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RRINTERNATIONALPOTATOCENTER Vol.16,No.3,September1988ISSN0256-8632

Archaeological Remains of Pot~and Sweet Potato in Peru

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Donald Ugent and Linda W. Peterson 1 RihHoterell-- ..

Fig. 1. Ruins of La: Centinela, situated on the south-central coast of Peru. This large administrative and ritual center served as thecapital of the Chincha nation until it was conquered by an invading army of Inca warriors in t!te year A.D. 1476. Although this siteremained populated for another S6 years, it was destroyed eventually by the Spanish conquistadores. Today, an abundance of cul-tural artifacts, animal bones, and plant remains lie exposed in middens left uncovered by desert sands.

r T.he discovery of archaeologicalremains of the actual tubers and

roots of potato and sweet potato in Peruhas contributed greatly to our present-day knowledge of the ancient distribu-

1 D. Ugent, Ethnobotanist, Department \Jf Botany,Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois62901; L. W. Peterson, Senior Editor, Interna-tional Potato Center, Apartado 5969, Lima,Peru.

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tion of these two crops and their useas primary food sources by Peru's earlycoastal inhabitants. Preserved remainsunearthed from the refuse heaps, ormiddens, located in the vicinity ofancient ruins (Fig. 1) as well as samplesrecovered from ancient tombs and burialsites have yielded archaeological recordsthat point to the early development ofagriculture and civilizationin the NewWorld. Tombs and burial sites have alsoproved to be an impo.rtant source of

material in the form of cloth tapestriesthat occasionallybear woven images ofpotato or sweet potato and of ceramicvessels representing these two cropplants as well as others such as achira,maize, peanut, and squash (Sauer, 1951).The artistic representation of food plantsin the woven materials and pottery Qfthe ancient Peruvians; which are artifactsof many types and of different culturalperiods, show us that a crop was in theprocess of development long before its

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first appearance in the archaeologicalrecord.

From these lines of evidence, we candetermine that potato and sweet potatowere grown together more or less co-extensivelyin the oases of Peru's isolatedcoastal river valleys. The area of cultiva-tion extended as far north as the CasmaValley in the Department of Ancash, tothe more southerly coastal city of Pisco,in the Department of lea, with thesweet potato having an additional rangeof cultivation southeast to the area ofNazca (Fig. 2).

The oldest known samples of potatoand sweet potato, dating to the NeolithicPeriod (and perhaps to the end of thelast Ice Age, or 8000 B.c. according toEngel), were discovered in caverns atChilca Canyon, in the south-central areaof coastal Peru (Engel, 1970). Thesehighland caves, known locally as "TresVentanas," are located 65 km southeastof Lima at an altitude of 2800 meters.Archaeological remains of other Peru-vian crop plants such as the commonbean, lima bean, pepper, oca, andolluc~also known to be of great anti-

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quity-were discovered in middens ofthe Pleistocene age (8000B.C.) at theGuitarrero Cave in the highland areasof the Department of Ancash (Kaplan,1980;Smith, 1980).

From the above studies, we learn thatman had already domesticated a numberof plant species by the end of the lastIce Age, including tuber and root cropssuch as potato and sweet potato. Today,the preservedremainsof these two foodsources found in the Chilca caves furnishus with clues as to the importance ofthese crops in the Peruvian coastal areaas early as 10,000years ago, at a timewhen climatic and environmental condi-tions worldwide were very different fromwhat they are today.

Climatic and GeologicalSetting

Just prior to the time when the ChilcaCanyon crops were being grown, vastice sheets covered large tracts of NorthAmerica and northern Europe. Thecentral and southern parts of South

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. Potato[J Sweet potato

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Fig. 2. Distribution of prehistoric potato (e) and sweet potato (0) remains on the coast of Peru.

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America, including the Andean high-lands, were glaciated, with ice extendingdown the mountains of Peru to analtitude of approximately 3000 meters(Simpson, 1975;Vuilleumier, 1971).

Most of the areas where potatoes aregrown today in the Peruvian highlandswere not available for potato cultiva-tion during the. close of the Pleistoceneglacial epoch, or the last Ice Age-theend of which corresponds to the era ofincipient agriculture in the New World,8000-6000B.c. Theseareaswere eithercovered with a thick mantle of snowand ice or were in the process of beinggradually warmed and exposed. How-ever, the maritime zone and the middleand lower western slopes of the Cen-tral Andes were probably availablefor human occupation since preglacialtimes.

During the Late Pleistocene, theshoreline of Peru was situated further tothe west than it is today. In this respect,it is interesting to note that the growthof the glacial ice sheets across the north-ern and southern polar regions of theearth consumed so much ocean water byevaporation that sea levels throughoutthe world dropped by nearly 100 meters(Richardson, 1973, 1981). In Peru, thelowering of the ocean level had theeffect of exposing portions of the conti-nental shelf, thus the southern coastalbeaches extended some 10 km furtherto the west and the northern coastalbeaches more than 100 km west ofthe present-day shoreline. Therefore,archaeological sites found today on thecoast were located much further inlandduring glacial times than they appear tobe in the present. Moreover, sites thatwere situated directly along the coast inthe Late Pleistocene are now submergedunder more than 100 meters of thePacific Ocean.

