Body size of young Australians aged five to 16 years. Med J Aust 145(8):368-372.

Ishida Y, H Kanehisa JF Carroll ML Pollock JE Graves & Leggett (1995) Body fat and muscle thickness distributions in untrained young females. Med Sci Spts Exer 27(2):270-274.

Johnston FE (1985) Validity of triceps skinfold and relative weight as measures of adolescent obesity. J Adolesc Health Care 6(3):185-190.

Kooh SW, E Noriega K Leslie C Muller & JE Harrison (1996) Bone mass and soft tissue composition in adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Bone 19(2):181-188.

Lindboe CF & M Slettebo (1984) Are young female gymnasts malnourished? An anthropometric, electrophysiological, and histological study. Eur J Appl Physiol 52(4):457-462.

Malina RM & C Bouchard (1991) Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity. Human Kinetics, Champaign (Illinois).

Martinez E, J Bacallao M Devesa & M Amador (1995) Relationship between frame size and fatness in children and adolescents. Amer J Human Biol 7(1):1-6.

May GMS, VM O'Hara & AE Dugdale (1979) Patterns of growth in Queensland schoolchildren, 1911 to 1976. Med J Aust Dec 1:610-614.

Merzenich H, H Boeing & J Wahrendorf (1993) Dietary fat and sports activity as determinants for age at menarche. Amer J Epidemiol 138(4):217-224.

Odea J & S Abraham (1995) Should body-mass index be used in young adolescents? Lancet 345(8950):657.

Roche AF (1993) Growth, Maturation, and Body Composition - The Fels Longitudinal Study 1929-1991.

Rookus MA et al (1987) The development of the body mass index in young adults, I: age-reference curves based on a four-year mixed-longitudinal study. Human Biol 59(4):599-616.

Sinclair D (1985) Human Growth After Birth, 4th Edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Spirduso WW (1993) Physical Dimensions of Aging. Human Kinetics, Champaign (Illinois).

Stoudt HW (1981) The anthropometry of the elderly. Human Fact 23(1):29-37.




SPORTS SCIENCE

Bale P (1991) Anthropometric, body composition and performance variables of young elite female basketball players. J Spts Med Phys Fit 31(2):173-177.

Battinelli T (1990) Physique and Fitness: The Influence of Body Build on Physical Performance. Human Sciences Press.

Beunen G & J Borms (1990) Kinanthropometry: roots, developments and future. J Spts Sci 8(1):1-15.

Carter JEL (1970) The somatotypes of athletes - a review. Human Biol 42:535-569.

Carter JEL (Ed.) (1984) Physical Structure of Olympic Athletes, Pt 2. Kinanthropometry of Olympic Athletes. Medicine and Sport Science, vol 18. S Karger, Basel.

Fleck SJ (1983) Body composition of elite American athletes. Amer J Sports Med 11(6):398-403.

Hebbelinck M & WD Ross (1974) Kinanthropometry and biomechanics. In RC Nelson & CA Morehouse (Eds.): Biomechanics IV. University Park Press, Baltimore, pp 537-552.

Housh TJ, WG Thorland GO Johnson GD Thorp GJ Cisar MJ Refsell & CJ Ansorge (1984) Body composition variables as discriminators of sports participation of elite adolescent female athletes. Res Quart Exer Spt 55(3):302-304.

LeFevre J, AB Dufour G Beunen & AL Claessens (1993) Relationships of motor performance of adult men to anthropometry: a multivariate analysis. Amer J Hum Biol 5(3):351-359.

MacDougall JD et al (Eds.) (1991) Physiological Testing of the High-Performance Athlete, 2nd Edn. Human Kinetics, Champaign (Illinois).

McLean BD & AW Parker (1989) An anthropometric analysis of elite Australian track cyclists. J Spts Sci 7(3):247-255.

Mueller WH, RF Shoup & RM Malina (1982) Fat patterning in athletes in relation to ethnic origin and sport. Ann Human Biol 9(4):371-376.

Slaughter MH, TG Lohman & RA Boileau (1982) Relationship of anthropometric dimensions to physical performance in children. J Spts Med Phys Fit 22(3):377-385.

Thornton J (1990) How can you tell when an athlete is too thin? Physician Sptsmed 18(12):124-126,129-130,133.



Watson AWS (1984) The physique of sportsmen: a study using factor analysis. Med Sci Spts Exer 16(3):287-293.

Wilmore JH (1983) Body composition in sport and exercise: directions for future research. Med Sci Spts Exer 15(1):21-31.


ERGONOMICS

Abeysekera JDA & H Shahnaraz (1989) Body size variability between people in developed and developing countries and its impact on the use of imported goods. Int J Industr Ergon 4(2):139-149.

Buckle PW et al (1990) Flight deck design and pilot selection - anthropometric considerations. Aviat Space Env Med 61(12):1079-1084.

Bullock MI (1974) The determination of functional arm reach boundaries for operation of manual controls. Ergon 17(3):375-388.

Das B & RM Grady (1983) Industrial workplace layout design. An application of engineering anthropometry. Ergon 26(5):433-447.

Jackson AS (1994) Preemployment physical evaluation. Exer Spt Sci Rev 22:53-90.

Miller W & TW Suther (1983) Display station anthropometrics: preferred height and angle settings of CRT and keyboard. Human Fact 25(4):401-408.

Pheasant S (1996) Bodyspace: Anthropometry, Ergonomics and Design, 2nd Edn. Taylor & Francis, London.

definition of anthropometry - hacettepeyunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~deniz/lisans/kin/kinant.pdf ·...

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