History of Buddhism 1

History of Buddhism

Part of a series onBuddhism

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Dharma or conceptsFour Noble TruthsFive AggregatesImpermanence

Suffering · Non-selfDependent Origination

Middle Way · EmptinessKarma · Rebirth

Samsara · Cosmology

PracticesThree Jewels

Noble Eightfold PathMorality · Perfections

Meditation · MindfulnessWisdom · CompassionAids to Enlightenment

Monasticism · Laity

NirvāṇaFour Stages · ArahantBuddha · Bodhisattva

Traditions · CanonsTheravāda · Pali

Mahāyāna · HinayanaChinese

Vajrayāna · Tibetan

The History of Buddhism spans the 6th century BCE to the present, starting with the birth of Buddha SiddharthaGautama on the Indian subcontinent, in what is now Lumbini, Nepal. This makes it one of the oldest religionspracticed today. The religion evolved as it spread from the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent throughCentral, East, and Southeast Asia. At one time or another, it influenced most of the Asian continent. The history ofBuddhism is also characterized by the development of numerous movements, schisms, and schools, among them theTheravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna traditions, with contrasting periods of expansion and retreat.

History of Buddhism 2

Siddhartha Gautama

The Aśoka Chakra, an ancient Indian depiction ofthe Dharmachakra and depicted on the national

flag of India.

Siddhārtha Gautama was the historical founder of Buddhism. He wasborn a Kshatriya warrior prince in what is now Lumbini, Nepal, in 623BCE.[1] His particular family of Sakya Kshatriyas were of Brahminlineage (Sanskrit: gotra), as indicated by the family name "Gautama".19th-century scholars, such as Dr. Eitel, connected it to the BrahminRishi Gautama.[2] In many Buddhist texts, Buddha is said to be adescendant of the Brahmin Sage Angirasa.[3] For example, "In the PāliMahavagga "Angirasa" (in Pāli Angirasa) occurs as a name ofBuddha Gautama who evidently belonged to the Angirasa tribe...".[4]

Scholar Edward J. Thomas too connected Buddha with sages Gautamaand Angirasa.[5]

After asceticism and meditation, Siddhartha Gautama discovered theBuddhist Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremesof self-indulgence and self-mortification.

Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya,India. Gautama, from then on, was known as "The Enlightened One ," the Samyaksambuddha.

Buddha found patronage in the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisāra. The emperor accepted Buddhism as hispersonal faith and allowed the establishment of many Buddhist vihāras. This eventually led to the renaming of theentire region as Bihār.[6]

At the Deer Park near Vārāṇasī in northern India, Buddha set in motion Wheel of Dharma by delivering his firstsermon to a group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. Together with theBuddha they formed the first Saṅgha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of the TripleGem (Buddha, Dharma and Saṅgha) was completed.For the remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain of Northeastern Indiaand other regions.Buddha attained parinirvāṇa in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra.Just before Buddha died, he reportedly told his followers that thereafter the Dharma (doctrine, teaching) would betheir leader. The early arhants considered Gautama's words the primary source of Dharma and Vinaya (rules ofdiscipline and community living), and took great pains to formulate and transmit his teachings accurately.Nonetheless, no ungarnished collection of his sayings has survived. The versions of the canon (accepted scripture)preserved in Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan are sectarian variants of a corpus that grew and crystallized duringthree centuries of oral transmission.[7]

History of Buddhism 3

Early BuddhismFurther information: History of Buddhism in IndiaEarly Buddhism remained centered around the Ganges valley, spreading gradually from its ancient heartland. Thecanonical sources record two councils, where the monastic Sangha established the textual collections based on theBuddha's teachings and settled certain disciplinary problems within the community.

1st Buddhist council (5th c. BCE)The first Buddhist council was held just after Buddha's Parinirvana , and presided over by Venerable Mahākāśyapa,one of His most senior disciples, at Rājagṛha (today's Rajgir) during the 5th century under the noble support of kingAjāthaśatru. The objective of the council was to record all of Buddha's teachings into the doctrinal teachings (sutra)and Abhidhamma and to codify the monastic rules (vinaya). Ānanda, one of the Buddha's main disciples and hiscousin, was called upon to recite the discourses and Abhidhamma of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recitedthe rules of the vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripiṭaka (Three Baskets), which is preserved only in Pāli.

2nd Buddhist council (4th c. BCE)The second Buddhist council was held at Vaisali following a dispute that had arisen in the Saṅgha over a relaxationby some monks of various points of discipline. Eventually it was decided to hold a second council at which theoriginal Vinaya texts that had been preserved at the first Council were cited to show that these relaxations wentagainst the recorded teachings of the Buddha.

Aśokan proselytism (c. 261 BCE)Further information: Ashoka the Great and Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire under Emperor Aśoka wasthe world's first major Buddhist state. It

established free hospitals and free education andpromoted human rights.

Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edict of Aśoka (238BCE), in Brāhmī, sandstone. British Museum.

The Mauryan Emperor Aśoka (273–232 BCE) converted to Buddhismafter his bloody conquest of the territory of Kalinga (modern Orissa) ineastern India during the Kalinga War. Regretting the horrors andmisery brought about by the conflict, the king magnanimously decidedto renounce violence, to replace the misery caused by war with respectand dignity for all humanity. He propagated the faith by buildingstupas and pillars urging, amongst other things, respect of all animallife and enjoining people to follow the Dharma. Perhaps the finestexample of these is the Great Stupa in Sanchi, India (near Bhopal). Itwas constructed in the 3rd century BCE and later enlarged. Its carvedgates, called toranas, are considered among the finest examples ofBuddhist art in India. He also built roads, hospitals, resthouses,universities and irrigation systems around the country. He treated hissubjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics or caste.

This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India to othercountries. According to the plates and pillars left by Aśoka (the edictsof Aśoka), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spreadBuddhism, as far south as Sri Lanka and as far west as the Greekkingdoms, in particular the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, andpossibly even farther to the Mediterranean.

History of Buddhism 4

Great Stupa (3rd century BCE), Sanchi, India.

3rd Buddhist council (c.250 BCE)

King Aśoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE atPataliputra (today's Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputtatissa.The objective of the council was to purify the Saṅgha, particularlyfrom non-Buddhist ascetics who had been attracted by the royalpatronage. Following the council, Buddhist missionaries weredispatched throughout the known world.