Another change that affected thecoastal area during the Late Pleistocenewas a change in the coastal cliJ:nate,caused partly by the lowering of theocean level and partly by a shift west-ward in the normal directional flow ofthe Humboldt Current, which today nor-mally flows north and south parallel tothe coasts of Chile and Peru. With theoutward.movement of this cold current,an increase in precipitation occurred onthe western edges of the South Amer.ican continent. This change in climateappeared to be more radical in thenorthern part of Peru's coastal area-thanin the south.

The vegetation covering the northerncoast of Peru during immediate post-glacial times was probably similar tothat which occurs today along the south-

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central coastline of Ecuador (Ugent etaI., 1984, 1986). Toward the end of thePleistocene (ca. 8000 B.c.), much of thePeruvian coastal area was covered by avast grassy savanna with intermittentgroups of woody areas. Fossils of extinctmastodons, horses, and camelids havebeen found in this region, indicating thatthe savanna once provided abundant for-age for herds of large animals.

The Pre-AgriculturalAgeBy the time of the melting of the greatice sheets, man was already widely set-tled along the western coast of SouthAmerica. According to Lanning (1970),there are about 18 archaeological Pleis-tocene sites known from the northernand western coasts of South America.These are distributed from Venezuelato southern Chile. In Peru, Pleistocenesites occur at Ancon (8500 B.c.; Lan-ning, 1965), Cerro Chivateros in theChillon Valley (12,000 B.c.; Lanningand Patterson, 1967), Chilca Canyon(8800 B.c.; Engel, 1970), Flea Cave inthe Department of Ayacucho (12,200B.c.; MacNeish, 1970), and GuitarreroCave in the Department of Ancash(10,500 B.c.; Lynch, 1980).

Two sites that predate the last glacialadvance are also known for SouthAmerica. One of these, Monte Verdein south-central Chile, dates to 31,000B.c. (Dillehay and Collins, 1988);whilethe other, Pedra Furada in northeast-ern Brazil, goes back to 30,000 B.c.(Guidon and Delibrias, 1986). Theradiographic evidence obtained.recentlyfor Toca da Esperan<;a,another site withseveral caves in northeastern Brazil(Lumley et aI., 1988), suggests thatman may have populated that part ofSouth America at some period between204,000and 295,000years ago (MiddlePleistocene).

The dwellersof the Pleistocenecoastal-savanna lands in Peru probably madeuse of the several wild relatives of thepotato and sweet potato that are stillknown from the moister river valleysscattered along the coast. Like theirfellow landsmen at Monte Verde, Chile,who were known to be harvesting andusing wild coastal potatoes (Solanummaglia) as early as 13,000 years ago(Ugent et aI., 1987), the people of thePeruvian savanna lands were primarilyplant gatherers, hunters, and fishermen.

The campsites of pre-agricultural manmay have been the areas where the pro-cess of plant domestication first began(Ugent, 1970). Through the introductionof two or more related wild species of

a genus to the fertile kitchen middens ofa campsite, a series of hybrid wild formsmay have eventually arose, which werelater gathered up by man and takenfrom one campsite to another; or theseforms may have migrated naturally alonga network of trails connecting the dif-ferent sites. When it came time.forthe deliberate planting of crops, theseweedy, ubiquitous, "camp follower"races were ready for their final stagesof domestication.

Era of IncipientAgricuLtureDuring the early post-glacial period,patterns of human subsistence werechanging from economies based on hunt-ing and fishing to those based on plantand animal domestication. A rapidgrowth in human population along thewestern coastline of South America,coupled with the gradually increasingaridity of the climate and a decline inthe availability of natural resources, mayhave all had their effect in persuadinga hungry populace to engage in thedeliberate planting of food crops. Thesedevelopments led ultimately to the con-struction of large urban centers alongthe north-central Peruvian coast andthe founding of the formal rudimentsof art, religion, and science. Similarhappenings were also occurring at thistime in the Old World, most notablyin Mesopotamia, Eygpt, the Indus Val-ley, and China. These advancements,however, never occurred among theprimitive, nomadic tribes of the equato-rial rainforests of the world, includingthe Amazon region of South America.In this region, disease, infanticide, andwarfare were the factors most responsi-ble for keeping human populations incheck, and since wild plant foods andgame were normally available, there wasno special need for triba~members totake on the extra work involved in thedeliberate planting, weeding, harvesting,and storage of vegetable crops.

With the dawn of agriculture in SouthAmerica, the wild species of potatoand sweet potato that were formerlygathered from the upper river valleysand ancient savanna lands of coastalPeru were now being grown purposefullyby early man in the first primitive smallfields and garden plots. This developmentprobably occurred over a wide area ofthe western coast of South America.Thus, the domestication of potato andsweet potato over the course of timemay have involved somewhat differentbut related wild ancestral stocks, whichwould have been cultivated at different

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coastal localities and elevations, and atsomewhat different prehistoric times.

Later, as the altiplano ice sheetsand mountain glaciers retreated, theprototypes of our modern Andean pota-toes were introduced into the newlydeveloped, highland agricultural areas,where, as a result of their subsequentintermixing, intercrossing, and poly-ploidization, these prototypes merged atseveral chromosomal levels to form ourpresent-day cultigens. On the otherhand, the early coastal cultivars of thesweet potato found their way to therainforests of South Am6rica. In thesewarm, lowland regions, the sweet potatounderwent further varietal differentia-tion, and in time, the intermixing andintercrossing of these original lines ledto the formation of a highly complexcultigen.

