Annotated Map of Ancient Polar Bear Remains of the World

© Susan J. Crockford

November 26, 2012

Electronic resource available at http://polarbearscience/references/

ISBN 978-0-9917966-0-1 Cite as: Crockford, S.J. 2012. Annotated Map of Ancient Polar Bear Remains of the World. Electronic resource available at http://polarbearscience/references/ ISBN 978-0-9917966-0-1.

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Map Notes for Ancient Polar Bear Remains of the World - fossil and archaeological polar bear, Ursus maritimus, remains (please note that I use “fossil” here loosely – most non-archaeological remains are truly “subfossil” since they are not mineralized). Abbreviations: AK, Alaska USA; GRLD, Greenland; CAN, Canada; RUS, Russia; SE, Sweden; NO, Norway; DE, Denmark, UK, United Kingdom; F, female; M, male; LIA, Little Ice Age; DAC, Dark Age Cold; RWP, Roman Warm Period; MWP, Medieval Warm Period. Map ref. & specimen location* Age 14C Lab # Relative Specimen Reference (* indicates archaeological deposits) (BP) † (Collection #) Age Type 1. NE Point, St. Paul Island, Pribilofs, AK A.D. 1875 (NMNH 84594) Historic (LIA) 1 skull, old M, shot 1875 Ray (1971:13) [not a “fossil” but not archaeological] [collected 1895 by Townsend ] 2. Pottery House, St. Mathew Is. AK* ca. 350-430 > 1, on deposit Late Holocene (LIA) 9 specimens Frink et al. (2001) (USF&W, Anchorage) 3. Mackenzie River delta, ca. 350-750 on deposits Late Holocene (LIA) 1 bone, ? element Betts & Friesen (2006) Kuukpak house 1 CAN* 4. North-eastern GRLD * 820 ± 60 AAR-1776 Late Holocene (MWP) 1 bone, ? element Andreasen (1997) 5. Washington Land, GRLD* 960 ± 60 AAR-5775 Late Holocene (MWP) 1 bone, ? element Bennike (2002) 6. Washington Land, GRLD * 1, 415 ± 60 AAR-5774 Late Holocene (DAC) 1 bone, ? element Bennike (2002) 7. Kolnæs (Pearyland), GRLD* 1, 440 ± 451 K-352 Late Holocene (DAC) R. mandible Bennike (1991); Harington (2003:383) [Arctic Canada (?), CAN -not mapped 1, 510 ± 30 CAMS-66368 Late Holocene (DAC) 1 bone, ? element Ingolfsson & Wiig (2008) ] 8. Victoria Island, CAN* 1, 560 ± 65 Gif-7512 Late Holocene (DAC) 1 bone, ? element Harington (2003:383) 1, 350 ± 40 Gif-8434 Late Holocene (DAC) 1 bone, ? element Harington (2003:383)

1, 310 ± 40 Gif-8178 Late Holocene (DAC) 1 bone, ? element Harington (2003:383) 9. Brønlund Fjord, N. GRLD* 1, 520 ± 110 AAR-1357 Late Holocene (RWP) 1 ulna Bennike (1997) 10. Dezhnevo, Bering St., RUS* 1, 498-887 >1, on deposit Late Holocene (DAC) 33bones, assorted Gusev et al. (1999); (aka Kaniskak) Savinetsky et al. (2004) 11. Mainland south of Wrangel n/a n/a Holocene ? # bones/ ? elements Vereshchagin (1969:46) (Chukchi Sea, RUS) [*?]3 12. Cape Baranov, Kolyma River mouth, 1, 690± 165 LE 210 Late Holocene (RWP) 16 bones, including Bland (2008, translation) Russia (East Siberian Sea, RUS)* 1 intact skull Vereshchagin 1969:31) 13. Mainland south of Laptev Strait n/a n/a Holocene ? # bones/ ? elements Vereshchagin (1969:46) (eastern Laptev Sea, RUS) [*?]3 14. Mainland, near Tikai n/a n/a Holocene ? # bones/ ? elements Vereshchagin (1969:46) (Laptev Sea, RUS) [*?]3 15. Vandfeldsnaes, GRLD* 2, 070 ± 110 AAR-1357 Neoglacial/RWP ulna Harington (2003:383) 16. Prince of Wales Island, CAN * 2, 135 ± 120 Beta-18129 Late Holocene (RWP) canine tooth Harington (2003:383) (Cape Richard Collinson)