Hellenistic world

Some of the edicts of Aśoka describe the efforts made by him to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout theHellenistic world, which at that time formed an uninterrupted continuum from the borders of India to Greece. Theedicts indicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and locations ofthe main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism:Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE),Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BCE), Magas (288–258 BCE) in Cyrenaica (modern Libya), andAlexander II (272–255 BCE) in Epirus (modern Northwestern Greece).

Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Aśoka(260–218 BCE), according to the edicts of

Aśoka.

"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders,and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where theGreek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kingsnamed Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewisein the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far asTamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Aśoka, 13th Rock Edict, S.Dhammika).

Furthermore, according to Pāli sources, some of Aśoka's emissarieswere Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchangesbetween the two cultures:

"When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the illuminator of the religion of the Conqueror (Aśoka), had broughtthe (third) council to an end (...) he sent forth theras, one here and one there: (...) and to Aparantaka (the"Western countries" corresponding to Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the Greek (Yona) named Dhammarakkhita".(Mahavamsa XII).

Bilingual inscription (Greek and Aramaic) byking Aśoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum

(click image for full translation).

Aśoka also issued edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic.One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of "piety"(using the Greek term eusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community:

"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses(Aśoka) made known (the doctrine of) piety (Greek:εὐσέβεια,eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men morepious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world."

(Trans. from the Greek original by G.P. Carratelli[8])It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential,but some authors have commented that some level of syncretismbetween Hellenist thought and Buddhism may have started in Hellenic

History of Buddhism 5

lands at that time. They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around thatperiod, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic order ofthe Therapeutae (possibly a deformation of the Pāli word "Theravāda"[9]), who may have "almost entirely drawn (its)inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism"[10] and may even have been descendants ofAśoka's emissaries to the West.[11] The philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene, from the city of Cyrene where Magas ofCyrene ruled, is sometimes thought to have been influenced by the teachings of Aśoka's Buddhist missionaries.[12]

Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions ofthe Dharma wheel.[13] The presence of Buddhists in Alexandria has even drawn the conclusion: "It was later in thisvery place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established".[14]

In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist, Clement of Alexandria recognized Bactrian Buddhists (śramanas)and Indian gymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought:

"Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its lightover the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; andthe Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the śramanas among the Bactrians("Σαρμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold theSaviour's birth, and came into the land of Judea guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in thenumber, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them calledśramanas ("Σαρμάναι"), and others Brahmins ("Βραφμαναι")." Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, orMiscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV[15]

Expansion to Sri Lanka and BurmaFurther information: Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Buddhism in BurmaSri Lanka was proselytized by Aśoka's son Mahinda and six companions during the 2nd century BCE. Theyconverted the king Devanampiya Tissa and many of the nobility. In addition, Aśoka's daughter, Saṅghamitta alsoestablished the bhikkhunī (order for nuns) in Sri Lanka, also bringing with her a sapling of the sacred bodhi tree thatwas subsequently planted in Anuradhapura. This is when the Mahāvihāra monastery, a center of Sinhaleseorthodoxy, was built. The Pāli canon was written down in Sri Lanka during the reign of king Vattagamani (29–17BCE), and the Theravāda tradition flourished there. Later some great commentators worked there, such asBuddhaghoṣa (4th–5th century) and Dhammapāla (5th–6th century), and they systemised the traditionalcommentaries that had been handed down. Although Mahāyāna Buddhism gained some influence in Sri Lanka atthat time, the Theravāda ultimately prevailed and Sri Lanka turned out to be the last stronghold of it. From there itwould expand again to South-East Asia from the 11th century.In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (modern Burma and Thailand), Indian culture strongly influenced theMons. The Mons are said to have been converted to Buddhism from the 3rd century BCE under the proselytizing ofthe Indian Emperor Aśoka, before the fission between Mahāyāna and Hinayāna Buddhism. Early Mon Buddhisttemples, such as Peikthano in central Burma, have been dated to between the 1st and the 5th century CE.

History of Buddhism 6

Mons Wheel of the Law (Dharmachakra), art ofDvaravati, c.8th century.

The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indianart of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist stylespread widely in South-East Asia following the expansion of the Monkingdom between the 5th and 8th centuries. The Theravāda faithexpanded in the northern parts of Southeast Asia under Mon influence,until it was progressively displaced by Mahāyāna Buddhism fromaround the 6th century CE.

According to the Aśokāvadāna (2nd century CE), Aśoka sent amissionary to the north, through the Himalayas, to Khotan in the TarimBasin, then the land of the Tocharians, speakers of an Indo-Europeanlanguage.

Rise of the Sunga (2nd–1st century BCE)

Further information: Sunga EmpireThe Sunga dynasty (185–73 BCE) was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Aśoka's death. Afterassassinating King Brhadrata (last of the Mauryan rulers), military commander-in-chief Pusyamitra Sunga took thethrone. Buddhist religious scriptures such as the Aśokāvadāna allege that Pusyamitra (an orthodox Brahmin) washostile towards Buddhists and persecuted the Buddhist faith. Buddhists wrote that he "destroyed hundreds ofmonasteries and killed hundreds of thousands of innocent Monks":[16] 840,000 Buddhist stupas which had been builtby Aśoka were destroyed, and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk.[17] In addition,Buddhist sources allege that a large number of Buddhist monasteries (vihāras) were converted to Hindu temples, inplaces like, but not limited to, Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, and Mathura, among many others.

Modern historians, however, dispute this view in the light of literary and archaeological evidence. They opine thatfollowing Aśoka's sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under theSungas, but no evidence of active persecution has been noted. Etienne Lamotte observes: "To judge from thedocuments, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof."[18] Another eminent historian, Romila Thaparpoints to archaeological evidence that "suggests the contrary" to the claim that "Pusyamitra was a fanaticalanti-Buddhist" and that he "never actually destroyed 840,000 stupas as claimed by Buddhist works, if any". Thaparstresses that Buddhist accounts are probably hyperbolic renditions of Pusyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, and merelyreflect the desperate frustration of the Buddhist religious figures in the face of the possibly irreversible decline in theimportance of their religion under the Sungas.[19]

During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the Ganges valley, following either the northern road (uttarapatha) orthe southern road (dakṣinapatha).[20] Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the old Magadha area, toreposition itself either in the northwest area of Gandhāra and Mathura or in the southeast around Amaravati. Someartistic activity also occurred in central India, as in Bhārhut, to which the Sungas may or may not have contributed.

History of Buddhism 7

Greco-Buddhist interaction (2nd century BCE–1st century CE)

Silver drachm of Menander I (reigned c. 160–135 BCE).Obv: Greek legend, BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY lit. "of the Saviour

King Menander".

In Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan),the areas west of the Indian subcontinent,neighboring Greek kingdoms had been inplace since the time of the conquests ofAlexander the Great around 326 BCE: firstthe Seleucids from around 323 BCE, thenthe Greco-Bactrian kingdom from around250 BCE.

A Greco-Buddhist statue, one of the firstrepresentations of the Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE,

Gandhara.

The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCE asfar as Pātaliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that was tolast in parts of northern India until the end of the 1st century BCE.Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has beensuggested that their invasion of India was intended to show theirsupport for the Mauryan empire and to protect the Buddhist faithfrom the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas (185–73BCE).

One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reigned c.160–135 BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and ispresented in the Mahāyāna tradition as one of the great benefactorsof the faith, on a par with king Aśoka or the later Kushan kingKaniśka. Menander's coins bear the mention of the "saviour king"in Greek; some bear designs of the eight-spoked wheel. Directcultural exchange is also suggested by the dialogue of the MilindaPañha between Menander and the monk Nāgasena around 160BCE. Upon his death, the honor of sharing his remains wasclaimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined instupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha.[21] Several ofMenander's Indo-Greek successors inscribed "Follower of theDharma," in the Kharoṣṭhī script, on their coins, and depictedthemselves or their divinities forming the vitarka mudrā.

History of Buddhism 8

A coin of Menander I with an eight-spoked wheel and a palm of victory on thereverse (British Museum).

The interaction between Greek and Buddhistcultures may have had some influence onthe evolution of Mahāyāna, as the faithdeveloped its sophisticated philosophicalapproach and a man-god treatment of theBuddha somewhat reminiscent of Hellenicgods. It is also around that time that the firstanthropomorphic representations of theBuddha are found, often in realisticGreco-Buddhist style: "One might regardthe classical influence as including thegeneral idea of representing a man-god inthis purely human form, which was ofcourse well familiar in the West, and it is very likely that the example of westerner's treatment of their gods wasindeed an important factor in the innovation."[22]

Central Asian expansion

The Buddhist gold coin found in Tillia tepe.Tomb IV.

A Buddhist gold coin from India was found in northern Afghanistan atthe archaeological site of Tillia Tepe, and dated to the 1st century CE.On the reverse, it depicts a lion in the moving position with anandipada in front of it, with the Kharoṣṭhī legend "Sih[o]vigatabhay[o]" ("The lion who dispelled fear").

The Mahayana Buddhists symbolized Buddha with animals such as alion, an elephant, a horse or a bull. A pair of feet was also used. Thesymbol called by the archaeologists and historians as "nandipada" isactually a composite symbol. The symbol at the top symbolizes 'theMiddle Path,' the Buddha Dhamma. The circle with a centre symbolizes chakra. Thus, the composite symbolsymbolizes 'Dhamma Chakra.' Thus, the symbols on the reverse of the coin jointly symbolize Buddha rolling theDhamma Chakra.In the 'Lion Capital' of Saranath,India, Buddha rolling the Dhamma Chakra is depicted on the wallof the cylinder with lion, elephant, horse and bull rolling the Dhamma Chakras.On the obverse, an almost naked man only wearing an Hellenistic chlamys and wearing a head-dress rolls a Buddhistwheel. The legend in Kharoṣṭhī reads "Dharmacakrapravata[ko]" ("The one who turned the Wheel of the Law"). Ithas been suggested that this may be an early representation of the Buddha.[23]

The head dress symbolizes 'the Middle Path.' Thus, the man with the head dress is a person who adheres to theMiddle Path. In one of the Indus Valley seals also, we find similar head dress worn by 9 women!Thus, on both sides of the coin, we find Buddha rolling the Dhamma chakra.As no scientific study on literary and physical symbolization of Buddha and Buddhism was conducted by thearchaeologists and historians, imaginary and false interpretations were only given on coins, seals, Brahmi and otherinscriptions and other archaeological finds.

History of Buddhism 9

Rise of Mahāyāna (1st century BCE–2nd century CE)Further information: Mahayana

Coin of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, with the Buddha on the reverse, and hisname "BODDO" in Greek script, minted circa 120 CE.

The rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism from the1st century BCE was accompanied bycomplex political changes in northwesternIndia. The Indo-Greek kingdoms weregradually overwhelmed, and their cultureassimilated by the Indo-Scythians, and thenthe Yuezhi, who founded the KushanEmpire from around 12 BCE.

The new form of Buddhism wascharacterized by the idea that all beingshave a Buddha-nature and should aspire toBuddhahood, and by a syncretism due to thevarious cultural influences within northwestern India and the Kushan Empire.

In the Kanishka coin, the composite symbol placed by the side of the enlightened Buddha symbolizes 'the FourNoble Truths that emphasize the Middle Path, the Buddha Dhamma.'

The Two Fourth CouncilsThe Fourth Council is said to have been convened in the reign of the Kushan emperor Kaniṣka around 100 CE atJalandhar or in Kashmir. Theravāda Buddhism had its own Fourth Council in Sri Lanka about 200 years earlier inwhich the Pāli canon was written down in toto for the first time. Therefore there were two Fourth Councils: one inSri Lanka (Theravāda), and one in Kashmir (Sarvāstivādin).

Extent of Buddhism and trade routes in the 1st century CE.

It is said that for the Fourth Council of Kashmir,Kaniṣka gathered 500 monks headed by Vasumitra,partly, it seems, to compile extensive commentaries onthe Abhidharma, although it is possible that someeditorial work was carried out upon the existing canonitself. Allegedly during the council there werealtogether three hundred thousand verses and over ninemillion statements compiled, and it took twelve yearsto complete. The main fruit of this council was thecompilation of the vast commentary known as theMahā-Vibhāshā ("Great Exegesis"), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the SarvāstivādinAbhidharma.

Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change was made in the language of the Sarvāstivādin canon, by converting an earlier Prakrit version into Sanskrit. Although this change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was the sacred language of Brahmanism in India, and was also being used by other thinkers, regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance, thus enabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices. For this reason there was a growing tendency among Buddhist scholars in India thereafter to write their commentaries and treatises in Sanskrit. Many of the early schools, however, such as Theravāda, never switched to Sanskrit, partly because Buddha explicitly forbade translation of his discourses into what was an elitist religious language (as Latin was in medieval Europe). He wanted his monks to use a local language instead - a language which could be understood by all. Over time, however, the language of the Theravādin scriptures (Pāli) became a

History of Buddhism 10

scholarly or elitist language as well, exactly opposite to what the Buddha had explicitly commanded.