Following the end of the Ice Age, theclimate of the Peruvian coast becameincreasinglymore arid, and by 4000B.c., the present-day limits of thedesert were reached (Bender, 1975;Sarma, 1974).The potato and sweetpotato cultigens of the old savannalands, however, continued to be culti-vated in the moist river valleys and irri-gated oases of the region. These smallagricultural enclaves, as pointed out byUgent et al. (1984, 1986), are of morethan casual interest to us today, forwithin their narrow boundaries are pre-served an important, partial record ofthe past.

Archaeological PlantRemains and SitesIn the following sections, a brief sum-mary is presented of the major archae-ological sites where ancient remains ofpotato and sweet potato have beenunearthed in Peru. Over half of the siteswere explored jointly by the authors(Ugent and Peterson) in expeditionsundertaken in 1987and 1988;whereasseveral others were studied indepen-dently by the first author during visits toPeru in 1962, 1973, and 1985.

For the average traveler, a trip alongthe desert coastline of Peru can be anadventure in itself. The present-daycoast is a narrow, arid strip of barrenland, stretching some 2250 km andreceiving less than an average of onecentimeter of rain annually. Betweenthe ocean and the mountains lie endlessexpanses of desert plain covered withdry, rocky pampa, majestic sand dunes,and high ocean cliffs, witp intermittent,broad, sandy beaches and tiny rock-protected bays. From this coastal shelf,4

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Figs. 3 and 4. Top: View of the Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke site in the CasmaValley of Peru. The site is dominated by two large mounds, separated by a distance of1.5 km. Bottom: The authors surveying the low, rocky mounds of a dwelling site atPampa de las Llamas, where potato remains have been found. In the background isHuaca A. According to archaeologists Thomas and Shelia Pozorski, the walled cham-bers that stood on this mound in prehistoric times were used for the storage of pota-toes, sweet potatoes, and other root crops.

the Andes rise steeply, forming deepravines with rivers gushing down throughvalleys and across the desert plain toempty out into the Pacific Ocean. It ishere in these river valleys scatteredalong the coast that one finds the lush,green oases where Peru's early inhabit-ants first settled. This coastal area,however, takes on a special air of sig-nificance for the botanical explorer inter-ested in the origins of potato and sweetpotato, as it is here among the manyprehistoric ruins and middens of thisregion that one of the oldest and mostcomplete archaeological records of plantdomestication in the world has been laiddown and remarkably preserved.

Casma Valley. The principle siteswhere archaeological potatoes and sweet

potatoes have been collected along thenorth-central coast of Peru are in theCasma Valley, located 360 km north ofLima. Three of the Casma Valley sites,Pampa de las Llamas, Huaynuma, andTortugas, have yielded specimens ofboth sweet potato and potato, while thefourth site, Las Haldas, has yielded onlypotatoes.

One of the more impressive ruins inthe Casma Valley is situated at Pampade las Llamas (Fig. 3). This EarlyCeramic site, which dates from the InitialPeriod (1800-1500B.c.), is locatedinland on the Moxeke branch of the RioCasma. It covers an area of about 220hectares and includes two large moundsplus an extensive area of small moundsand homesites. According to archae-

ologists Thomas and SheIia Pozorski(1986), the two principal excavators ofthe site, the larger of the two moundswas probably used for administrative-religious purposes, while the smaller oneprobably functioned as a storehouse forthe potatoes, sweet potatoes, and othercrops that were being grown in a nearby,irrigated oasis. The settlement itself wasbuilt on dry desert sands.

Potatoes are well represented in themidden heaps that border the ancienthomesites at Pampa de las Llamas(Ugent et aI., 1982, 1983) (Fig. 4). Mostof the dried potato samples that havebeen retrieved from this area are fairlysmall, ranging between 1 and 2 cm insize (Fig. 5). The tubers are typicallyround or ellipsoid in shape and haveshallow eyes and smooth skin. Someshow signs of being infected with scaband late blight disease.

Samples of sweet potatoes from Pampade las Llamas, though representedmostly by broken ends and pieces, aregenerally of larger size than the extantpotato collections. Most fragments rangebetween 2 and 4 cm long, but wholespecimens less than 2 cm in length havebeen reported (Ugent et aI., 1981).Some root samples from Pampa de lasLlamas were damaged by tunnel-formingbeetles, and some beetle borings stillcontain remains of the dead insect pests.The potatoes and sweet potatoes of thissite were probably prepared by bakingaround the periphery of an open fire.Many have charred or partially charredskin, and some still have small fragmentsof charcoal embedded in the skin orin the exposed cortex. These rootsand tubers were eaten along with awide variety of wild game and seafood,the bones and shells of which are ofcommon occurrence in the middensof this site.

Other edible plant species that occurin the middens of Pampa de las Llamasinclude avocado, cansaboca, commonbean, lima bean, edible canna, lucuma,manioc, peanuts, pepper, and turbansquash. In addition, theeancient inhab-itants of this site are known to havecultivated cotton and bottle gourds.