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Map Notes for Ancient Polar Bear Remains of the World, con’t. Map ref. & specimen location* Age 14C Lab # Relative Specimen Reference (* indicates archaeological deposits) (BP) † (Collection #) Age (Kyr) Type 17. Seahorse Gully, near Churchill, CAN* 2, 495± 100 S-521 Neoglacial a few bones Nash (1976) (western Hudson Bay, IeKn 6) [date on the deposit] 18. Gulf of Boothia, central CAN* 3, 265 ± 15 UCI-42204 Neoglacial 1 bone, ? element Dyke et al. (2011:161) (four specimens) 3, 515 ± 15 UCI-42211 Neoglacial 1 bone, ? element Dyke et al. (2011:161) 3, 290 ± 15 UCI-42210 Neoglacial 1 bone, ? element Dyke et al. (2011:161) 3, 765 ± 15 UCI-2207 Neoglacial 1 bone, ? element Dyke et al. (2011:161) 19. Ekven, Bering St., RUS* < 2, 700 BP uncal. Neoglacial 10 bones, assorted Savinetsky et al. (2004) 20. Cape Espenberg, Seward Pen., AK* ca 2, 500 BP >1, on deposit Neoglacial/Late Holo. 1 bone, ? element Saleeby (1994:333; 2003) (1 site in BELA Nat. Park, NPS) 21. Sønderland, west GRLD* 3, 320 ± 85 K-5928 Neoglacial 1 bone, ? element Rasmussen (1996) (two specimens) 3, 470 ± 85 K-5930 Neoglacial 1 bone, ? element Rasmussen (1996) 22. Qagnax Cave, St. Paul Is. 4, 830 ± 40 Beta-182978 Neoglacial 1 radius, distal, juvenile Veltre et al. (2008) Pribilof Islands, AK 4, 410 ± 60 (SPC-03-76) Neoglacial 1 phalanx, adult Veltre et al. (2008) not dated Neoglacial ? 248 bones from 6 more Veltre et al. (2008) adult bears, 2 M & 4 F 23. Bogoslov Cave, St. Paul Is. not dated (USNM 26108) Mid-Holocene? 2 adults, 1 juvenile Ray (1971) Pribilof Islands, AK 15 bones/fragments total 24. Devil’s Gorge, Wrangel Is., RUS* 3, 620-2, 950 >1, on deposit Neoglacial 1 skull frag, 1 claw Dikov (1988)

25. Walakpa Site, Barrow, AK* ca. 1, 500-1, 100 Gak-2298 (charcoal) Late Holocene (DAC) 15 bones , assorted Stanford (1976); (NPS Anchorage) ca. 1, 100-600 Gak-2297 (charcoal) Late Holocene (MWP) 6 bones, assorted Murray (2008) ca. 600-historic Late Holocene (LIA) 13 bones, assorted (dates on deposit) 26. Margaret Bay, Unalaska Is., AK* ca. 4, 700-4, 100 on charcoal Neoglacial 24 plus 85 “Ursus sp.” Davis (2001); Murray (2008) (dates on deposit) including 1 mandible Crockford & Frederick (2007)

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Map Notes for Ancient Polar Bear Remains of the World, con’t. Map ref. & specimen location* Age 14C Lab # Relative Specimen Reference (* indicates archaeological deposits) (BP) † (Collection #) Age (Kyr) Type 27. Nuulliit, Thule, GRLD* 5,060 ± 95 K-2560 Early Holocene 1 bone, ? element Grønnow & Jensen (2003) 28. Svenskøya, Svalbard, NO 7,760 ± 50 T-4167 Early Holocene 1 bone, ? element Harington (2008:S25);

Ingolfsson & Wiig (2008) 29. Svalbard, NO ca. 8,200 on deposit? V. Early Holocene >1 bone, ? elements Harington (2008) 30. Zhokhov Island, RUS* 8, 480-8, 175 >1, on deposit V. Early Holocene 397 total, ++ skulls & Pitul'ko (2003);

postcranial, most adult F, Murray (2008); a few juveniles Pitul'ko & Kasparov 1996

31. Kuröd, Bohuslän, SE 10, 170 ± 125 Lu-1075 V. Early Holocene 1 dist. femur, juv. Kurtén (1988); (N.H.M. Goteborg) (+ 4 other elements) Berglund et al. (1992) 32. Nedre Kuröd Bohuslän, SE 10, 360 ± 130 Lu-1074 V. Early Holocene 1 rib fragment Kurtén (1988); (N.H.M. Goteborg) (3 bones total ) Berglund et al. (1992)