Mahāyāna expansion (1st century CE–10th century CE)Further information: Mahayana

Expansion of Mahāyāna Buddhism between the 1st–10th century CE.

From that point on, and in the space of a fewcenturies, Mahāyāna was to flourish andspread in the East from India to South-EastAsia, and towards the north to Central Asia,China, Korea, and finally to Japan in 538CE and Tibet in the 7th century.

India

Further information: History of Buddhism inIndia

After the end of the Kushans, Buddhismflourished in India during the dynasty of theGuptas (4th-6th century). Mahāyāna centersof learning were established, especially atNālandā in north-eastern India, which was to become the largest and most influential Buddhist university for manycenturies, with famous teachers such as Nāgārjuna. The influence of the Gupta style of Buddhist art spread alongwith the faith from south-east Asia to China.

Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire.

Indian Buddhism had weakened in the 6th century following theWhite Hun invasions and Mihirkulas persecution.

Xuanzang reported in his travels across India during the 7thcentury of Buddhism being popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, andDravida, which area today roughly corresponds to the modern dayIndian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.[24] Whilereporting many deserted stupas in the area around modern dayNepal and the persecution of Buddhists by Ssanka in the Kingdomof Gouda in modern day West Bengal, Xuanzang complimentedthe patronage of Harṣavardana during the same period. After theHarṣavardana kingdom, the rise of many small kingdoms that ledto the rise of the Rajputs across the gangetic plains and marked theend of Buddhist ruling clans along with a sharp decline in royalpatronage until a revival under the Pāla Empire in the Bengalregion. Here Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished and spread to Tibet,Bhutan and Sikkim between the 7th and the 12th centuries beforethe Pālas collapsed under the assault of the Hindu Sena dynasty.

The Pālas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. Xuanzang noted in his travels that invarious regions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism.[25] By the 10th century Buddhism hadexperienced a sharp decline beyond the Pāla realms in Bengal under a resurgent Hinduism and the incorporation inVaishnavite Hinduism of Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu.[26]

A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193 when Turkic Islamic raiders under Muhammad Khilji burnt Nālandā. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist

History of Buddhism 11

strongholds in Bihar and the loss of political support coupled with social pressures, the practice of Buddhismretreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and Sri Lanka in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhismalso waned due to Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita, the rise of the bhakti movement and themissionary work of Sufis.

Central and Northern AsiaFurther information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Central Asia

Central Asia had been influenced by Buddhism probably almost since the time of the Buddha. According to a legendpreserved in Pāli, the language of the Theravādin canon, two merchant brothers from Bactria named Tapassu andBhallika visited the Buddha and became his disciples. They then returned to Bactria and built temples to theBuddha.[27]

Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China, India and Persia. During the 2nd century BCE,the expansion of the Former Han to the west brought them into contact with the Hellenistic civilizations of Asia,especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms. Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the north led to the formation ofBuddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oases of Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consistedalmost entirely of Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and it seems that one of their main objectives was to welcomeand service travelers between east and west.The Theravādin traditions first spread among the Iranian tribes before combining with the Mahāyāna forms duringthe 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal Iran,Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient states of Gandhāra, Bactria, Parthia and Sogdiafrom where it spread to China. Among the first of these states to come under the influence of Buddhism was Bactriaas early as the 3rd century BCE (see Greco-Buddhism). It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. Therewere also Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and followers of shamanism, Tengrism,and other indigenous, nonorganized systems of belief.Various Nikāya schools persisted in Central Asia and China until around the 7th century CE. Mahāyāna started tobecome dominant during the period, but since the faith had not developed a Nikaya approach, Sarvāstivādins andDharmaguptakas remained the Vinayas of choice in Central Asian monasteries.Various Buddhist kingdoms rose and prospered in both the Central Asian region and downwards into the Indiansub-continent such as the Kushan Empire prior to the White Hun invasion in the 5th century where under the KingMihirkula they were heavily persecuted.Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline with the expansion of Islam and the destruction of many stupas in warfrom the 7th century. The Muslims accorded them the status of dhimmis as "people of the Book", such asChristianity or Judaism and Al-Biruni wrote of Buddha as prophet "burxan".Buddhism saw a surge during the reign of Mongols following the invasion of Genghis Khan and the establishment ofthe Il Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate who brought their Buddhist influence with them during the 13th century;however, within 100 years the Mongols who remained in that region would convert to Islam and spread Islam acrossall the regions of central Asia. Only the eastern Mongols and the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty would keepVajrayāna Buddhism.

History of Buddhism 12

Parthia

Buddhism expanded westward into Arsacid Parthia, at least to the area of Merv, in ancient Margiana, today'sterritory of Turkmenistan. Soviet archeological teams have excavated in Giaur Kala near Merv a Buddhist chapel, agigantic Buddha statue and a monastery.Parthians were directly involved in the propagation of Buddhism: An Shigao (c. 148 CE), a Parthian prince, went toChina, and is the first known translator of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.

Tarim Basin

Blue-eyed Central Asian and East-AsianBuddhist monks, Bezaklik, Eastern Tarim Basin,

China, 9th-10th century.

The eastern part of central Asia (Chinese Turkestan, Tarim Basin,Xinjiang) has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art (wallpaintings and reliefs in numerous caves, portable paintings on canvas,sculpture, ritual objects), displaying multiple influences from Indianand Hellenistic cultures. Serindian art is highly reminiscent of theGandhāran style, and scriptures in the Gandhāri script Kharoṣṭhī havebeen found.

Central Asians seem to have played a key role in the transmission ofBuddhism to the East. The first translators of Buddhists scriptures intoChinese were Parthian (Ch: Anxi) like An Shigao (c. 148 CE) or AnHsuan, Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity like Lokaksema (c. 178 CE), ZhiQian and Zhi Yao or Sogdians (Ch: SuTe/粟 特) like Kang Sengkai.Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and themajority of them have been identified as Central Asians.

Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to havemaintained strong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shownby frescoes from the Tarim Basin.These influences were rapidly absorbed, however, by the vigorous Chinese culture, and a strongly Chineseparticularism develops from that point.

