Chapter 7Chapter 7

Communicating EffectivelyCommunicating Effectively

The Importance of CommunicationThe Importance of Communication Communication affects virtually every area of work.Communication affects virtually every area of work. Communication with employees about plant closings, Communication with employees about plant closings,

performance appraisals, organizational goals, probable performance appraisals, organizational goals, probable salary increases, and job changes, and even the date of the salary increases, and job changes, and even the date of the company picnic are essential to the proper functioning of company picnic are essential to the proper functioning of the firm.the firm.

Organizations also must communicate effectively with Organizations also must communicate effectively with parties outside the firm.parties outside the firm.

Much of managers’ time is spent communicating. Henry Much of managers’ time is spent communicating. Henry Mintzberg found 78% of CEOs’ time to be spent on Mintzberg found 78% of CEOs’ time to be spent on communication-related activities involving direct contact communication-related activities involving direct contact with others.with others.

Functions of CommunicationFunctions of Communication Information FunctionInformation Function.. Communication provides Communication provides

information to be used for decision making.information to be used for decision making. Motivational FunctionMotivational Function.. Communication Communication

encourages commitment to organizational encourages commitment to organizational objectives, thus enhancing motivation.objectives, thus enhancing motivation.

Control FunctionControl Function.. Communication clarifies duties, Communication clarifies duties, authority, and responsibilities, thereby permitting authority, and responsibilities, thereby permitting control.control.

Emotive FunctionEmotive Function.. Communication permits the Communication permits the expression of feelings and the satisfaction of social expression of feelings and the satisfaction of social needs.needs.

Focus on Management: Communicating Focus on Management: Communicating After the Oklahoma City BombingAfter the Oklahoma City Bombing

•The communication complex for Kerr-McGee Corp. is two blocks from the site of the April 1995 bombing of the Murrah Federal Building.

•After the initial bomb, it was thought that a second bomb was about to explode; Kerr-McGee was designated as part of the “crime scene.”

•The designation brought many questions from employees.•Within minutes after the bombing, Kerr-McGee’s executive management group was transformed into a corporate communications team. About a dozen top executives combined with three members from the corporate communications staff to develop and implement strategic plans to let employees know what was going on. They used e-mails, public address announcements, a “calling tree,” a “command center,” and other methods to facilitate communication.

The Communication Process (Fig. 7-1)The Communication Process (Fig. 7-1)

Barriers

Bridge of

Meaning

Receiver

4 5 6 7 Receive Decode Accept Use

Message

Sender

Steps:

1 2 3Develop Encode TransmitIdea

Feedback for Two-Way Communication

Communication Channel DimensionsCommunication Channel Dimensions

CapacityCapacity. . The amount of information that can The amount of information that can be sent through a channel in a given period of be sent through a channel in a given period of time without significant distortion.time without significant distortion.

ModifiabilityModifiability. . The degree to which the rate of The degree to which the rate of transmission can be varied.transmission can be varied.

DuplicationDuplication. . The use of subchannels to The use of subchannels to reiterate or elaborate on a message.reiterate or elaborate on a message.

ImmediacyImmediacy. . The speed at which a message The speed at which a message can be transmitted.can be transmitted.

Communication Channel Dimensions Communication Channel Dimensions (Cont.)(Cont.)

One-way vs. two-way flowOne-way vs. two-way flow. . One-way communicationOne-way communication gives a message without the opportunity for immediate gives a message without the opportunity for immediate feedback, while feedback, while two-way communicationtwo-way communication allows the allows the message recipient to ask questions and provide feedback.message recipient to ask questions and provide feedback.

Number of linkagesNumber of linkages.. The degree to which the channel The degree to which the channel provides direct contact between a sender and the ultimate provides direct contact between a sender and the ultimate recipient, or involves intermediate linkages.recipient, or involves intermediate linkages.

AppropriatenessAppropriateness.. To degree to which the channel To degree to which the channel matches the needs and characteristics of the message.matches the needs and characteristics of the message.

RichnessRichness. . The potential information-carrying capacity of The potential information-carrying capacity of data.data.

One-Way Vs. Two-Way Communication One-Way Vs. Two-Way Communication FlowFlow

One-way communication is faster than two-way.One-way communication is faster than two-way. Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way.Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way. Receivers are more sure of themselves and make more Receivers are more sure of themselves and make more

correct judgments of how right or wrong they are with two-correct judgments of how right or wrong they are with two-way communication.way communication.

The sender feels less secure in two-way communication. The sender feels less secure in two-way communication. The message recipients can point out errors, interrupt the The message recipients can point out errors, interrupt the stream of thought, disagree, or otherwise challenge the stream of thought, disagree, or otherwise challenge the sender.sender.

Two-way communication is relatively noisy and disorderly. Two-way communication is relatively noisy and disorderly. One-way communication appears neat and efficient to an One-way communication appears neat and efficient to an outside observer, but the communication is often less outside observer, but the communication is often less accurate.accurate.

Selecting ChannelsSelecting Channels

When sending messages, consider the When sending messages, consider the characteristics we have just presented.characteristics we have just presented.

How much information must be transmitted?How much information must be transmitted? How fast must information be transmitted?How fast must information be transmitted? Is feedback necessary?Is feedback necessary? Are certain channels unsuited to the nature of Are certain channels unsuited to the nature of

the message?the message? You may decide after weighing these factors You may decide after weighing these factors

that available channels must be somehow that available channels must be somehow modified or that multiple channels are needed.modified or that multiple channels are needed.

Communication NetworksCommunication Networks Communication channels may be linked in a variety of ways to form Communication channels may be linked in a variety of ways to form

communication networkscommunication networks.. These networks are used to structure the information flows among These networks are used to structure the information flows among

network members.network members. This involves decisions such as who should be “in the loop” to receive This involves decisions such as who should be “in the loop” to receive

certain types of messages, and to whom they should be instructed to certain types of messages, and to whom they should be instructed to respond.respond.