Due to the extreme aridity of the site,the preservation of plant parts at Pampade las Llamas has been excellent. Thishas facilitated the study of both theexternaLmorphology of ancient potatoesand sweet potatoes, and their vascularanatomy and starch grains (Fig. 6).

Another'area of archaeological interestin the Casma Valley is Tortugas. ThisEarly Ceramic site lies 20 km~north ofthe city of Casma on a bay overlookingthe ocean. Although much of the original

Figs. 5 and 6. Top: A 3500-year-old potato tuber from Pampa delas LIamas-Moxeke in the Casma Valley. As seen in the lowerleft-hand cOmer of the photograph, a portion of the dried cortexhas been exposed as a result of natural shrinkage and breakageof the tuber skin. Salt crystals have also accumulated in theother broken areas and lesions of the skin. Internally, the starchycortex remains in near perfect condition. Bottom: Scanning elec-tron micrograph of a compound, sweet potato starch grain (gold-palladium coated: 2000 x). This sample was obtained from one ofthe prehistoric roots that was unearthed at the Initial Period site(1800-1500 B.C.) of Pampa de las Llamas by the Pozorskis. Thenumber, size, and shape of the small granules that comprise thelarger starch grain are characteristics of this species.

site has been either destroyed or over-lain by modern villag~construction, anarea of undisturbed midden over onemeter deep was discovered a few yearsago by the Pozorskis. Samples from thismidden were later sent to Ugent atSouthern Illinois University for analysis.

A total of seven potato tubers andeight sweet potato roots were unearthedat the Tortugas-excavations. All aresimilar in shape and form to the collec-tions from-Pampa de las Llamas andwere probably originally grown at thatsite. Since fresh water for irrigation isnot available at Tortugas, it is probablethat this site was used mainly as a base

for fisfiingoperations. Trade betweenthe two villages, one located inlandarid the other ocean-side, would theltaccount for the presence of marineresources at Pampas de Las Llamas andagricultural products at Tortugas.

Other crop plants found in the middenat Tortugas include avocado, bottlegourd, cansaboca, common bean, limabean, cotton, guava, lucuma, manioc,peanuts, and turban squash.

One of the least conspicuous ruins inthe Casma Valley is Huaynuma. ThisPreceramic (ca. 2000 B,c.) coastal siteis located on a small protected bay justa few kilometers north of the previously

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described ruin and 13 km north ofthe Casma Valley. Although no largemounds or above-ground walls are visibleat Huaynuma, an ashy-gray mantle ofmidden, about 2 meters deep in places,is spread across the dry, light-coloredsands for an area of about three hectares.In addition to plant material, themidden layer at Huaynuma contains alarge assortment of shells and fish andmarine animal bones. Since there are no

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fresh water streams available for the irri-gation of vegetable crops near the site,it would appear that the harvesting ofmarine resources was the chief activityof its early inhabitants. As in the caseof Tortugas, the residents of Huaynumaprobablyobtainedfood and fiberplantsby trading marine goods inland alongthe Casma Valley. Six potato tubers andone sweet potato root were among thevarious plant remains that were retrieved

by the Pozorskis from test pits dug intothe middens of this site. This materialwas sent to Southern Illinois Universitywhere it was later identified to specieslevel by Ugent.

The above samples of potato andsweet potato from Huaynuma are themost northerly known for these twospecies. In addition, these specimens areof interest to science as they representthe oldest-known archaeological collec-tions of potato and sweet potato fromthe north coast.

Other crop plants that appear in thebroad mantle of midden at Huaynumainclude bottle gourd, cotton, ediblecanna, lucuma, pepper, fig-leaf gourdand turban squash.

The fourth place of interest in theCasma Valley is Las Haldas. This largeand impressive coastal site, locatedabout 30 km south of Casma, coversforty hectares. It is situated on top ofa high seaside cliff with a panoramicview of the ocean and includes a largetemple mound overlooking a centralplaza with a sunken circular arena, aswell as extensive areas of midden.

Although sweet potato has not yetbeen recovered from Las Haldas, threesmall potato tubers were unearthed bythe Pozorskis from an Initial CeramicPeriod (1600-1200B.c.) midden at thetemple site. These were included amongthe various plant remains that were laterforwarded to Ugent for analysis.

Other crop remains associated withthe above-mentioned potato specimensinclude avocado, bottle gourd, commonbean, corn, cotton, edible canna, guava,pacae, lucuma, manioc, peanut, andturban squash. As in the case of thetwo fishing village sites of Tortugasand Huaynuma, fresh water was alsonot available for crop irrigation at LasHaldas. It is possible that the originalinhabitants made a living by exchangingmarine products for vegetable goods.The presence of abundant shells, fishbones, and sea mammal remains, aswell as crop plants in the Las Haldasmiddens, would seem to support thattheory.

Paramonga and Ancon. Headingsouth from Las Haldas toward Lima,one comes across two other famousarchaeological sites, Paramonga andAncon, located along the PanamericanHighway. The first mentioned site,Paramonga, lies in a broad, fertile,irrigated valley some 185 km north ofLima. This site, which contains a Chimutemple (Chimu culture, A.D. 1000-1470) set on a fortress-like mound, mayhave served its ancient inhabitants asan administrative-religiouscenter and

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fortress. However, as the ruins in thisarea have never been excavated, ourmany questions concerning the lives ofthe people who once lived here and theplants that they cultivated still remainunanswered.