China

Buddhism probably arrived in China around the 1st century CE from Central Asia, although there are some traditionsabout a monk visiting China during Aśoka's reign. Until the 8th century it became an extremely active center ofBuddhism.The year 67 CE saw Buddhism's official introduction to China with the coming of the two monks Moton andChufarlan. In 68 CE, under imperial patronage, they established the White Horse Temple (白 馬 寺), which stillexists today, close to the imperial capital at Luoyang. By the end of the 2nd century, a prosperous community hadsettled at Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu).The first known Mahāyāna scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema inLuoyang, between 178 and 189 CE. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statueson "money trees", dated c. 200 CE, in typical Gandhāran drawing style: "That the imported images accompanyingthe newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhāra is strongly suggested by such early Gandhāra characteristics on this"money tree" Buddha as the high uṣniṣa, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe andparallel incisions for the folds of the arms."[28]

History of Buddhism 13

Maitreya Buddha, Northern Wei, 443 CE.

In the period between 460-525 AD during the Northern Weidynasty, the Chinese constructed Yungang Grottoes, it's anoutstanding example of the Chinese stone carvings from the 5thand 6th centuries. All together the site is composed of 252 grottoeswith more than 51,000 Buddha statues and statuettes.

Another famous Buddhism Grottoes is Longmen Grottoes whichstarted with the Northern Wei Dynasty in 493 AD. There are asmany as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from an 1inch (25 mm) to 57 feet (17 m) in height. The area also containsnearly 2,500 stelae and inscriptions, whence the name "Forest ofAncient Stelae", as well as over sixty Buddhist pagodas.

Buddhism flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty(618–907). The dynasty was initially characterized by a strongopenness to foreign influences and renewed exchanges with Indianculture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks toIndia from the 4th to the 11th century. The Tang capital ofChang'an (today's Xi'an) became an important center for Buddhistthought. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japaneseembassies of Kentoshi helped gain footholds in Japan.

However, foreign influences came to be negatively perceivedtowards the end of the Tang Dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wuzong outlawed all "foreign" religionsincluding Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism in order to support the indigenous Taoism.Throughout his territory, he confiscated Buddhist possessions, destroyed monasteries and temples, and executedBuddhist monks, ending Buddhism's cultural and intellectual dominance.

However, about a hundred years after the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, Buddhism revived during the SongDynasty (1127–1279).Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, however, continued to prosper for some centuries, the latter giving rise to JapaneseZen. In China, Chan flourished particularly under the Song dynasty (1127–1279), when its monasteries were greatcenters of culture and learning.In the last two thousand years, the Buddhist have build The Four Sacred Mountains of Buddhism, they are MountWutai, Mount Emei, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Putuo.Today, China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts and heritages in the world. UNESCO WorldHeritage Sites such as the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang inHenan province, the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings nearChongqing are among the most important and renowned Buddhist sculptural sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carvedout of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, isstill the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.

Korea

Buddhism was introduced around 372 CE, when Chinese ambassadors visited the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo,bringing scriptures and images. Buddhism prospered in Korea - in particular Seon (Zen) Buddhism from the 7thcentury onward. However, with the beginning of the Confucian Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in 1392, a strongdiscrimination took place against Buddhism until it was almost completely eradicated, except for a remaining Seonmovement.

History of Buddhism 14

Japan

Tile with seated Buddha, Nara Prefecture, Asukaperiod, 7th century. Tokyo National Museum.

The Buddhism of Japan was introduced from Three Kingdoms ofKorea in the 6th century. The Chinese priest Ganjin offered thesystem of Vinaya to the Buddhism of Japan in 754. As a result, theBuddhism of Japan has developed rapidly. Saichō and Kūkaisucceeded to a legitimate Buddhism from China in the 9th century.

Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was ableto preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it wasdisappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia andChina.

From 710 CE numerous temples and monasteries were built in thecapital city of Nara, such as the five-story pagoda and Golden Hallof the Hōryū-ji, or the Kōfuku-ji temple. Countless paintings andsculptures were made, often under governmental sponsorship. Thecreations of Japanese Buddhist art were especially rich betweenthe 8th and 13th century during the periods of Nara, Heian andKamakura.

From the 12th and 13th centuries, a further development was Zenart, following the introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Zen art is mainlycharacterized by original paintings (such as ink wash and the Enso) and poetry (especially haikus), striving toexpress the true essence of the world through impressionistic and unadorned "non-dualistic" representations. Thesearch for enlightenment "in the moment" also led to the development of other important derivative arts such as theChanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower arrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almostany human activity as an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first and foremost in those activities relatedto combat techniques (martial arts).

Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Around 80,000 Buddhist temples are preserved and regularlyrestored.

Tibet

Buddhism arrived late in Tibet, during the 7th century CE. The form that predominated, via the south of Tibet, was ablend of mahāyāna and vajrayāna from the universities of the Pāla empire of north India.[29] Sarvāstivādin influencecame from the south west (Kashmir)[30] and the north west (Khotan).[31] Although these practitioners did not succeedin maintaining a presence in Tibet, their texts found their way into the Tibetan Buddhist canon, providing theTibetans with almost all of their primary sources about the Foundation Vehicle. A subsect of this school,Mūlasarvāstivāda was the source of the Tibetan Vinaya.[32] Chan Buddhism was introduced via east Tibet fromChina and left its impression, but was rendered of lesser importance by early political events.[33]

From the outset Buddhism was opposed by the native shamanistic Bon religion, which had the support of thearistocracy, but with royal patronage it thrived to a peak under King Rälpachän (817-836). Terminology intranslation was standardised around 825, enabling a translation methodology that was highly literal. Despite areversal in Buddhist influence which began under King Langdarma (836-842), the following centuries saw a colossaleffort in collecting available Indian sources, many of which are now extant only in Tibetan translation.Tibetan Buddhism exerted a strong influence from the 11th century CE among the peoples of Central Asia,especially in Mongolia and Manchuria. It was adopted as an official state religion by the Mongol Yuan dynasty andthe Manchu Qing dynasty that ruled China.

History of Buddhism 15

Southeast AsiaFurther information: Indianized kingdom

Statue of the Bodhisattva Lokesvara, Cambodia,12th century.

Cambodian Buddha, 14th century.

During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tendedto be restricted by the rise in the Middle-East of the Parthian empire,an unvanquished enemy of Rome, just as Romans were becomingextremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was rising. Thisdemand revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean andChina, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time,through trade connection, commercial settlements, and even politicalinterventions, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asiancountries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central andsouthern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and numerousurbanized coastal settlements were established there.

For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore themajor factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the variouscountries of the region. The Pāli and Sanskrit languages and the Indianscript, together with Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism,Brahmanism, and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact andthrough sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Rāmāyaṇa andthe Mahābhārata.