In making such decisions, you will determine who has direct and In making such decisions, you will determine who has direct and speedy access to information, who is most central in communication speedy access to information, who is most central in communication networks, who will be able to get information only after others have networks, who will be able to get information only after others have received it, and so on.received it, and so on.

Communication networks influence decision quality, member Communication networks influence decision quality, member satisfaction, and other outcomes. satisfaction, and other outcomes.

Communication Networks (Figure 7-2)Communication Networks (Figure 7-2)

Chain

Y Wheel

Circle

Star Com-Con

Communication Network DimensionsCommunication Network Dimensions With networks such as the chain and the circle, it may be necessary With networks such as the chain and the circle, it may be necessary

for a message to pass through multiple links to reach its destination. for a message to pass through multiple links to reach its destination. With the star and com-con networks, one link is sufficient. With the star and com-con networks, one link is sufficient.

The circle and star networks are decentralized -- everyone is as The circle and star networks are decentralized -- everyone is as central as everyone else. The wheel and the com-con network have central as everyone else. The wheel and the com-con network have central members.central members.

Relative centralityRelative centrality is the degree of centrality of an individual in a is the degree of centrality of an individual in a network. Network members with higher relative centrality tend to network. Network members with higher relative centrality tend to be more satisfied.be more satisfied.

CentralizationCentralization is a measure of the variability in member relative is a measure of the variability in member relative centralities. Centralized networks permit rapid decision making, but centralities. Centralized networks permit rapid decision making, but average member satisfaction is low. Centralized networks may be average member satisfaction is low. Centralized networks may be efficient for simple tasks, but decentralization is needed as task efficient for simple tasks, but decentralization is needed as task complexity and need for creativity increase.complexity and need for creativity increase.

Communication BarriersCommunication Barriers

Barriers toEffective

Communication

PerceptualFactors

InformationRetention

Misrepresentation

Distraction

Semantics

Communication Barriers: SemanticsCommunication Barriers: Semantics SemanticsSemantics, or , or code noisecode noise, occurs when the meaning of , occurs when the meaning of

a message to the sender differs from its meaning to the a message to the sender differs from its meaning to the recipient.recipient.

Too often, this may be the result of “jargon,” involving Too often, this may be the result of “jargon,” involving pretentious terminology or language specific to a pretentious terminology or language specific to a particular profession or group.particular profession or group.

Here are some examples of jargon relating to computers Here are some examples of jargon relating to computers and the modern workplace:and the modern workplace: BlamestormingBlamestorming: Discussing a project failure with coworkers.: Discussing a project failure with coworkers. PEBCAKPEBCAK: “Problem exists between chair and keyboard.” That is, : “Problem exists between chair and keyboard.” That is,

an operator error.an operator error. Cube FarmCube Farm: Rows of cubicles instead of private offices.: Rows of cubicles instead of private offices. RTMRTM: Read the manual.: Read the manual.

Communication Barriers: Distraction, Communication Barriers: Distraction, Misrepresentation, and Information Misrepresentation, and Information

RetentionRetention DistractionDistraction, or , or psychological noisepsychological noise, occurs when a , occurs when a

recipient does not understand the sender’s message recipient does not understand the sender’s message because he or she is simply thinking about something else.because he or she is simply thinking about something else.

MisrepresentationMisrepresentation may involve actual lying or subtly may involve actual lying or subtly distorting information to the sender’s benefit.distorting information to the sender’s benefit.

Information retentionInformation retention often occurs because information is often occurs because information is a valuable resource; those who control it are in positions of a valuable resource; those who control it are in positions of power. Some people may retain specific sorts of information power. Some people may retain specific sorts of information to make themselves more necessary, may be in positions to to make themselves more necessary, may be in positions to decide how to channel information, or may have the ability decide how to channel information, or may have the ability to process information, sending only some of it along.to process information, sending only some of it along.

Communication Barriers:Communication Barriers:Perceptual FactorsPerceptual Factors

Many perceptual errors are directly relevant to communication.Many perceptual errors are directly relevant to communication. StereotypingStereotyping may cause us to ignore or distort the messages may cause us to ignore or distort the messages

of people we have classified in certain ways.of people we have classified in certain ways. Selective perceptionSelective perception may cause us to ignore communication may cause us to ignore communication

that conflicts with our beliefs and expectations.that conflicts with our beliefs and expectations. Halo errorHalo error may cause us to bias our evaluation of a message may cause us to bias our evaluation of a message

because of some unrelated characteristic of the sender.because of some unrelated characteristic of the sender. ProjectionProjection may lead us to infer information in a message we may lead us to infer information in a message we

receive based on our own feelings.receive based on our own feelings. PrimacyPrimacy and and recency effectsrecency effects may cause us to give differing may cause us to give differing

weights to various communications, depending on when we weights to various communications, depending on when we receive them.receive them.

Overcoming Communication BarriersOvercoming Communication Barriers Feedback, repetition of messages, use of multiple channels, and Feedback, repetition of messages, use of multiple channels, and

simplified language may reduce problems due to semantics, selective simplified language may reduce problems due to semantics, selective perception and distraction.perception and distraction.

Communication overload may be reduced by careful review of the Communication overload may be reduced by careful review of the material needed by the recipient and by use of the material needed by the recipient and by use of the exception exception principleprinciple..

Short-circuiting may be reduced through careful consideration of who Short-circuiting may be reduced through careful consideration of who has a “need to know.” Electronic data-processing techniques that has a “need to know.” Electronic data-processing techniques that automatically route messages to certain people may also help.automatically route messages to certain people may also help.

Information retention and misrepresentation may require tightened Information retention and misrepresentation may require tightened formal controls or organizational audit groups, or they may require the formal controls or organizational audit groups, or they may require the opposite -- fewer controls and more trust.opposite -- fewer controls and more trust.

Things that lessen one problem are likely to worsen another.Things that lessen one problem are likely to worsen another.

Written CommunicationsWritten Communications

Written communication is required when the Written communication is required when the action called for is complex and must be done in action called for is complex and must be done in a precise way.a precise way.