On~ of the last coastal urban centersthat one sees from the PanamericanHighway prior to entering Lima fromthe north is the modern seaside villageof Ancon. Just to the east of this resorttown is situated an ancient burial groundcalled the Necropolis. These burialgrounds, dating from the Late Inter-mediate Period (A.D. 1000-1500),werein turn situated near the site of anancient fishing village and the fertilefields of the Chillon Valley. The ceme-tery itself was excavated in the late1800sby two German archaeologists,Wilhelm Reiss and Alphons Stiibel(1800-87).They found numerous plantofferings interred with the mummifiedremains of the original inhabitants.One of the cultigens discovered in thismanner, according to botanist LudwigWittmack (1880-87),who was responsi-ble for the identification of the Anconplant collections, was the sweet potato.Other crops identified by Wittmack asoccurring in this same collection werebottle gourd, common bean, guava,lucuma, maize, manioc, pacae, peanuts,quinoa, soap berry, and turban andcrookneck squash.

Specimens of sweet potato dating fromthe Late Cotton Preceramic period (1900-1750B.C.) have also been discovered atPunta Grande in the Chillon Valley, aswell as from the Late Cotton Preceramicand Early Ceramic levels of the Tanksite (Cohen, 1978;Lanning, 1965, 1967;MacNeish et aI., 1975;Patterson, 1971;Patterson and Moseley, 1968).

The first author of this paper recentlyhad the opportunity to examine addi-tional plant materials that were asso-ciated with the mummified humanremains studied by Reiss and Stiibel,but which were not reported upon byWittmack. These collections, stored atthe Berlin Museum fUrVolkerkunde,include a number of economicallyusefulwild species (such as willow, calla brava,nectandra, tillandsia, and vilfa grass),,as well as cotton and papaya, twocrop species that had been overlookedpreviously.

Pachacamac. South of Lima thereoccur four sites where archaeologicalpotatoes have been found, and fivewhere ancient sweet potatoes have beencollected(seemap). One of these sites,Pachacamac, is situated 31 km south ofLima on a bluff top with an expansiveview of the ocean and the Lurfn river

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Fig. 7. Potato tuber from the ruins of Pachacamac. This whollyintact specimen, collected by the first author from the Late IncaPeriod midden that borders the Temple of the Sun, owes its excep-tional preservation to the extreme aridity of the site.

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Fig. 8. Dried sweet potato root from the Temple of the Sun siteat Pachacamac. As in the case of many other root samples of thisspecies that have been unearthed from kitchen middens, the cortexand skin of this Late Inca Period (A.D. 1400-1532) specimen ofthe sweet potato have been bored through by beetles.

valley. This late Inca ruin (A.D. 1000-1500)overlies earlier ruins, and includestwo large mounds, the Temple of theSun and the Temple of Pachacamac,as well as numerous smaller mounds,residential structures, and administrativebuildings, some of which are currentlyundergoing restoration and furtherexcavation.

Potato tubers were first discovered inthe extensive middens of Pachacamac bythe German archaeologist, Max Uhle.These were described by Harshberger(1898) as being comparable in size toanyone of a number of modern wildpotato species. Harshberger, however,made no allowance for shrinkage, whichis an important matter in evaluatingtuber remains, since potatoes are typi-cally comprised of 80% to 90% water.

Tubers examined by Towle (1961) andUgent et al. (1982) also confirm theexistence of the potato at Pachacamac(Fig. 7) and point to the relatively highstage of domestication that was obtainedin the plants of that era (as deducedfrom their large, rounded starch grains).

A single, whole sweet potato rootcollected by Ugent at Pachacamac in1973had been riddled by beetles, butwas otherwise found to have a cortexthat was preserved in nearly perfect con-dition (Fig. 8). The starch granules ofthis 6-cm long root are similar in sizeand shape to those produced by themodern sweet potato.

Other crop plants known from theextensive middens of this site includebottle gourd, common bean, lima bean,peanut, maize, pepper, and cotton.

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Chilca Canyon. Southeast ofPachacamac and 65 km south of Limalies the next site where the remainsof both potato and sweet potato havebeen discovered-the caverns of ChilcaCanyon. According to Engel (1970),the cave sites at Tres Ventanas wereoccupied as early as 8000B.c. Excava-tion of the lowest levels of one of thecaverns at Tres Ventanas has yieldedsamples of the cultivated potato (Ugentet aI., 1982), sweet potato, olluco,jicama, bottle gourd, and prickly pear.If the stratigraphy of this site is accu-rate, the specimens collected by Engelrepresent the oldest remains of theseeconomically important plants presentlyknown to science. Engel's methodology,however, has been criticized by Bonavia(1984).

La Centinela. Other remains of thepotato and sweet potato have been dis-covered recently by the authors at LaCentinela, a pre-Inca ruin located about200 km south of Lima in the lower partof the fertile Chincha Valley. This sitecovers an area of thirty hectares and issurrounded by an irrigated agriculturalzone that extends from the western sideof La Centinela down to the Pacificshoreline, about one kilometer in dis-tance (seeFig. 1). The ruin consistsof11 major, clearly defined pyramid struc-tures and other minor buildings thatare supported by thick walls of adobeconstruction. According to Menzel andRowe (1966) and Santillana (1984),the relatively late Inca structures thatdominate this ruin overlie constructionthat dates back to the Kingdom ofChincha (ca. A.D. 1000-1476),whichwas an economically prosperous coastalsociety prior to its conquest by the Incasin the late fifteenth century.