From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerfulempires and became extremely active in Buddhist architectural andartistic creation. The main Buddhist influence now came directly bysea from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentiallyfollowed the Mahāyāna faith. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south andthe Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence, and their artexpressed the rich Mahāyāna pantheon of the bodhisattvas.

History of Buddhism 16

The graceful golden statue of Avalokiteçvara inMalayu-Srivijayan style, Jambi, Indonesia.

Srivijayan Empire (7th–13th century)

Further information: SrivijayaSrivijaya, a maritime empire centered at Palembang on the island ofSumatra in Indonesia, adopted Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhismunder a line of rulers named the Sailendras. Yijing describedPalembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning where the emperorsupported over a thousand monks at his court. Yijing also testified tothe importance of Buddhism as early as the year 671 and advisedfuture Chinese pilgrims to spend a year or two in Palembang.[34] Atiśastudied there before travelling to Tibet as a missionary.

As Srivijaya expanded their thalassocracy, Buddhism thrived amongstits people. However, many did not practice pure Buddhism but a newsyncretism form of Buddhism that incorporated several differentreligions such as Hinduism and other indigenous traditions.[35]

Srivijaya spread Buddhist art during its expansion in Southeast Asia.Numerous statues of bodhisattvas from this period are characterized bya very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are foundthroughout the region. Extremely rich architectural remains are visibleat the temple of Borobudur the largest Buddhist structure in the world,built from around 780 CE in Java, which has 505 images of the seatedBuddha. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers ofIndia, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13th

century.

Khmer Empire (9th–13th century)

Further information: Khmer EmpireLater, from the 9th to the 13th centuries, the Mahāyāna Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of theSouth-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboringThailand. Angkor was at the center of this development, with a temple complex and urban organization able tosupport around one million urban dwellers. One of the greatest Khmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), builtlarge Mahāyāna Buddhist structures at Bayon and Angkor Thom.

Vietnam

Following the destruction of Buddhism in mainland India during the 11th century, Mahāyāna Buddhism declined insoutheast Asia, to be replaced by the introduction of Theravāda Buddhism from Sri Lanka.

Emergence of the Vajrayāna (5th century)Vajrayāna Buddhism, also called tantric Buddhism, first emerged in eastern India between the 5th and 7th centuriesCE. It is sometimes considered a sub-school of Mahāyāna and sometimes a third major "vehicle" (yāna) ofBuddhism in its own right. The Vajrayāna is an extension of Mahāyāna Buddhism in that it does not offer newphilosophical perspectives, but rather introduces additional techniques (upaya, or 'skilful means'), including the useof visualizations and other yogic practices. Many of the practices of tantric Buddhism are common with Hindutantricism: the usage of mantras, yoga and the burning of sacrificial offerings.

History of Buddhism 17

Early Vajrayāna practitioners were forest-dwelling mahasiddhas who lived on the margins of society, but by the 9thcentury Vajrayāna had won acceptance at major Mahāyāna monastic universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.Along with much of the rest of Indian Buddhism, the Vajrayāna was eclipsed in the wake of the late 12th centuryMuslim invasions. It has persisted in Tibet, where it was wholly transplanted from the 7th to 12th centuries, and on alimited basis in Japan as well where it evolved into Shingon Buddhism.

Theravāda Renaissance (11th century CE— )Further information: Theravada

Expansion of Theravāda Buddhism from the 11th century CE.

From the 11th century, the destruction ofBuddhism in the Indian mainland by Islamicinvasions led to the decline of the Mahāyānafaith in South-East Asia. Continental routesthrough the Indian subcontinent beingcompromised, direct sea routes developedfrom the Middle-East through Sri Lanka toChina, leading to the adoption of theTheravāda Buddhism of the Pāli canon,introduced to the region around the 11thcentury CE from Sri Lanka.

King Anawrahta (1044–1077); the historicalfounder of the Burmese empire, unified thecountry and adopted the TheravādinBuddhist faith. This initiated the creation ofthousands of Buddhist temples at Pagan, the capital, between the 11th and 13th century. Around 2,000 of them arestill standing. The power of the Burmese waned with the rise of the Thai, and with the seizure of the capital Pagan bythe Mongols in 1287, but Theravāda Buddhism remained the main Burmese faith to this day.

The Theravāda faith was also adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdom of Sukhothai around 1260.Theravāda Buddhism was further reinforced during the Ayutthaya period (14th–18th century), becoming an integralpart of Thai society.In the continental areas, Theravāda Buddhism continued to expand into Laos and Cambodia in the 13th century.From the 14th century, however, on the coastal fringes and in the islands of south-east Asia, the influence of Islamproved stronger, expanding into Malaysia, Indonesia, and most of the islands as far as the southern Philippines.Nevertheless, since Suharto's rise to power in 1966, there has been a remarkable renaissance of Buddhism inIndonesia. This is partly due to the requirements of Suharto's New Order for the people of Indonesia to adopt one ofthe five official religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism or Buddhism. Today it is estimated there aresome 10 millions Buddhists in Indonesia. A large part of them are people of Chinese ancestry.

History of Buddhism 18

Expansion of Buddhism to the WestFurther information: Western Buddhism

Saint Josaphat preaching Christianity. 12th century Greek manuscript.

After the Classical encounters betweenBuddhism and the West recorded inGreco-Buddhist art, information and legendsabout Buddhism seem to have reached theWest sporadically. An account of Buddha'slife was translated in to Greek by John ofDamascus, and widely circulated toChristians as the story of Barlaam andJosaphat. By the 14th century this story ofJosaphat had become so popular that he wasmade a Catholic saint.

The next direct encounter between Europeans and Buddhism happened in Medieval times when the Franciscan friarWilliam of Rubruck was sent on an embassy to the Mongol court of Mongke by the French king Saint Louis in 1253.The contact happened in Cailac (today's Qayaliq in Kazakhstan), and William originally thought they were waywardChristians (Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road").

