Bilingualism:

21st Century Impact on Puerto

Ricans

Prepared by Philip Murray Finley

Agenda

Definitions and facts about Bilingualism

Historical aspects of Bilingualism in the US &

PR

Research in Bilingualism

21st Impact on Bilingualism in the US & PR

What is the definition of bilingualism or

bilingual education?

What is the definition of bilingualism or

bilingual education?

“A bilingual person is someone who speaks

two languages. “ (Betty Birner, Linguistic

Society of American, 2015).

What is the definition of bilingualism or

bilingual education?

Cazden and Snow ( 2000, p. 9)Bilingual

education is a “simple label for a complex

phenomenon” that depends on:

Language of the student

Language of instruction

Goals of the programs

Levels of Bilingualism

Passive Bilingual

A native speaker in one language who can understand

another, but not speak it.

Dominant Bilingual

A person who speaks two languages, but is more dominant

in one.

Balanced Bilingual

Some one who knows both languages, but can not pass as

a native speaker in one language.

Equilingual

A person who sounds like a native speaker in both

What percent of the world is estimated to be

bilingual?

What percent of the world is estimated to be

bilingual?

An estimated 60% to 75% of the world is

bilingual or multilingual.

What is the official language of Brazil?

What is the official language of Brazil?

The official language of Brazil is Portuguese.

Which countries have bilingual programs?

Bilingual programs exist in most countries.

True bilingual programs are rare in Puerto

Rico and the United States.

What is the official language of the United

States?

What is the official language of the United

States?

There is no official language in the United

States at the federal level. However, many

states have adopted English as the official

language. Furthermore, 16 states have

mandated “English Only” policies.

English as Official Language

Red =

No Official

Language

Blue =

Official

Language

Alabama (1990)Alaska (1998)Arizona (2006)

Arkansas (1987)California (1986) Colorado (1988)Florida (1988)

Georgia (1986 & 1996) Hawaii (1978) Idaho (2007) Illinois (1969) Indiana (1984) Iowa (2002)

Kansas (2007)Kentucky (1984)

Louisiana (1812) Massachusetts (1975)

Mississippi (1987) Missouri (1998 & 2008)

Montana (1995) Nebraska (1920)

New Hampshire (1995) North Carolina (1987)North Dakota (1987)

Oklahoma (2010)South Carolina (1987) South Dakota (1995)

Tennessee (1984) Utah (2000)

Virginia (1981 & 1996) Wyoming (1996)

English Only States

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Florida

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana

Kentucky

Mississippi

Nebraska

North Carolina

North Dakota

South Carolina

Tennessee

Virginia

English Only Impact

English only policies reduce and eliminate

bilingual programs.

Approximately how many languages are

spoken in the United States?

How many languages are spoken in the United

States and Puerto Rico

There are more than 311 languages spoken in

the United States. Because of migration, that

is probably true in Puerto Rico as well.

What is the official language of Puerto Rico?

What is the official language of Puerto Rico?

The official languages of Puerto Rico are

Spanish and English (Public Law #1, 1993).

However, there are many other languages

spoken in Puerto Rico.

What event (s) usually tend to change bilingual

programs?

What event (s) usually tend to eliminate

bilingual programs?

Changes in political power, wars, and

nationalism tend to eliminate bilingual

programs.

21st century events are migration and

technology.

21st Century Puerto Rican

Migration

What is the best age range to learn a second

language?

Ages for Second Language

FluencyAge and Frequency Determines Fluency

5-10 years

40-above

Fluency Highly Unlikely

Ages 21- 40 Fluency Unlikely

Ages 13-21 Moderate Fluency Dual Language Spoken

Ages 6-13 Near Fluency Dual Language Spoken Likely

Ages 0-5 Fluency Dual Language Spoken

21st Century impact on bilingualism in the US

and PR?

Facts

In 2012 the American Community Survey of the US

Census Bureau reported that 55, 444, 485 people over

the age of 5 spoke a language other than English at

home.