It also provides a permanent form of record It also provides a permanent form of record keeping and can reach a large number of people keeping and can reach a large number of people easily.easily.

Written communication may be used for Written communication may be used for communicating downward or upward in the communicating downward or upward in the organization.organization.

Downward CommunicationDownward Communication

Downward communicationDownward communication involves involves messages from senders relatively high in the messages from senders relatively high in the organizational structure to receivers in lower organizational structure to receivers in lower positions.positions.

Downward communication may be used:Downward communication may be used: to give instructionsto give instructions to provide information about policies and proceduresto provide information about policies and procedures to give feedback about performanceto give feedback about performance for indoctrinating or motivatingfor indoctrinating or motivating

Upward CommunicationUpward Communication

Upward communicationUpward communication involves involves communication from sources in lower-level communication from sources in lower-level positions to receivers in higher positions.positions to receivers in higher positions.

Upward communication is often used:Upward communication is often used: to give information on achievement or progressto give information on achievement or progress to point out problems that are being encounteredto point out problems that are being encountered to pass on ideas for improvement of activitiesto pass on ideas for improvement of activities to provide feelings on work and nonwork activitiesto provide feelings on work and nonwork activities

Some Forms of Upward and Downward Some Forms of Upward and Downward CommunicationsCommunications

Letters andMemos

Manuals HandbooksCompany

Newsletters

Downward Communication

Upward Communication

SuggestionSystem

GrievancesAttitudeSurveys

Focus on Management:Focus on Management:Pathfinders at Lloyd’s TSBPathfinders at Lloyd’s TSB

• A merger of Lloyds and TSB created a single British bank with 77,000 members and 15 million customers.

• The “new” bank won a Marketing Society Award for the care it took to launch and explain the merged organization to its employees.

• It ran a comprehensive and sustained internal program, highlighted by a live event called “Your Life. Your bank.”

• Staff nominated 5,000 colleagues to act as brand ambassadors, called “pathfinders,” whose role was to attend the event, absorb the key messages, and pass them on to 15 of their colleagues in structured cascade sessions.

• For the cascade sessions, pathfinders were supplied with a pack containing bullet-point summaries, visual support on overhead transparencies, a computer disk, and a video summary.

Guides for Readable WritingGuides for Readable Writing(Figure 7-3)(Figure 7-3)

Use simple words and phrases, such as Use simple words and phrases, such as improveimprove instead of instead of ameliorateameliorate and and likelike instead of instead of in a manner similar to that ofin a manner similar to that of..

Use short and familiar words, such as Use short and familiar words, such as darkendarken instead of instead of obfuscate obfuscate.. Use personal pronouns, such as Use personal pronouns, such as youyou and and themthem, if the style permits., if the style permits. Use illustrations, examples, and charts.Use illustrations, examples, and charts. Use short sentences and paragraphs. The communicator’s job is to Use short sentences and paragraphs. The communicator’s job is to

inform people, not to impress them.inform people, not to impress them. Use active verb forms, such as “The manager said …” rather than Use active verb forms, such as “The manager said …” rather than

passive verb forms, such as “It was said by the manager that …”passive verb forms, such as “It was said by the manager that …” Don’t use unnecessary words.Don’t use unnecessary words.

Guidelines for Effective SpeakingGuidelines for Effective Speaking Determine the purpose of your communicationDetermine the purpose of your communication. Is it to . Is it to

explain ideas to others? To entertain? Tailor your speech to explain ideas to others? To entertain? Tailor your speech to facilitate the desired purpose of your communication.facilitate the desired purpose of your communication.

Consider issues of time and spaceConsider issues of time and space. Determine the best time . Determine the best time and location for delivering your message.and location for delivering your message.

Adapt to your listenersAdapt to your listeners. Consider the size of the audience as . Consider the size of the audience as well as factors such as audience age, gender, interests, level of well as factors such as audience age, gender, interests, level of knowledge about the subject, and values. Consider also knowledge about the subject, and values. Consider also audience expectations about the nature of the speech.audience expectations about the nature of the speech.

Use appropriate vocabularyUse appropriate vocabulary. Speak at the proper level, and . Speak at the proper level, and with appropriate terminology, for the particular audience.with appropriate terminology, for the particular audience.

Guidelines for Effective Speaking Guidelines for Effective Speaking (Cont.)(Cont.)

Practice voice controlPractice voice control. Consider proper speech volume, . Consider proper speech volume, pitch, and speaking rate. Avoid mumbling and awkward pitch, and speaking rate. Avoid mumbling and awkward pauses.pauses.

Use appropriate gesturesUse appropriate gestures. Properly used, gestures can . Properly used, gestures can make a presentation more engaging, and they may help make a presentation more engaging, and they may help disguise anxiety. Avoid short, jerky movements that may disguise anxiety. Avoid short, jerky movements that may appear as nervousness, and use a variety of gestures to appear as nervousness, and use a variety of gestures to reinforce spoken points or even as substitutes.reinforce spoken points or even as substitutes.

Organize your presentationOrganize your presentation. Any oral presentation can be . Any oral presentation can be divided into three parts: gaining attention, presenting the divided into three parts: gaining attention, presenting the information, and closing effectively. Each is critical. information, and closing effectively. Each is critical.

The Bottom Line: Developing EffectiveThe Bottom Line: Developing EffectiveSpeaking SkillsSpeaking Skills

Identify theObjective(s) for the

Speech orPresentation

Develop an Outlineto Achieve

Objectives in Viewof Audience

Characteristics

Develop the Contentof the Speech or

Presentation

Select AppropriateMethods for

Delivery of the Speechor Presentation

Practice Making theSpeech or

PresentationIndividually or With a

Mock Audience

At the Beginning of theActual Speech or

Presentation, Make aGood First Impression

During the Speech orPresentation,

Maintain Good EyeContact with All

Members

During the Speech orPresentation, UseAppropriate Hand

Gestures and VoiceVariations

Finish the Speechor Presentation

Strongly byReinforcing Key

Points

Guidelines for Active ListeningGuidelines for Active Listening Control the physical environmentControl the physical environment. Try to minimize noise and . Try to minimize noise and

other distractions,other distractions, Be alertBe alert. Give your full attention, and allot the necessary time . Give your full attention, and allot the necessary time

to listen.to listen. Be mentally preparedBe mentally prepared. Do your homework in advance of the . Do your homework in advance of the

presentation. Anticipate the encounter by learning new presentation. Anticipate the encounter by learning new terminology and background information about the persons, terminology and background information about the persons, organization, or issues.organization, or issues.