In the period after Hulagu, the Mongol Ilkhans increasingly adopted Buddhism. Numerous Buddhist temples dottedthe landscape of Persia and Iraq, none of which survived the 14th century. The Buddhist element of the Il-Khanatedied with Arghun.[36]

The Kalmyk Khanate was founded in the 17th century with Tibetan Buddhism as its main religion, following theearlier migration of the Oirats from Dzungaria through Central Asia to the steppe around the mouth of the VolgaRiver. During the course of the 18th century, they were absorbed by the Russian Empire.[37] At the end of theNapoleonic wars, Kalmyk cavalry units in Russian service entered Paris.[38] Kalmykia is remarkable for being theonly state in Europe where the dominant religion is Buddhism.Interest in Buddhism increased during the colonial era, when Western powers were in a position to witness the faithand its artistic manifestations in detail. The opening of Japan in 1853 created a considerable interest in the arts andculture of Japan, and provided access to one of the most thriving Buddhist cultures in the world.Buddhism started to enjoy a strong interest from the general population in the West following the turbulence of the20th century. In the wake of the 1959 Tibetan uprising, a Tibetan diaspora has made Tibetan Buddhism in particularmore widely accessible to the rest of the world. It has since spread to many Western countries, where the traditionhas gained popularity. Among its prominent exponents is the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet. The number of its adherentsis estimated to be between ten and twenty million.[39]

Notes[1] UNESCO World Heritage Site (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 666)[2] P. 95 A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms By James Legge[3] The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas, first published in 1927[4] P. 19 A history of Indian logic By Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana[5] P. 22 The Life of Buddha By Edward J. Thomas[6] India by Stanley Wolpert (Page 32)[7] Robinson, Richard and Johnson, Willard (1977). The Buddhist Religion. Encino, California: Dickenson Publishing Complany, Inc.[8] History of Afghanistan: http:/ / www. afghanan. net/ afghanistan/ mauryans. htm[9][9] According to the linguist Zacharias P. Thundy[10] "Zen living", Robert Linssen[11][11] "The Original Jesus" (Element Books, Shaftesbury, 1995), Elmar R Gruber, Holger Kersten

History of Buddhism 19

[12] "The philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene (nicknamed Peisithanatos, "The advocate of death") was a contemporary of Magas and was probablyinfluenced by the teachings of the Buddhist missionaries to Cyrene and Alexandria. His influence was such that he was ultimately prohibitedfrom teaching." Jean-Marie Lafont, Inalco in "Les Dossiers d'Archéologie", No254, p.78

[13] Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India[14] Robert Linssen, Zen living[15] Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV: http:/ / www. earlychristianwritings. com/ text/

clement-stromata-book1. html[16] Divyāvadāna, pp. 429–434[17][17] Indian Historical Quarterly Vol. XXII, p. 81 ff cited in Hars.407[18] Elst, Koneraad. Ashoka and Pushyamitra, iconoclasts?: http:/ / koenraadelst. voiceofdharma. com/ books/ acat/ ch2. htm#5a[19][19] Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200[20][20] "Gandhara", Francine Tissot, p128: "The monks, expelled from the Ganges valley, maybe by sectarian disputes, followed the northern road

(Uttarapatha) or the northern road (Daksinapatha), which conducted them to the Northwest for some, and to the Occidental ocean for theothers, with multiple artistic creations marking their respective roads"

[21] Plutarch, Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6[22] Boardman, The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity[23][23] "Il semble qu'on ait là la plus ancienne représentation du Buddha, selon une modalité qui n'est pas encore celle de l'iconograhie boudhique

traditionnelle" (French): "It seems this might be the earliest representation of the Buddha, in a style which is not yet that of traditionalBuddhist iconography", in "Afghanistan, les trésors retouvés", p280.

[24] Personality of Xuanzang Sanzang: http:/ / www. upf. es/ materials/ huma/ central/ historia/ xinamon/ docums/ budxidoc/ miyaki. htm[25] Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh, story of Buddhism: http:/ / www. indiaprofile. com/ religion-culture/ buddhisminandhra. htm[26] Buddhism In Andhra Pradesh (http:/ / www. metta. lk/ english/ buddhism-ap. htm?bcsi_scan_40D940621B5BD15F=0&

bcsi_scan_filename=buddhism-ap. htm)[27][27] Foltz[28] Crossroads of Asia, p. 209[29] Conze, Edward (1993). A Short History of Buddhism (2nd ed.). Oneworld. ISBN 1851680667.[30][30] Conze, 1993, 106[31] Berzin, Alexander (2000). Introductory History of the Five Tibetan Traditions of Buddhism and Bon: http:/ / www. berzinarchives. com/

web/ en/ archives/ study/ history_buddhism/ general_histories/ introduction_history_5_traditions_buddhism_bon. html; Berzin, Alexander(1996). The Spread of Buddhism in Asia: http:/ / www. berzinarchives. com/ web/ en/ archives/ study/ history_buddhism/ general_histories/spread_buddhism_asia. html

[32][32] Berzin, Alexander, as above[33] Berzin, Alexander. The Berzin Archives: http:/ / www. berzinarchives. com/ web/ en/ index. html[34][34] Jerry Bently, 'Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press,

1993), 72.[35][35] Jerry Bently, 'Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press,

1993), 73.[36] The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate):http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/ applied_history/ tutor/ islam/ mongols/

ilkhanate. html[37] NUPI - Centre for Russian Studies: http:/ / www2. nupi. no/ cgi-win/ / Russland/ etnisk_b. exe?Kalmykian Kalmyks[38] History of Kalmykia, Government of the Republic of Kalmykia: http:/ / kalm. ru/ en/ hist. html[39] Adherents.com estimates twenty million for "Lamaism (Vajrayana/Tibetan/Tantric)." http:/ / www. adherents. com/ adh_branches.

html#Buddhism

References•• "Dictionary of Buddhism" by Damien Keown (Oxford University Press, 2003) ISBN 0-19-860560-9•• "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" by John Boardman (Princeton University Press, 1994) ISBN

0-691-03680-2•• "Living Zen" by Robert Linssen (Grove Press, New York, 1958) ISBN 0-8021-3136-0•• "National Museum Arts asiatiques- Guimet" (Editions de la Reunion des Musées Nationaux, Paris, 2001) ISBN

2-7118-3897-8.• Foltz, Richard C. (2010). Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization. New York, New

York, USA: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-230-62125-1.•• "The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies" by Thomas McEvilley

(Allworth Press, New York, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5

History of Buddhism 20

•• "The Times Atlas of Archeology" (Times Books Limited, London, 1991) ISBN 0-7230-0306-8• "Japanese Buddhism" by Sir Charles Eliot, ISBN 0-7103-0967-8•• "Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch" by Sir Charles Eliot, ISBN 81-215-1093-7•• "The Crossroads of Asia. Transformation in Image and symbol", 1992, ISBN 0-9518399-1-8•• "Revival of Buddhism in India and Role of Dr. Baba Saheb B.R. Ambedkar" by Bhagwan Das (Dalit Today