33. Finnøy, NO 10, 925 ± 110 T-4724 V. Early Holocene 1 complete skeleton, Blystad et al. (1983); (Arch. M. Stavanger) old M Berglund et al. (1992) 34. Asdal, DE 11, 240 ± 180 K-3741 V. Early Holocene 1 L. mandible w. teeth, M Kurtén (1988); Aaris- Sørensen & Petersen (1984); Berglund et al. (1992) 35. Östra Karup, Bastad, SE 12, 230 ± 130 Lu-1076 V. Early Holocene 1 R. ulna, subadult F Berglund et al. (1992) (archived LUZM) 36. Hisingen, SE not dated (1919-3356) V. Early Holocene 1 L. maxilla w. teeth Kurtén 1988; Berglund (archived N.H.M. Goteborg) deposit subadult M et al. (1992) 37. Kärraberg, Vekkinge parish, SE not dated (1925-4354) V. Early Holocene 1 Skull w. teeth Kurtén (1988); Berglund (archived N.H.M.Goteborg) (on strata) juv/subadult F? et al. (1992) 38. Kullaberg, Scania, SE 12, 320 ± 125 Lu-602 V. Early Holocene 1 R. femur Berglund et al. (1992)

12, 450 ± 145 Lu-660 V. Early Holocene (3 dates, same specimen) 12, 480 ± 185 Lu-661 V. Early Holocene

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Map Notes for Ancient Polar Bear Remains of the World, con’t. Map ref. & specimen location* Age 14C Lab # Relative Specimen Reference (* indicates archaeological deposits) (BP) † (Collection #) Age (Kyr) Type 39. Nordcemgrotta, Kjæpsvik, NO 22,000 uncalibrated? ? LGM interstadial4 1 ulna dated Lauritzen et al. (1996); other bones present? Hufthammer (2001:206) 40. Mordy-Yahk River mouth, Yamal not dated "Pleistocene" 1 R. ulna ♂ Vereshchagin (1969:31) ; Peninsula, west side (Russia) Harington (2008:S25) 41. Pechora River, Russia not dated "Pleistocene?" 1 R. molar 1 Harington (2008:S25) 42. Baillie Islands, CAN n/a "Pleistocene" 1 bone?, ? elements Harington (2003:306); Vincent (1989) 43. Hamnsundhelleren, NO 36,000–28,000 ? Late Weichselian (MIS 3) >1 bones, elements? Valen et al. (1996); Hufthammer (2001) 44. Kew Bridge, Thames, UK not dated (BM24361) Middle Weichselian 1 R. ulna, M Kurtén (1988); (taxonomy disputed)2 deposit Harington (2008) 45. Nordcemgrotta, Kjæpsvik, NO >70,000 ± 8.5 (IRSL) ? Early Weichselian 1 rib; successful mtDNA Lauritzen et al. (1996); deposit date (ca. 115 kyr BP) (3 total: metatarsal + Hufthammer (2001); vert. disc) Davison et al. (2011) 46. Poolepynten, Prins Karls > 45,000 Forland, Svalbard, NO 150-80 kyr (IRSL) LuS-6155 MIS 5e to Early 1 L. mandible, canine, M Ingolfsson & Wiig (2008)

Weichselian deposit complete mtDNA sequence (ca. 130–110 kyr BP) Lindqvist et al. (2010)

Footnotes: † These are calibrated radiocarbon years BP unless indicated otherwise (cal. yr BP). Dates on polar bear bone are corrected for marine reservoir effect unless indicated otherwise (e.g. Pribilof polar bear specimen Beta-182978 uncorrected date of 4830 ± 40 cal yr BP gives a corrected date 4587 cal yr BP at two sigmas). One historic specimen (#1) is a calendar date (e.g. A.D. 1875) 1. This sample (K-352) is listed in Ingolfsson & Wiig (2008:table 1) as “440 ± 45” - corrected from Bennike 1991 and Harington 2003:383) 2. From Harington (2008:S25) “Andy Currant of the Natural History Museum–London (personal communication) believes that the Kew Bridge bear ulna represents a huge brown bear rather than a polar bear, based on faunas similar to that at Kew Bridge from many British sites containing dominant steppe bison (Bison priscus) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) with wolves (Canis lupus) and gigantic brown bears moderately represented.” This information awaits verification, as Kurtén (1988) identified this as polar bear and large even for that species—if Andy Currant disagrees, he needs to publish a note to this effect. 3. I am assuming that remains reported at Russian locations 11, 13, and 14 are probably archaeological, since location is described as such12 in the same report. 4. This date appears to be an uncalibrated date (quoted by Hufthammer (2001:206) and appears to represent polar bear presence during the so-called “Hamnsund Interstadial,” a short-lived ice retreat dated to 22,000-19,000 uncal. (Winguth et al. 2005:181) - also known as “MIS 2 LGM-interstadial I,” dated to 26.5k cal yr BP (Lambeck et al. 2010) - that occurred in western Norway during the LGM.