Be emotionally preparedBe emotionally prepared. Keep an open mind about what is . Keep an open mind about what is being said, even if it is unpleasant. Give the speaker the being said, even if it is unpleasant. Give the speaker the opportunity to complete his or her message before raising opportunity to complete his or her message before raising questions.questions.

Guidelines for Active Listening Guidelines for Active Listening (Continued)(Continued)

Be attentiveBe attentive. . Continually review the speaker’s message, and Continually review the speaker’s message, and tie the various segments of the message together. Take notes tie the various segments of the message together. Take notes if necessary, but record only main points.if necessary, but record only main points.

Read nonverbal cuesRead nonverbal cues.. Pay attention to the speaker’s tone of Pay attention to the speaker’s tone of voice, expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.voice, expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal cues.

Distinguish among facts, inferences, and value Distinguish among facts, inferences, and value judgmentsjudgments.. Try to sort out whether what is being said is a Try to sort out whether what is being said is a fact that can be verified, an inference, or a personal judgment.fact that can be verified, an inference, or a personal judgment.

Offer and solicit feedbackOffer and solicit feedback. . The best sort of feedback in a The best sort of feedback in a listening situation is to paraphrase the speaker’s message.listening situation is to paraphrase the speaker’s message.

Bottom Line: Developing Active Listening Bottom Line: Developing Active Listening SkillsSkills

Receive theMessageFrom theSender

Receive theMessageFrom theSender

Capture the“Meaning” ofthe MessageBased on itsContent andthe Sender’s

Nonverbal Cues

Capture the“Meaning” ofthe MessageBased on itsContent andthe Sender’s

Nonverbal Cues

Reality Test theUnderstandingof the Messageby Reflecting It

Back tothe Sender

Reality Test theUnderstandingof the Messageby Reflecting It

Back tothe Sender

The SenderConfirms orDisconfirmsthe Accuracyof Message

Interpretation

The SenderConfirms orDisconfirmsthe Accuracyof Message

Interpretation

Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication Nonverbal communicationNonverbal communication is communication that is communication that

uses no words or uses words in ways that conveys uses no words or uses words in ways that conveys meaning beyond their strict definition.meaning beyond their strict definition.

It may take place through such channels as the body, It may take place through such channels as the body, the face, the tone of voice, and interpersonal distance.the face, the tone of voice, and interpersonal distance.

The meaning of nonverbal communication often varies The meaning of nonverbal communication often varies markedly across cultures.markedly across cultures.

Studies suggest that a substantial amount of Studies suggest that a substantial amount of information transmitted during a conversation -- information transmitted during a conversation -- perhaps 80 or 90 percent -- is nonverbal.perhaps 80 or 90 percent -- is nonverbal.

Functions of Nonverbal CommunicationFunctions of Nonverbal Communication

AccentingAccenting is adding emphasis to a verbal is adding emphasis to a verbal message.message.

ContradictingContradicting is signaling the opposite of the is signaling the opposite of the verbal message.verbal message.

SubstitutingSubstituting is replacing the verbal message with is replacing the verbal message with a nonverbal message.a nonverbal message.

ComplementingComplementing involves sending the same involves sending the same message nonverbally that is sent verbally.message nonverbally that is sent verbally.

RegulatingRegulating is using nonverbal communication to is using nonverbal communication to control the flow of the verbal message.control the flow of the verbal message.

Forms of Nonverbal CommunicationForms of Nonverbal Communication(Figure 7-4)(Figure 7-4)

NonverbalCommunication

Proxemics

Eye Contact

Dress

Touch

Posture

Paralanguage

HandMovements

FacialExpressions

ParalanguageParalanguage ParalanguageParalanguage concerns concerns howhow something is said rather than what is said. something is said rather than what is said.

It involves all vocal aspects of speech other than words.It involves all vocal aspects of speech other than words. For example, voice qualities -- such as pitch, rhythm, tempo, and volume For example, voice qualities -- such as pitch, rhythm, tempo, and volume

-- influence interpretation of a verbal message.-- influence interpretation of a verbal message. A soft, low-pitched voice and a slow rate indicate liking, while a high-A soft, low-pitched voice and a slow rate indicate liking, while a high-

pitched voice indicates anger. Moderate rate, pitch, and volume indicate pitched voice indicates anger. Moderate rate, pitch, and volume indicate boredom.boredom.

Vocal characterizersVocal characterizers, such as coughing, clearing the throat, and , such as coughing, clearing the throat, and grunting, generally are distracting and annoying.grunting, generally are distracting and annoying.

Vocal qualifiers Vocal qualifiers are variations in tone or intensity of speech. For are variations in tone or intensity of speech. For instance, increases in rate or volume may indicate impatience or anger, instance, increases in rate or volume may indicate impatience or anger, respectively.respectively.

Vocal segregatesVocal segregates are pauses between utterances. In situations such as are pauses between utterances. In situations such as interviews, prolonged pauses suggest a lack of confidence and interviews, prolonged pauses suggest a lack of confidence and organization.organization.

Hand MovementsHand Movements

Some hand movements have a specific meaning Some hand movements have a specific meaning that is understood in a particular culture or that is understood in a particular culture or occupation, such as a thumbs-up gesture.occupation, such as a thumbs-up gesture.