Prakashan, 18/455, Indira Nagar, Lucknow, U.P., India, 1998)•• "Gandhara" Francine Tissot, Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient, Paris, ISBN 2-7200-1031-6

External links• Historical Interactions between Buddhism and Islam (http:/ / berzinarchives. com/ islam/ index. html)• History of Buddhism and Bon (http:/ / berzinarchives. com/ history_buddhism/ index. html)• The Birth of Buddhism (http:/ / salempress. com/ store/ samples/ great_events_from_history_ancient_world/

great_events_from_history_ancient_world_buddhism. htm)

Article Sources and Contributors 21

Article Sources and ContributorsHistory of Buddhism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478529886  Contributors: 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 3manol, A.J.A., ABF, ARYAN818, Aky55593, Alansohn, Algri,Amanbis, Anam Gumnam, Anandajoti, Andkaha, Angela, Anitaegebrg, AnonMoos, Anonymous101, Antandrus, Appleby, Arkuat, Avjoska, Avoided, BD2412, Balthazarduju, Beardo, Ben Ben,Bikeable, Blanchardb, Bmdavll, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Brighterorange, CALR, Cacophony, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian-Bacon, CanisRufus, Cann0tsay, Carcharoth, Chamil4Lanka,Charles Matthews, Chmod007, Chulaww, ClockworkSoul, Closedmouth, CloudNine, Codetiger, Cold Season, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Courcelles, Crust, DHN, DTOx,DVD R W, DaGizza, DabMachine, Danger, Dark Shikari, Deeptrivia, Dejvid, Dekimasu, DerHexer, Derekpetey, Dewan357, Discospinster, Dispenser, DonDaMon, Dpv, Edward, Edward J.Picardy, Eeekster, Egoldstein84, Epbr123, Erebus555, Eric Forste, Eu.stefan, Everyking, Exairetos, Extramural, FWBOarticle, Falkla, Farm, Ferdinand1, Ferkelparade, Fido15, Florian Blaschke,FolkTraditionalist, Footyfanatic3000, FrancoGG, Francs2000, Freedom skies, FyreWolfe, GJChang92, Gaius Cornelius, Geneb1955, Geoffg, Gmaxwell, Graibeard, Gypsy, Hanuman Das,Harland1, Hbackman, Henry Flower, Hertz1888, Hikui87, Hintha, Historian, Hmains, ISTB351, Ideogram, Isis07, Itchjones, Ivirivi00, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JLCA, JLaTondre, Jagged 85,Jakenetch, Jared Preston, Jeff3000, Jeffq, Jiang, Jim1138, Joe Jarvis, John Hill, Jordan Rothstein, Jpgordon, Jpxt2000, Jreed, K s shriram, Kaal, Katkereb, Kickstart70, Kipholbeck, KnowledgeSeeker, Koavf, Kubigula, Kumar.alakh, Kuru, L Kensington, Lacrimosus, Lambiam, Landon1980, Le Anh-Huy, Lee, Leolaursen, Lightmouse, LovesMacs, Lupin, MC10, MPF, MPerel,Magicxcian, Maleabroad, Mannymm25, MarkSweep, Markussep, Mattisse, Maurreen, Mcferran, Mejda, Meursault2004, Michael C Price, Miguel, Mimihitam, Mladifilozof, Moonsell,Mpondopondo, Mxn, Myasuda, Nat Krause, Naturalmetal, NellieBly, Neutrality, Nick Number, NickCT, Nicolaisennels, Nightngle, Ninly, Nobunaga24, Numbo3, Oberiko, OhMyDeer,OldakQuill, Outriggr, Oxymoron83, PakkaPunekar, Paste, Pastordavid, Per Honor et Gloria, Persian Poet Gal, Peter jackson, Phgao, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Pigman, Podzemnik, Poetaris,Prabeshhimalaya, Prodego, Pseudo-Richard, R'n'B, Ragib, Raidon Kane, Raj2004, Rajvaddhan, RandomCritic, Rashti, Ravichandar84, Rdsmith4, Reahad, RedHillian, RedWolf, RegentsPark,Rejectwater, Resolute, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richardcavell, Rigadoun, Rjm656s, RobertG, Rockin, Rogerwilco, Rowsees, RoyBoy, Rumpelstiltskin223, RussBlau, Ryan Baumann, Sacca,Seemagoel, Shanes, Shrivastav, Slashem, Sluffs, Snowolf, Solitude, Sortan, Soursob, Spasemunki, Squids and Chips, Srdarapuri, Staffwaterboy, Sujato, Susurrus, Susvolans, Sylvain1972,Tabletop, Tail, Tdudkowski, TeamZissou, Thanissaro, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tide rolls, Tigeroo, Tjmoel, Tnxman307, Tom Radulovich, Tribal-fusion, Tuncrypt, Turgan, Underated,Upodghata, Useight, Utcursch, Vastu, Vran, Warrior4321, Whosyourjudas, Whyneedaccount, Wiglaf, Wimt, Woohookitty, Xact, Xiaojeng, YellowMonkey, Zazaban, Zigger, Žiedas, 538anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Dharma_Wheel.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dharma_Wheel.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:user:Esteban.barahona, user:ShazzFile:Ashoka Chakra.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ashoka_Chakra.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Madden, User:SKoppFile:Maurya Dynasty in 265 BCE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maurya_Dynasty_in_265_BCE.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Vastu (talk). Original uploader was Vastu at en.wikipediaFile:6thPillarOfAshoka.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:6thPillarOfAshoka.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:PHGCOMFile:Sanchi2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanchi2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: AnRo0002, Geofrog, Gryffindor,HenkvD, Nataraja, Olivier2, Shizhao, Tsui, 1 anonymous editsFile:Asoka Kaart.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Asoka_Kaart.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Dhammajoti at nl.wikipediaFile:AsokaKandahar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AsokaKandahar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, Archidamus, Gryffindor, Iustinus,Jastrow, Le Behnam, Mahmudmasri, Man vyi, Mikhail Ryazanov, Mmcannis, Officer, Ranveig, Roland zh, Storkk, The Evil IP address, World Imaging, Zaccarias, 10 anonymous editsFile:MonWheel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MonWheel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ananda, Chaoborus, Ddalbiez, Kilom691, Man vyi, Olybrius,Takeaway, Till.niermannFile:MenanderCoin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MenanderCoin.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PHGFile:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg  License: Public domain  Contributors: User:World ImagingFile:MenanderChakra.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MenanderChakra.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: неизвестен. 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