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Summary Comments 1) The oldest dated fossil (130,000-115,000 years old, based on geological features) is within the modern range of polar bears (#46). 2) Many of the ancient remains come from archaeological sites that date within the Holocene. 3) The fossil and archaeological specimens that lay outside the modern range of polar bears are found either in the southeastern Bering Sea (eastern Aleutians and the Pribilof Islands, Alaska) or the North Atlantic (Scandinavia and the eastern UK - although the taxonomy of the UK specimen is in dispute, see pdf table for details). The ancient eastern Aleutian polar bear finds (#26) that date to 4,700-4,100 BP are about 400 km south of modern sea ice limits in the Bering Sea (and evidence from a nearby site reported by Crockford and Frederick (2007) suggest these conditions lasted until about 2,500 BP). In addition, many of the Scandinavian finds (from southern-most Sweden and Norway, and northern Denmark, dated ca. 12,500-10,000 BP) are greater than 2,000 km south of modern sea ice limits – since satellite records began in 1979, sea ice has remained well beyond the north shore of Norway in the Barents Sea (Finland yes, Norway, no – see NSIDC sea ice extent image from March 1979 at right). 4) As far as I have been able to determine, there are no fossil polar bear remains reported from Ireland, although it has been suggested polar bears evolved there (Edwards et al. 2011) – and in addition, no archaeological remains of polar bears have been found anywhere in the UK or Scandinavia. 5) There are very few archaeological bones and no fossil remains of polar bears found in Hudson Bay, consistent with the geological history of this region (see http://polarbearscience.com/2012/11/13/how-long-have-polar-bears-lived-in-hudson-bay/) 6) Geologist Art Dyke told me (in 2007) that no natural-death assemblages of polar bears or isolated polar bears bones were found during the shoreline surveys that produced bowhead and walrus fossils in the Canadian Arctic (Atkinson 2009; Dyke et al. 1996, 1999, 2011; Dyke and Savelle 2001). So far, all remains in the Canadian Arctic except one (#42 - undated) appear to come from mid- to late Holocene age archaeological sites. 7) The largest assemblage of polar bear bones at any one location is from Zhokhov Island in the East Siberian Sea (#30). This archaeological site was occupied between 8,200 and 8,500 years ago, when all of the East Siberian Islands were still connected to the

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Siberian mainland (Andreev et al. 2008; Pitul'ko 1993; Pitul'ko and Kasparov 1996). By about 8,000 BP, sea level had fallen enough to create the islands as they are today. The majority of the polar bear bones found at this site are from adult females. It is not possible to tell whether the Zhokhov Island polar bears were taken by hunters from maternity dens during the winter or from the shore during the low ice period of late summer/early fall. What we can say from this evidence, however, is that polar bears, who could not have lived in the Arctic during the LGM because of the extreme thickness of the sea ice (Polyak et al. 2010), had colonized the farthest reaches of the western Arctic by at least 8,500 BP. 8) There are no ancient polar bear remains of any kind found in the Sea of Okhotsk or the Gulf of Alaska in the western Arctic, although the presence of ringed seal bones dated to the LGM on Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska (“On Your Knees Cave,” Heaton and Grady 2003) suggest there was almost certainly suitable habitat for polar bears in the Gulf of Alaska during the LGM. 9) So far, all polar bear remains that definitely pre-date the end of the LGM have come from the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean and adjacent Barents Sea. Only five of these specimens have been dated well enough to place them firmly in this time period (and even then, the identification of one of them (#44) as polar bear has been contested). Three additional specimens could be this old (#’s 40-42) but have only been described as “Pleistocene” age. This means only four (possibly five) polar bear fossils exist that are definitively older than 19,000 years. 10) As sea ice does not now extend nearly as far south as southern Sweden (see 3 above), the 12,500-10,000 year old NE Atlantic polar bear remains indicate that winter sea ice in the North Atlantic expanded much further south during the “Younger Dryas” cold period (13,000-11,500 BP) - and for 1,500 years or so afterward - than it did in the North Pacific. In the North Pacific, sea ice extent appears to have been at or below current limits by at least 13,000 BP (Condron and Winsor 2012 in press). In summary, even within the past 12,000 years, sea ice conditions have been very different than they are today and this has affected where polar bears have been able to live.