Several potato samples were unearthedfrom a midden at this site (Fig. 9) bythe authors. The largest sample is askinned, half-tuber portion weighing3.48 g. This piece measures 21 by 25 mmat its semi-circularcut end, and 12 mmfrom end to end. The two sweet potatosamples that were unearthed from thissame midden weighed 0.89 g and 1.05 g.The smaller was about 30 mm long andabout 12 mm in diameter at its widestpoint, while the larger was 37 mm longand about 13 mm in diameter at itswidest point. Both roots were riddledwith beetle borings.

In addition to the remains of thepotato and sweet potato, the authorsalso found signs of a number of otherplant, animal, and marine resourcesthat were being used by the inhabitantsof La Centinela. These include theleaves, husks, inflorescences, and cobs

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Fig. 9. Midden deposit at La Centinela. The dark, organic layer that is exposed along theperiphery of this pit dates from the Chincha Period (ca. A.D. 1000). It contains a variety ofplant parts, including dried avocado fruits, bean seeds, potato tubers, sweet potato roots, andthe ears and husks of maize.

of the corn plant, peanut shells, andlima beans, as well as shellfish andguinea pig bones. All were contained ina large, 30-cm thick midden located ina deep test pit near the base of one ofthe large pyramid structures.

Four of the twelve corn-cobs that wecollected at the above midden were sentto Beta Analytic Inc. (Coral Gables,Florida) for radiocarbon dating. Theresults of this contractual work, fundedby a grant from the International PotatoCenter, indicate that the contents ofthis midden were deposited about 880(:i:80) years ago. This date correspondsto the period of the Chincha traditionat La Centinela. Although the discoveryof potato and sweet potato remains atLa Centinela adds to our general knowl-edge of the distribution and variation ofboth crop plants in prehistoric times,these facts would seem to hold specialmeaning for the potato-for La Centi-nela is the most southerly known sitealong the coast of Peru where thisspecies is known to have been utilizedfor food in ancient times.

PaTacas. Fifty kilometers due southof La Centinela lies the Paracas Penin-sula, which provides shelter for theBay of Paracas on the northern side ofthe peninsula. It is here in this desertpeninsula, overlooking the bay, wherethe Paracas Necropolis is located. Thisburial site is well known for its walled,underground tombs and well-preservedremains of mummy bundles. Beauti-fully made ceramic vessels have beenunearthed at Paracas, as well as some

of the finest examples of the art oftapestry-making that are known to theworld. Tello (Nordenskiold, 1931)reported that dried sweet potato rootswere discovered at the Paracas Necropolisduring his excavations of the under-ground burial chambers. These graveofferings were found in association witha wide variety of other crop and eco-nomically useful plants, including ahipa,algae, cat-tail, calla brava, coca, commonbean, cotton, gourd, maize, manioc,pacae, peanut, pepper, and reeds andsedges.

Although no general collecting ofplant remains was undertaken by thewriters in their visit to the ParacasNecropolis in March 1988, two corn-cobs complete with dark purple-coloredkernels were retrieved from the surfacesands of the site. One sample weighing17 g was sent to Beta Analytic Inc. ofCoral Gables, Florida, for radiocarbondating. This subsequently proved to be2390(:i: 120) years old. The remainingsample (19.7 g), one kernel of whichwas taken for use in a scanning electronmicroscope (SEM) study of starch grains,is now housed in the economic botanycollection at Southern Illinois University.As in the case of the previous radio-carbon dating for La Centinela, thefunding for the present investigation wasgraciously provided by a grant from theInternational Potato Center.

Ocucaje and Nazca. The last twosites where archaeological sweet potatoeshave been discovered are found inlandfrom the Paracas Peninsula. The first is

Ocucaje in the Ica Valley, about 335 kmfrom Lima; the second, Cahuachi in theNazca Valley, is situated 100 km furtherto the south. Towle (1961) reports thatdried sweet potato roots have been foundin grave sites at Ocucaje (A.D. 1-600),together with offerings of guava, limabea~, maize, pacae, peanut, and squash.Even more extensive, however, is the listof useful plants and cultigens recoveredfrom middens surrounding the ruins ofCahuachi (750 B.C.-A.D. 1). Accordingto Towle, the archaeological record ofthis area includes all of the abovespecies plus achote, algarroba, avocado,cholloco, common bean, cotton, ediblecanna, gourd, and manioc. Cahuachi, atpresent, is the most southernly knownsite where archaeological specimens ofsweet potato have been collected.

Opportunities for FutureResearch

.'

Few studies, to date, have been madeon prehistoric remains of potato andsweet potato. And yet, probably noother field of investigation promisesto reveal so much with respect to thebotany and horticulture of these twocrops. In particular, the pathogensthat attacked these ancient food plantsshould be examined. These organismshave experienced a history of more than4000years of mutation following theirappearance at these prehistoric agricul-tural sites. A study of these ancientpathogens could give us a better idea oftheir early development and perhaps aclue as to their primordial states.