34, 547, 077 or 62.3% spoke Spanish or Spanish Creole

at home (US Census, 2012).

The Spanish speaking population in the US is increasing

exponentially. Spanish speakers are excepted to be the

majority of the population in the near future.

Facts

The implementation and strategies for bilingual

programs in the US and PR have had a history

closely connected to political control.

History of Bilingualism in the US

Since the arrival of the colonist to America,

schools have taught in several languages.

As immigrants entered in the1660s to 1880s

there were schools in the US which taught in

German, Dutch, Czech, Spanish, Norwegian,

French, and others.

World War I and nationalism brought about

language restriction and the concept of

“Americanization”.

Research

Cummings (1971; 1997) argues that students

first language (L1) must be developed before

becoming proficient in their second language

(L2).

Cummings (1971;1997) also argues that

students must reach at certain level of

proficiency in both L1 and L2 so concepts

learned in L1 and be understood and L2.

Research

Cummings (1971) is also recognized for explaining two forms of bilingualism.

Ability to communicate in everyday conversations

Ability to communicate and function in an academic setting.

Cummings (1971) also notes that students must reach at certain level of proficiency in both L1 and L2 so concepts learned in L1 can be understood in L2.

Research

Mitchell, C. ( 2001) argues that socio-

economics is directly correlated to language

achievement. Students are made to feel

inferior when their native language is not

allowed.

Language is the foundation for culture.

Tucker (1979) Cites UNESCO’s (1953)

argument that students should be schooled in

their native language.

Political Influence

Mitchell, et al. ( 1999). There are political and educational factors that have affected bilingual education.

Meyer v. Nebraska, 1923 earliest Supreme Court Ruling which ruled the right to maintain your language. Teacher had to provide instruction in the native language.

Lau v. Nichols, 1974 the Supreme Court affirmed that special educational services should be given to non-English speakers based on the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Political Influence

Mitchell, et al. (1999) Eight model of bilingual

education have shaped by research,

educational and political policies. They are:

Types of Bilingual Programs

Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE)

Teaching begins in the native language and is

gradually faded into English only.

Structured English Immersion (SEI)

Students are completely immersed into English

instruction.

English as a Second Language (ESL)

Courses taught in English. Content is not connected

to subject matter.

Types of Bilingual Programs

Second-Language Enrichment

Exposed to another language to enhance

dominant language.

Dual Immersion

Both languages (L1 and L2) are taught, and

students are from L1 background and L2

background

Required Foreign Language Study

Learning a second language for academic

purposes

Types of Bilingual Programs

Native Language for Native Speakers

Instruction is in English. However, it provides

students with support in their native language to

help them their native language using grammar

and literature.

Foreign Language Study Opportunities

Student moves to a foreign country to become

immersed in a language. The goal is more social

linguistics than academic learning.

Benefits of Bilingualism

(Cummings, 1978) bilingual students perform better than monolingual students in metalinguistic awareness and cognitive functions.

There are intellectual, economic, and cultural advantages ( Hakuta, Pease-Alvarez, 1992).

Bilingualism helps improve multitasking and helps prevent Alzheimer’s Disease (Khan, A., 2011; Marshall, J. , 2010; & Dreufyus, C., 2011)

Why has Teaching English Failed in

PR?

Pousada, A. (1996, 2000)

The historical imposition of English and “Americanization”

Influence of politics

Socio-economic disparities

Pedagogical problems

Debate over ESL or EFL

Teacher qualifications

Why has Teaching English Failed in

PR?

Teaching strategies are typically incorrect: the grammatical approach, memorization, & repetition.

ESL teacher training programs only include one or two classes on how to teach English.

(DOEPR , 1997; Pousada, 1996)

Why has Teaching English Failed in

PR?

English is taught too early and too late.

(Torres, 1984; Soto, 1997; Rodriguez, 1997)

Language learning is not connected to authentic experiences (Brown, 1973; Hakuta, 1990).

They learn English separately from Spanish.