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Summary comment references Andreev, A. A., Grosse, G., Schirrmeister, L., Kuznetsova, T. V., Duzmina, S.A., Bobrov, A. A., Tarasox, P. E., Novenko, E.Y., Meyer, H., Derevyagin, A. Y., Kienast, F., Bryantseva, A. and Kunitsky, V.V. 2008. Weischelian and Holocene palaeoenvironmental history of the Bol’shoy Lyakhovsky Island, New Siberian Archipelago, Arctic Siberia. Boreas 38:72-110. Atkinson, N. 2009. A 10400-year-old bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) skull from Ellef Ringnes Island, Nunavut: implications for sea-ice conditions in high Arctic Canada at the end of the last glaciation. Arctic 62:38-44.

Condron and Winsor 2012 in press. Meltwater routing and the Younger Dryas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA. http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2012/10/31/1207381109.abstract

Crockford, S., and Frederick, G. 2007. Sea ice expansion in the Bering Sea during the Neoglacial: evidence from archaeozoology. The Holocene 17:699-706. Dyke, A.S., and England, J.H. 2003. Canada’s most northerly postglacial bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus): Holocene sea-ice conditions and polynya development. Arctic 56:14-20. Dyke, A. S., Hooper, J. and Savelle, J. M. 1996. A history of sea ice in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago based on postglacial remains of bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus). Arctic 49: 235-255. Dyke, A.S., Hooper, J., Harington, C.R. and Savelle, J.M. 1999. The late Wisconsinan and Holocene record of walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) from North America: a review with new data from arctic and Atlantic Canada. Arctic 52:160-181. Dyke, A.S., Savelle, J.M. and Johnson, D.S. 2011. Paleoeskimo demography and Holocene sea-level history, Gulf of Boothia, Arctic Canada. Arctic 64:151-168.

Edwards, C.J., Suchard, M.A., Lemey, P., Welch, J.J., Barnes, I., Fulton, T.L., Barnett, R., O’Connell, T.C., Coxon, P., Monoghan, N., Valdiosera, C.E., Lorenzen, E.D., Willerslev, E., Baryshnikov, G.F., Rambaut, A., Thomas, M.G., Bradley, D.G. and Shapiro, B. 2011. Ancient hybridization and an Irish origin for the modern polar bear matriline. Current Biology 21:1251-1258.

Heaton, T.H., and Grady, F. 2003. The Late Wisconsin vertebrate history of Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. In Ice Age Cave Faunas of North America, Schubert, B.W., Mead, J.I., Graham, R.W. (eds.), pp.17-53. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

Pitul'ko, V. V. 1993. An early Holocene site in the Siberian high Arctic. Arctic Anthropology 30:13–21. Pitul'ko, V. V. 1999. Ancient humans in Eurasian Arctic ecosystems: environmental dynamics and changing subsistence. World Archaeology 30:1–36. Pitul'ko, V. V., and A. V. Kasparov. 1996. Ancient arctic hunters: material cultural and survival strategy. Arctic Anthropology 33:1-36. Polyak, L., Alley, R.B., Andrews, J.T., Brigham-Grette, J., Cronin, T.M., Darby, D.A., Dyke, A.S., Fitzpatrick, J.J., Funder, S., Holland, M., Jennings, A.E., Miller, G.H., O’Regan, M., Savelle, J., Serreze, M., St. John, K., White, J.W.C. and Wolff, E. 2010. History of sea ice in the Arctic. Quaternary Science Reviews 29:1757-1778.