Others, such as touching oneself or others, may Others, such as touching oneself or others, may be associated with anxiety, guilt, hostility, or be associated with anxiety, guilt, hostility, or suspicion.suspicion.

For example, interviewers are sometimes taught For example, interviewers are sometimes taught that a hand-to-face movement is a sign of that a hand-to-face movement is a sign of deception. deception.

Facial ExpressionsFacial Expressions By one estimate, the human face can make 250,000 By one estimate, the human face can make 250,000

different expressions.different expressions. The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder wrote more than The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder wrote more than

2,000 years ago that “The face of man is the index to 2,000 years ago that “The face of man is the index to joy and mirth, to severity and sadness.”joy and mirth, to severity and sadness.”

Facial expressions are generally understood to have a Facial expressions are generally understood to have a particular meaning.particular meaning.

For example, facial expressions communicating six For example, facial expressions communicating six emotions -- happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, emotions -- happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust -- are recognized worldwide.and disgust -- are recognized worldwide.

Even when people try to suppress facial expressions, Even when people try to suppress facial expressions, they make very short expressions lasting a fraction of a they make very short expressions lasting a fraction of a second that will reveal true meaning.second that will reveal true meaning.

Global Perspectives:Global Perspectives:The Smile TrainersThe Smile Trainers

The Japanese are too serious, says Yoshido Kadokawa, The Japanese are too serious, says Yoshido Kadokawa, author of the book author of the book Power of the Laughing FacePower of the Laughing Face and and president of the Smile Amenity Institute.president of the Smile Amenity Institute.

At a seminar for managers, his students bite on a chopstick At a seminar for managers, his students bite on a chopstick or pen. Kodokawa then instructs them to “lift the edge of or pen. Kodokawa then instructs them to “lift the edge of your mouth higher than the edge of the chopstick. Hold your mouth higher than the edge of the chopstick. Hold your cheeks and count: your cheeks and count: idiidi, , nini, , sansan. This is how you form . This is how you form your mouth shape.”your mouth shape.”

Job applicants for McDonald’s in Japan are asked to describe Job applicants for McDonald’s in Japan are asked to describe their most pleasant experience, and then managers their most pleasant experience, and then managers evaluate whether their faces reflect the pleasure they are evaluate whether their faces reflect the pleasure they are discussing. Applicants who don’t have genuine smiles are discussing. Applicants who don’t have genuine smiles are banished to making burgers rather than greeting customers.banished to making burgers rather than greeting customers.

Eye ContactEye Contact

Eye contact is a major regulator of conversation.Eye contact is a major regulator of conversation. Generally, eye contact suggests understanding and Generally, eye contact suggests understanding and

interest.interest. Seeking eye contact connotes the desire to open a Seeking eye contact connotes the desire to open a

conversation. Conversely, someone hoping to avoid conversation. Conversely, someone hoping to avoid communication will avoid eye contact.communication will avoid eye contact.

Some characteristic eye-contact patterns have specific Some characteristic eye-contact patterns have specific meanings. For instance, the slow blink -- a pattern in meanings. For instance, the slow blink -- a pattern in which an individual closes his or her eyes for two to four which an individual closes his or her eyes for two to four seconds and then slowly opens them -- indicates doubt or seconds and then slowly opens them -- indicates doubt or suspicion.suspicion.

PosturePosture

PosturePosture is the way people position their bodies is the way people position their bodies with respect to others.with respect to others.

For example, if a customer’s arms are relaxed For example, if a customer’s arms are relaxed and open and she leans forward as she talks to and open and she leans forward as she talks to a salesperson, her posture reflects approval a salesperson, her posture reflects approval and acceptance of the salesperson’s message.and acceptance of the salesperson’s message.

If she leans back with arms tightly crossed, her If she leans back with arms tightly crossed, her posture suggests rejection or disagreement.posture suggests rejection or disagreement.

TouchTouch Touch can convey warmth, understanding, and intimacy.Touch can convey warmth, understanding, and intimacy. Touch may also enhance positive feelings about the touching Touch may also enhance positive feelings about the touching

person and the situation.person and the situation. Studies show that when a store assistant, server in a Studies show that when a store assistant, server in a

restaurant, or product demonstrator lightly touched a customer restaurant, or product demonstrator lightly touched a customer on the arm, the customer saw the touching person more on the arm, the customer saw the touching person more positively, had a more positive attitude toward the situation, positively, had a more positive attitude toward the situation, and was more likely to comply with the toucher’s suggestions.and was more likely to comply with the toucher’s suggestions.

This research involved casual touching of the arm. Many other This research involved casual touching of the arm. Many other forms of touching may be resented, and unwanted touching forms of touching may be resented, and unwanted touching can be a form of sexual harassment.can be a form of sexual harassment.

DressDress

• Dress can convey characteristics such as image, mood, identity, power, wealth, and authority.

• People who are dressed formally are better able to command respect.

• People in positions of authority often wear distinctive uniforms to reinforce their status.

• We all wear our own uniforms, that is, the particular way we choose to dress to communicate something about ourselves.

• Many companies are experimenting with their dress codes, including instituting “dress-down days.”

ProxemicsProxemics

ProxemicsProxemics is the use of interpersonal space (that is, is the use of interpersonal space (that is, proximity) to convey status or degree of intimacy.proximity) to convey status or degree of intimacy.

Sitting at the head of a table conveys status.Sitting at the head of a table conveys status. Standing close to another conveys intimacy.Standing close to another conveys intimacy. Sitting behind a desk (as opposed to alongside it) Sitting behind a desk (as opposed to alongside it)

indicates a superior-subordinate relationship.indicates a superior-subordinate relationship. Two elements of proxemics -- personal space and Two elements of proxemics -- personal space and

seating arrangements -- are especially relevant in seating arrangements -- are especially relevant in organizational settings. They will be discussed in organizational settings. They will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 11.more detail in Chapter 11.