Many of the tubers and tuberous rootsthat have been studied by the firstauthor show damage from blight, andsome still preserve internal networks ofhyphae. Virus, nematode, scab, andinsect damage are other areas ofresearch that have not been investigatedpreviously. Knowledge of these ancientdiseases and pests may prove helpful infinding better ways of dealing with theirmodern counterparts.

Still another area of investigation thatis currently awaiting study concerns thephylogenetic relationships of the cul-tivars. The same electrophoretic methodsthat are now being used to identify theproteins of the modern cultivars couldalso be extended easily to cover therelationships of their more primitiveancestral stocks. Additional data couldalso be derived from DNA analysis.The information derived in this mannermay be useful in gaining a better under-standing of the botanical origins andgene structure of our modern cultivars

i1

and may ultimately serve us in a prac-tical way through the breeding of bettercrops.

Lastly, it should be pointed out thatthe field of archaeological crop explora-tion is still in its infancy. Much remainsto be done with respect to the dating,collecting, and identification of cultivarremains from coastal Peru, and espe-cially from the ruins situated in theextreme northern or southern provincesof the country. With the obtaining of anadditional data set on the distributionand genetic variations of the potato andsweet potato in ancient times, scientistsmay come to a greater understanding ofhow these two crop plants, which areof worldwide importance today, evolvedunder the selective and protective influ-ences of man.

These findings could also tell us some-thing about crop management for thefuture. For example, the discovery ofdisease-free material of ancient potatoand sweet potato in specific geographicareas might indicate that natural biologi-cal control mechanisms were operating,or that the farmers themselves in someareas were using better methods of cropmanagement. A statistical survey con-ducted on archaeologicalmaterials recov-ered from various sites drawn from boththe north and south regions of Peruwould give us some indication of areaswhere the crops were subjected to dif-ferential pest and disease pressures.

References

Bender, B. 1975. Farming in Prehistory.London: Baker.

Bonavia, D. 1984. La importancia de losrestos de papas y camotes de epocapreceramica hallados en el Valle deCasma. J. Societe des Americanistes(Paris) 70:7-20.

Cohen, M. N. 1978. Archaeologicalplant rem~ins from the central coastof Peru. Nawpa Pacha 16:23-50.

Dillehay, T. D. and M. B. Collins.1988. Early cultural evidence fromMonte Verde in Chile. Nature332:150-152.

Engel, F. A. 1970. Explorations ofthe Chilca Canyon, Peru. CurrentAnthropol. 11:55-58.

Guidon, N. and G. Delibrias. 1986.Carbon-14 dates point to man in theAmericas 32,000 years ago. Nature321:769-771.

Harshberger, J. W. 1898. Uses of plantsamong the ancient Peruvians. Bull.

Museum Sci. Art 1:1-4, Univ. Penn-sylvania, Philadelphia.

Herrera, F. L. 1939. Catalogo Alfabe-tico de los Nombres Vulgares y Cien-tificos de Plantas que Existen en elPeru. Lima: La Universidad Mayor deSan Marcos. 363 p.

Kaplan, L. 1980. Variation in thecultivated beans. In T. F. Lynch(ed.), Guitarrero Cave. New York:Academic Press.

Lanning, E. P. 1965. Early man in Peru.Sci. Amer. 213:68-76.

Lanning, E. P. 1967. Peru Before theIncas. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Lanning, E. P. 1970. Pleistocene man inSouth America. World Archaeol. 2:90-111.

Lanning, E. P. and T. C. Patterson.1967. Early man in South America.Sci. Amer. 217(5):44-50.

Lumley, H. de, M. A. de Lumley, M.Beltrao, Y. Yokoyama, J. Labeyrie,J. Danon, G. Delibrias, C. Falgueresand J. L. Bischoff. 1988. Decouverted'outils tailles associes a des faunes duPleistocene moyen dans la Toca daEsperan<;a,Etat de Bahia, Bresil.C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 306(2):241-247.

Lynch, T. F. (ed.). 1980. GuitarreroCave. New York: Academic Press.

MacNeish, R. S. 1970. Megafauna andman from Ayacucho, highland Peru.Science 168:975~977.

MacNeish, R. S., T. C. Patterson andC. L. Browman. 1975. The centralPeruvian interaction sphere. Papersof R.S. Peabody Foundation forArchaeology, Vol. 7, Andover, Mas-sachusetts.

Menzel, D. and J. H. Rowe. 1966. Therole of Chincha in late pre-SpanishPeru. Nawpa Pacha 4:63-76.

Nordenskiold, E. 1931. Origin of theIndian civilizationsof South America.Comparative Ethnographical Studies(Goteborg) 9:1-76.

Patterson, T. C. 1971. Central Peru: itspopulation and economy. Archaeology(New York) 24:307-315.

Patterson, T. C. and M. E. Moseley.1968. Late preceramic and earlyceramic cultures of the central coastof Peru. Nawpa Pacha 6:115-133.

Pozorski, S. and T. Pozorski. 1986.Recent excavations at Pampa de lasLlamas-Moxeke, a complex InitialPeriod site in Peru. J. Field Archaeol.13:381-401.

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Reiss, W. and A. Stiibe\. 1880-87.TheNecropolis of Ancon in Peru. 3 Vols.New York, London, and Berlin.