Characteristics of Good Bilingual

Programs

Clearly defined goals

High expectations of students

Dual language instruction

Includes cultural aspects of both languages

Teacher training and certification

Regular monitoring student progress

Parental involvement

Support for the program

Conclusion

21st Century Bilingual Programs must:

Does not focus on the acquisition of L2 at the

expense of L1.

Teach in both languages in content areas

Must provide exposure and more authentic L2

experiences

Must incorporate technology and innovation

21st Century Language

Learning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-S-

5EfwpFOk

References

Birner, B. (2011). Bilingualism. Washington, DC: Linguistic Society of

America.

Brown, M. (2004). Puerto Rico short of bilingual goals. Retrieved from

http://www.grupocne.org/newshc.htm

Cazden, C. & Snow, C. (1990). English plus: Issues in Bilingual

education. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social

Science. 508.

Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive academic language proficiency,

linguistic interdependence, the optimum afq qwstion and some

other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism. 19 197-205.

References

Departamento de Educacion de Puerto Rico (1997).

Proyecto para formar un ciundadano bilngue.

Dreifus, C. (2011, May 30). The bilingual Advantage.

The New York Times.

References

Hakuta, K. Pease Alvarez, L. (1992). Enriching our

views of bilingulaism and bilingual education.

Educational Researcher. 21, 4-6.

Hakuta, K. (1990). Language and cognition in bilingual

children. Bilingual Education: Issues and Strategies.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications

Khan, A. (2011, February 6). Bilingualism good for the

brain researchers say. Los Angeles Times.

References

Mitchell, C. (2001). Multiculturalism and bilingual

education. Educational Researcher 30 (34). doi;

10.3102/001389X030005034

Mitchell, D. , Destino, T., Karam, R., & Colon-Muniz, A.

(1999). The politics of bilingual education. Educational

Policy 13 (1) 86-103.

References

Marshall, J. (2010, October 14). Bilingualism good for

the brain. Discovery News.

Pew Research Center (2015) . Puerto Rico’s Population

Projected to Decline Through 2050. Retrieved from

http://www.pewhispanic.org/2014/08/11/puerto-rican-

population-declines-on-island-grows-on-u-s-

mainland/ph-2014-08-11-puerto-rico-0-05/

Pousada, A. (1996). Puerto Rico: On the horns of a

language planning dilema. TESOL Quarterly 30 (3) 499-

509

References

Rodriguez Melendez , R. (2006). La educacion en Puerto

Rico (1900-2005). Retrieved from

http://www/puertadetierra.info/educacion2.asp

Rodriguez Melendez, R. (2006). La educacion en Puerto

Rico (1530-1900). Retrieved from

http://www/puertadetierra.com/historia/educacion/educaci

on1.htm

References

Rodriguez , J. (1997). Tesis doctoral en la enseñanza

de ingles. Pennsylvania State University.

Rosario Natal, C. (2006). Doña Inés María Mendoza y

la batalla de idioma: Cartas 1937-1938. Fundación Luis

Muñoz Marin y Carmen Rosario Natal.

References

Soto, L. ( 1997). Language, culture, and power:

Bilingual families and the struggle for quality education.

Albany, NY: SUNY.

Tucker, G. R. (1979). Bilingual education: Some

perplexing observations. Education Evaluation and

Policy Analysis. doi 10.3102/01623737001005074

References

United States Department of Commerce US Census

(2012). Community Survey. Washington DC: USDC.

The Library of Congress. Migrating to a New

Land. Retrieved from

http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterial

s/presentationsandactivities/presentations/imm

igration/cuban3.html

Center for Puerto Rican Studies (Hunter

College). The Story of US Puerto Ricans.

Retrieved from

http://centropr.hunter.cuny.edu/education/puert

o-rican-studies/story-us-puerto-ricans-part-four

Whalen, Carmen Teresa (2000). Colonialism,

Citizenship, and the Making of the Puerto

Rican Diaspora: An Introduction. Retrieved

from

www.temple.edu/tempress/chapters_1400/152

3_ch1.pdf

Speaking Exchange (YouTube)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-S-

5EfwpFOk