Lighten Up: SmileysLighten Up: Smileys E-mail takes away much of the E-mail takes away much of the

opportunity for nonverbal communication.opportunity for nonverbal communication. Emoticons, or smileys, are series of little Emoticons, or smileys, are series of little

faces that, when read sideways, resemble faces that, when read sideways, resemble little faces and convey emotions.little faces and convey emotions.

Here is a sampling of smileys:Here is a sampling of smileys::-(:-( I’m sadI’m sad:-o:-o I’m bored (yawn)I’m bored (yawn):-#:-# My lips are sealedMy lips are sealedC=>:*)) I’m a drunk demonic chef with a C=>:*)) I’m a drunk demonic chef with a cold cold

and a double chinand a double chin

Some Issues in Electronic Some Issues in Electronic CommunicationCommunication

Use of Computersin Communication

E-mail

The Internet andthe World Wide

Web

Teleconferencingand

Videoconferencing

E-commerce

Guidelines for Using E-MailGuidelines for Using E-Mail Be carefulBe careful.. Both sending and receiving e-mail demands Both sending and receiving e-mail demands

caution. Don’t send sloppy or hastily reasoned messages, caution. Don’t send sloppy or hastily reasoned messages, and avoid a “slip of the finger” that could misdirect a and avoid a “slip of the finger” that could misdirect a message. Be careful when opening attachments since they message. Be careful when opening attachments since they main contain viruses.main contain viruses.

Recognize privacy issuesRecognize privacy issues.. Don’t write anything in e-mail Don’t write anything in e-mail messages that you would not want to be widely read.messages that you would not want to be widely read.

Keep messages clear, simple, and shortKeep messages clear, simple, and short. . Use a subject Use a subject line that conveys the content of the message. Avoid lengthy line that conveys the content of the message. Avoid lengthy attachments and fancy formatting.attachments and fancy formatting.

Reply only to appropriate personsReply only to appropriate persons.. Ask yourself who Ask yourself who really needs the message.really needs the message.

Guidelines for Using E-Mail (Continued)Guidelines for Using E-Mail (Continued) Personalize your e-mail as appropriatePersonalize your e-mail as appropriate.. Smileys can be used Smileys can be used

to convey feelings and add a personal touch. These shouldn’t be to convey feelings and add a personal touch. These shouldn’t be overused, and they may be inappropriate in some formal e-mails.overused, and they may be inappropriate in some formal e-mails.

Be considerateBe considerate.. Avoid using e-mail to vent frustration and Avoid using e-mail to vent frustration and anger through hostile messages. Such anger through hostile messages. Such flamingflaming can create a can create a climate of distrust, fear, and anger. Practice netiquette.climate of distrust, fear, and anger. Practice netiquette.

Check e-mail at least once a dayCheck e-mail at least once a day. . Respond promptly. If your Respond promptly. If your message will be delayed, let the sender know you received the message will be delayed, let the sender know you received the message and when you will respond.message and when you will respond.

Manage your e-mail with folders and filtersManage your e-mail with folders and filters. . Set up folders Set up folders to organize e-mails and filters to eliminate junk mail and to to organize e-mails and filters to eliminate junk mail and to transfer low-priority mail to appropriate folders.transfer low-priority mail to appropriate folders.

The Internet and the World Wide WebThe Internet and the World Wide Web The The InternetInternet is a worldwide collection of computer is a worldwide collection of computer

networks permitting access to libraries, news sources, networks permitting access to libraries, news sources, and groups with special interests.and groups with special interests.

Perhaps the most interesting part of the Internet is the Perhaps the most interesting part of the Internet is the World Wide WebWorld Wide Web. The Web is a collection of standards . The Web is a collection of standards used to access the information available on the Internet.used to access the information available on the Internet.

Since the development of Web browsers, growth of the Since the development of Web browsers, growth of the Web has been dramatic.Web has been dramatic.

Corporate portalsCorporate portals provide access to internal company provide access to internal company information via a Web browser.information via a Web browser.

Web Wise: Enquire WithinWeb Wise: Enquire WithinUpon EverythingUpon Everything

The World Wide Web was invented by Tim Berners-The World Wide Web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.Lee in 1989.

Berners-Lee’s idea for the Web came from a Berners-Lee’s idea for the Web came from a Victorian book entitled Victorian book entitled Enquire Within Upon Enquire Within Upon AnythingAnything, a volume full of all sorts of useful advice , a volume full of all sorts of useful advice about a wide range of topics.about a wide range of topics.

To read Berner’s Lee’s views on the Web and the To read Berner’s Lee’s views on the Web and the Internet, and to learn more about their histories, Internet, and to learn more about their histories, visit: visit:

http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee-Bio.html/FAQ.http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee-Bio.html/FAQ.htmlhtml

Web Wise: The New Marketplace of Web Wise: The New Marketplace of IdeasIdeas

When the Supreme Court struck down the so-When the Supreme Court struck down the so-called Communications Decency Act, which called Communications Decency Act, which would have regulated the content of material on would have regulated the content of material on the Internet, Justice John Paul Stevens wrote:the Internet, Justice John Paul Stevens wrote:

““Through the use of chat rooms, any person with Through the use of chat rooms, any person with a phone line can become a town crier with a a phone line can become a town crier with a voice that resonates farther than it could from voice that resonates farther than it could from any soapbox. Through the use of Web pages, any soapbox. Through the use of Web pages, mail exploders, and newsgroups, the same mail exploders, and newsgroups, the same individual can become a pamphleteer.”individual can become a pamphleteer.”

Teleconferencing and Teleconferencing and VideoconferencingVideoconferencing

TeleconferencingTeleconferencing permits a group of people to “confer” permits a group of people to “confer” simultaneously via telephone or electronic mail.simultaneously via telephone or electronic mail.

Teleconferencing that also has the capability to let Teleconferencing that also has the capability to let participants see each other over video screens is called participants see each other over video screens is called videoconferencingvideoconferencing..

Such technologies offer businesses tremendous savings in Such technologies offer businesses tremendous savings in time, energy, and money.time, energy, and money.