Richardson, J. B., III. 1973. The pre-ceramic sequence and the Pleistoceneand Post-Pleistocene climate of north-west Peru. In D. W. Lathrap andJ. Douglas (eds.), Variations inAnthropology: Essays in Honor ofJohn C. McGregor. Ann Arbor,Michigan: Braun-Brumfield.

Richardson, J. B. 1981. Modeling thedevelopment of sedentary maritimeeconomies on the coast of Peru. Ann.Carnegie Mus. 50:139-150.

Sagastegui Alva, A. 1973. Manual delas Malezas de la Costa Norperuana.Trujillo, Peru: Talleres Gnificos de laUniversidad Nacional de Trujillo.

Santillana, J. I. 1984. La Centinela:un asentamiento inka-chincha rasgosarquitectonicos estatales y locales.Arqueologia y Sociedad (10):13-22.Lima, Peru: Universidad NacionalMayor San Marcos.

Sarma, A. V. N. 1974. Holocenepaleoecology of south coastal Ecua-dor. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 118:93-134.

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Terrel, E. E. 1977. A Checklist ofNames for 3000 Vascular Plants ofEconomic Importance. U.S.D.A. Agri-cultural Handbook, No. 505.

Towle, M. A. 1961. The ethnobotany ofpre-Columbian Peru. Chicago, Illinois:Viking Fund Pub\. Anthropo\., No. 30.

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Ugent, D., T. D. Dillehay and C.Ramirez. 1987. Potato remains froma Late Pleistocene settlement in south-central Chile. Econ. Bot. 41:17-27.

Ugent, D., S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski.1981. Prehistoric remains of the sweetpotato fr~'mthe Casma Valley ofPeru. Phytologia 49:401-415.

Ugent D., S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski.1982. Archaeological potato tuberremains from the Casma Valley ofPeru. Econ. Bot. 36:182-192.

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Ugent D., S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski.1983. Restos arqueologicos de tubercu-los de papas y camotes del Valle deCasma en el Peru. Bo\. Lima 25:1-17.

Ugent D., S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski.1984. New evidence for ancient culti-vation of Canna edulis in Peru. Econ.Bot. 38:417-432.

Ugent D., S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski.1986. Archaeological manioc (Mani-hot) from coastal Peru. Econ. Bot.40:78-102.

Vuilleumier, B. S. 1971. Pleistocenechanges in the fauna and flora ofSouth America. Science 173:771-780.

Weberbauer, A. 1945. El MundoVegetal de los Andes Peruanos, Estu-dio FitogeogrMico. Lima: EstacionExperimental Agricola de La Molina,Direccion de Agricultura Ministerio deAgricultura.

Wittmack, L. 1880-87.Plants and fruits.In W. Reiss and A. Stiibel, TheNecropolis of Ancon in Peru, Vo\. 3,Pt. 13. New York, London, andBerlin. ""-'

Yacovleff, E. and F. L. Herrera. 1934.EI mundo vegetal de los antiguosperuanos. Rev. Museo Nacional(Lima) 3:241-322;4:29-102.

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I!I

TrainingCoursesHeld

I

I

II

Region I-A Workshop on Improvingthe Ability to Diagnose Production Sys-tems of Root and Tuber Crops wasorganized by CIAT and held at Car-tagena, Colombia, September 12-16, tobring together cassava, sweet potato,and potato researchers who have partici-pated in integrated production-utilizationprojects or who are just beginning field-level diagnostic work. This workshopwas a CIAT-CIP activity within JointActivity No.3-Training on Farm-levelDiagnostic Skills-of the CIAT-CIP-IITA project on Human ResourceDevelopment for National-Level Genera-tion and Transfer of Root and TuberCrop Technology, funded by the UnitedNations Development Programme(UNDP) for three years from January10

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1988. Nineteen scientists from ten LatinAmerican countries, and six CIAT andone CIP staff shared experiences andexchanged information on the diagnosisof field-level problems. Participants werethen divided into three groups to studyproduction, processing, and marketing,and to do practical field work. Eachgroup prepared conclusions and recom-mendations from their field study fordiscussion by the entire workshop group.The participants stated a need fortraining in methods of data collection,sampling, data analysis, and the inter-pretation of research results.

Region II-A Germplasm Manage-ment Course, organized in Mexico bythe PRECODEPA country network andfinanced by CIP, took place at Tolucafrom August 15 to 26. Five Mexicanscientists attended and one each from

the following PRECODEPA countries:Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, ElSalvador, Guatemala, and Panama. AColombian and two Bolivian scientists,in Mexico for training in seed produc-tion, attended the second week of thecourse, which dealt with breeding andscreening for resistance to the major ~is-eases and pests, and adaptation of thepotato to warm climates.

Region III-An in-countryPotatoSeedProductionCoursewasheld at theHoletta Research Center in' Ethiopia,August 23-26. Thirty-five participantsattended from eleven different organiza-tions, including government ministries,Alenaya University, agriculturatcolleges,and a farmers' training.center.,

Region IV~A one-week courseotlPotato'SeedProductionand Storagewasorganizedby the Turkish'-nationalpotato program and held August 15-19at the Aegean Regional AgriculturalResearch Institute,~Menemen, Izmir,and at Bozdag. The course, attended by12 seed specialists, was taught in Turkishand English.