Many companies conduct sales meetings, editorial Many companies conduct sales meetings, editorial conferences, and job interviews via teleconference.conferences, and job interviews via teleconference.

The systems enable companies to form work teams able to The systems enable companies to form work teams able to overcome the barriers of time and space. overcome the barriers of time and space.

E-CommerceE-Commerce E-commerceE-commerce is defined as “the sharing of is defined as “the sharing of

business information, maintaining business business information, maintaining business relationships, and conducting business relationships, and conducting business transactions by means of telecommunications transactions by means of telecommunications networks.”networks.”

E-commerce involves using network E-commerce involves using network communications technology to engage in a wide communications technology to engage in a wide range of activities up and down the value-added range of activities up and down the value-added chain, both within and outside the organization.chain, both within and outside the organization.

E-commerce can be initiated by business, E-commerce can be initiated by business, consumers, or government, and aimed at each of consumers, or government, and aimed at each of these groups.these groups.

E-Commerce: On-Line Retail SalesE-Commerce: On-Line Retail Sales

Internet retailers (called Internet retailers (called e-tailerse-tailers) are among the ) are among the most visible players in the Internet economy.most visible players in the Internet economy.

Some e-tailers are Internet based (and known as Some e-tailers are Internet based (and known as ““dotcomsdotcoms”).”).

Others are traditional firms that have developed a Web Others are traditional firms that have developed a Web presence (these firms are known as “click-and-mortar” presence (these firms are known as “click-and-mortar” retailers).retailers).

In the latter case, an emerging question is how to In the latter case, an emerging question is how to coordinate the efforts of the Web business and of the coordinate the efforts of the Web business and of the traditional retail element (known as the traditional retail element (known as the legacy businesslegacy business).).

Collections of retailers sometimes operate out of a Collections of retailers sometimes operate out of a common Web site in electronic malls, or “cybermalls.”common Web site in electronic malls, or “cybermalls.”

Global Perspectives:DoCoMoGlobal Perspectives:DoCoMo

E-commerce in Japan is growing less rapidly E-commerce in Japan is growing less rapidly than in the United States and Europe, because than in the United States and Europe, because many fewer people own computers.many fewer people own computers.

NTT DoCoMo may be Japan’s last, best hope in NTT DoCoMo may be Japan’s last, best hope in the global Internet race.the global Internet race.

The firm’s “I-mode” cell phones provide cheap The firm’s “I-mode” cell phones provide cheap and continuous wireless access to the Internet and continuous wireless access to the Internet as well as voice-recognition technology.as well as voice-recognition technology.

Users don’t have to make new dial-up Users don’t have to make new dial-up connections to get on the Internet; they are connections to get on the Internet; they are always connected as long as they have a always connected as long as they have a signal and a charged battery.signal and a charged battery.

E-Commerce: Other ApplicationsE-Commerce: Other Applications

Online recruitingOnline recruiting.. There are now dozens of major job sites on the Web.There are now dozens of major job sites on the Web. Businesses can place job ads on the Web and start Businesses can place job ads on the Web and start

receiving resumes in minutes.receiving resumes in minutes. A 30-day classified ad in a major newspaper costs an A 30-day classified ad in a major newspaper costs an

average of about 20 times that of a 30-day posting on a average of about 20 times that of a 30-day posting on a major job board.major job board.

They can also use the Web to offer job prospects They can also use the Web to offer job prospects information about the company and its culture.information about the company and its culture.

Collaborative planningCollaborative planning. . An An extranetextranet is a Web- is a Web-based platform that controls the exchange of data based platform that controls the exchange of data with outside parties.with outside parties.

Heineken’s ExtranetHeineken’s Extranet Heineken, with its headquarters in Europe, faced delays Heineken, with its headquarters in Europe, faced delays

between order placement in the U.S. and delivery of 10-12 between order placement in the U.S. and delivery of 10-12 weeks.weeks.

To reduce that time, Heineken implemented an extranet to To reduce that time, Heineken implemented an extranet to connect with its suppliers and customers.connect with its suppliers and customers.

Called HOPS (Heineken Operational Planning System), the Called HOPS (Heineken Operational Planning System), the system allows for real-time forecasting and ordering system allows for real-time forecasting and ordering interaction with distributors.interaction with distributors.

HOPS has helped Heineken cut delivery times to distributors HOPS has helped Heineken cut delivery times to distributors in half while reducing inventories and cutting costs.in half while reducing inventories and cutting costs.

It also provides a calendar permitting Heineken to notify It also provides a calendar permitting Heineken to notify distributors of events and e-mail to broadcast new distributors of events and e-mail to broadcast new products, newsletters, or problems.products, newsletters, or problems.

Informal CommunicationInformal Communication While formal communication channels are important, much information While formal communication channels are important, much information

flows in other, officially unrecognized ways.flows in other, officially unrecognized ways. Informal communicationInformal communication is information shared without formally is information shared without formally

imposed obligations or restrictions.imposed obligations or restrictions. In organizational settings, information that is communicated informally In organizational settings, information that is communicated informally

among employees is referred to as the among employees is referred to as the grapevinegrapevine.. Over three-fourths of the information sent on the grapevine is accurate, Over three-fourths of the information sent on the grapevine is accurate,

but one error may change the whole meaning of a message.but one error may change the whole meaning of a message. People see the grapevine as a primary source of information, but rank it People see the grapevine as a primary source of information, but rank it

very low as a preferred source.very low as a preferred source. Grapevines carry messages that formal systems do not, they are fast Grapevines carry messages that formal systems do not, they are fast

and flexible, and they can reach people in the need to know.and flexible, and they can reach people in the need to know. Employees tend to view grapevine information as accurate.Employees tend to view grapevine information as accurate.

Focus on Management: Rumors of Focus on Management: Rumors of SatanismSatanism

Procter & Gamble co. has struggled for Procter & Gamble co. has struggled for more than 20 years to fight rumors that more than 20 years to fight rumors that its moon-and-stars trademark is linked its moon-and-stars trademark is linked to Satanism.to Satanism.

Lawsuits, changes in the P&G Lawsuits, changes in the P&G trademark, and responses to up to 200 trademark, and responses to up to 200 concerned callers a day have not halted concerned callers a day have not halted the persistent rumors.the persistent rumors.

Now P&G is using the Web to fight back, Now P&G is using the Web to fight back, with a website specifically designed to with a website specifically designed to fight the rumors.fight the rumors.

http://www.pg.com/about_pg/overview_fhttp://www.pg.com/about_pg/overview_facts/trademark_facts.jhtmlacts/trademark_facts.jhtml

Global Perspectives: The Role ofGlobal Perspectives: The Role ofthe Grapevinethe Grapevine

The importance of the grapevine varies with national culture.The importance of the grapevine varies with national culture. For example, the grapevine and associated rumors are For example, the grapevine and associated rumors are

especially important in Mexico.especially important in Mexico. In the office in Mexico, the grapevine is often the most In the office in Mexico, the grapevine is often the most

important source for employees to find out about new important source for employees to find out about new changes, especially those affecting personnel.changes, especially those affecting personnel.

Rumors tend to be formed when uncertainty is high and Rumors tend to be formed when uncertainty is high and formal channels of communication fail to provide good formal channels of communication fail to provide good information; these conditions prevail in Mexico.information; these conditions prevail in Mexico.

In addition, Mexico has a strong oral tradition, and Mexicans In addition, Mexico has a strong oral tradition, and Mexicans have developed a suspicious attitude toward “official” have developed a suspicious attitude toward “official” information.information.

Guidelines for Effective CoachingGuidelines for Effective Coaching

Create a situation where you are prepared to coach Create a situation where you are prepared to coach and the employee is open to coachingand the employee is open to coaching. Develop a . Develop a climate of trust and mutual respect.climate of trust and mutual respect.

Use reflective listeningUse reflective listening -- focus both on words and their -- focus both on words and their emotional content. Facilitate self-discovery by letting emotional content. Facilitate self-discovery by letting employees think for themselves and present their options.employees think for themselves and present their options.

Talk to your employees, not at themTalk to your employees, not at them. Avoid phrases . Avoid phrases such as “You should…” and “I want…”such as “You should…” and “I want…”

Value different perspectivesValue different perspectives. Try to understand the . Try to understand the differing motivations, work values, goals, and capabilities of differing motivations, work values, goals, and capabilities of individual employees.individual employees.

Guidelines for Effective Coaching Guidelines for Effective Coaching (Continued)(Continued)

Mutually identify goalsMutually identify goals. Focus on behaviors rather . Focus on behaviors rather than attitudes; behaviors can be changed, while than attitudes; behaviors can be changed, while attitudes tend to be inflexible.attitudes tend to be inflexible.

Ask questionsAsk questions. Use questions to open new . Use questions to open new possibilities, explore perceptions and assumptions, and possibilities, explore perceptions and assumptions, and provide new ways of examining the same information.provide new ways of examining the same information.

Give useful feedbackGive useful feedback. Focus both on outcome . Focus both on outcome feedback and on how behavior change can lead to feedback and on how behavior change can lead to improved outcomes.improved outcomes.

Track, follow through on your promises, and Track, follow through on your promises, and reward improved behaviorreward improved behavior. .

The Bottom Line:The Bottom Line:Developing Coaching SkillsDeveloping Coaching Skills

Use ActiveListening to Assess

the Employee’sPerformance

Issue

Use ActiveListening to Assess

the Employee’sPerformance

Issue

Work with theEmployee to Identify

MutuallyAcceptable

Behavior-BasedPerformance Goals

Work with theEmployee to Identify

MutuallyAcceptable

Behavior-BasedPerformance Goals

Demonstrate theAppropriate

Behaviors forthe Employee

Demonstrate theAppropriate

Behaviors forthe Employee

Observe EmployeeJob Performance

Observe EmployeeJob Performance

ProvideDevelopmentalFeedback to the

Employee to Facilitate AchievingPerformance Goals

ProvideDevelopmentalFeedback to the

Employee to Facilitate AchievingPerformance Goals

Provide PositiveOutcomes for

Employees Based onthe Achievement ofPerformance Goals

Provide PositiveOutcomes for

Employees Based onthe Achievement ofPerformance Goals

Guidelines for Cross-Cultural Guidelines for Cross-Cultural CommunicationCommunication

Learn all you can about the other party’s cultureLearn all you can about the other party’s culture. Many . Many differences across cultures affect communications, including whether differences across cultures affect communications, including whether the culture is high-context or low-context.the culture is high-context or low-context.

Try to speak the languageTry to speak the language. By speaking the language -- even . By speaking the language -- even haltingly -- we are more likely to recognize subtle nuances of haltingly -- we are more likely to recognize subtle nuances of meaning, to avoid gaffes, and to show a sense of caring and meaning, to avoid gaffes, and to show a sense of caring and commitment.commitment.

Challenge your stereotypes and assumptionsChallenge your stereotypes and assumptions. The goal is to . The goal is to replace your original assumptions and beliefs about the society in replace your original assumptions and beliefs about the society in question with information received from actual members of that question with information received from actual members of that society.society.

Withhold evaluationWithhold evaluation. Try to gather facts while avoiding evaluation. . Try to gather facts while avoiding evaluation. Put on the other person’s hat and try to understand the situation Put on the other person’s hat and try to understand the situation from his or her position.from his or her position.

The Bottom Line: Cross-CulturalThe Bottom Line: Cross-CulturalCommunication SkillsCommunication Skills

Study theCommunication

Style, Customs, Norms, and Taboos of

Employees’Cultures

Attempt toDevelop SomeProficiency inthe Languages

Spoken byEmployees

Consider Cross-Cultural Communication

Differences WhenFormulating and

Transmitting Messagesto Employees

Build Additional Checksinto the Communication

Process to EnsureMutual Understanding

Across Employees