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Map note references Andreasen, C. 1997. The prehistory of the coastal areas of Amdrup Land and Holm Land adjacent to the northeast water polynya: an archaeological perspective. Journal of Marine Systems 10, 41–46. Bennike O. 1991. Marine mammals in Peary Land, northern Greenland. Polar Record 27, 357–359. Bennike O. 1997. Quaternary vertebrates from Greenland: a review. Quaternary Science Reviews 16, 899–909. Bennike O. 2002. Late Quaternary history of Washington Land, North Greenland. Boreas 31, 260–272. Berglund B.E., Håkansson S. & Lepiksaar J. 1992. Late Weichselian polar bear (Ursus maritimus Phipps) in southern Sweden. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning, Series Ca. 81, 31–42. Betts, M.W., and Friesen, T.M. 2006. Declining foraging returns from an inexhaustible resource? Abundance indices and beluga whaling in the western Canadian Arctic. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 25:59-81. Bland, R.L. 2008. The Early Sites of Cape Baranov. Edited and translated from Drevnie poseleniya Baranova Mysa by Okladnikov, A.P. & Beregovaya, N.A. (Novosibirsk:Nauka, 1971), including the appendix by N.K. Vereshchagin, "The remains of animals from houses at Cape Baranov, east of the mouth of the Kolyma River". US National Parks Service, Shared Beringian Heritage Program. Blystad P., Thomsen H., Simonsen A. & Lie R.W. 1983. Find of a nearly complete Late Weichselian polar bear skeleton, Ursus maritimus Phipps, at Finnøy, southwestern Norway: a preliminary report. Norsk Geologisk Tidskrift 63, 193–197. Davis, B. 2001. Sea mammal hunting and the Neoglacial: an archaeofaunal study of environmental change and subsistence technology at Margaret Bay, Unalaska. Pages 71–85 in Dumond, D. E. Recent archaeology in the Aleut Zone of Alaska. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers Number 58. University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA.

Davison, J., Ho, S.Y.W., Bray, S.C., Korsten, M., Tammeleht, E., Hindrikson, M., Østbye, K., Østbye, E., Lauritzen, S-E., Austin, J., Cooper, A., & Saarma, U. 2011. Late-Quaternary biogeographic scenarios for the brown bear (Ursus arctos), a wild mammal model species. Quaternary Science Reviews 30:418-430. Dikov, N.N. 1988. The earliest sea mammal hunters of Wrangell Island. Arctic Anthropology 25:80-93.

Dyke, A.S., Savelle, J.M. & Johnson, D.S. 2011. Paleoeskimo demography and Holocene sea-level history, Gulf of Boothia, Arctic Canada. Arctic 64:151-168. Frink, L., Corbett, D., Rosebrough, A. & Partlow, M. 2001. The archaeology of St. Matthew Island, Bering Sea. Alaska Journal of Anthropology 1:131-137. Grønnow B. & Jensen J.F. 2003. The northernmost ruins of the globe: Eigil Knuth's archaeological investigations in Peary Land and adjacent areas. Meddelelser om Grønland. Man & Society 29. Copenhagen: Danish Polar Center.

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Gusev, S. V., A. V. Zaqoroulko, and A. V. Porotov. 1999. Sea mammal hunters of Chukotka, Bering Strait: recent archaeological results and problems. World Archaeology 30:354–369. Harington C.R. 2003. Annotated bibliography of Quaternary vertebrates of northern North America. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Harington C.R. 2008. The evolution of Arctic marine mammals. Ecological Applications 18, S23–S40. Hufthammer A.K. 2001. The Weichselian (c. 115,000–10,000 B.P.) vertebrate fauna of Norway. Bollettino della Societá Paleontologica Italiana 40 (2), 201–208. Ingolfsson, Ó. & Wiig, Ø. 2008 Late Pleistocene fossil find in Svalbard: the oldest remains of a polar bear (Ursus maritiumus Phipps, 1744) ever discovered. Polar Research 28: 455-462. Kurtén, B. 1988. On Evolution and Fossil Mammals. Columbia University Press, New York.

Lambeck, K., Purcell, A., Zhao, J. & Svensson, N.-O. 2010. The Scandinavian Ice Sheet: from MIS 4 to the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. Boreas 39:410-435. Lauritzen S.-E., Nese H., Lie R.W, Lauritzen Å & Løvlie R. 1996, Interstadial/interglacial fauna from Norcemgrotta, Kjøpsvik, north Norway. In S.E.Lauritzen (ed.): Climate change: the karst record. Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 2. Pp. 89–92. Charles Town, WV: Karst Waters Institute. Lindqvist, C., Schuster, S.C., Sun, Y., Talbot, S.L., Qi, J., Ratan, A., Tomsho, L., Kasson, L., Zeyl, E., Aars, J., Miller, W., Ingólfsson, Ó., Bachmann, L. and Wiig, Ø. 2010. Complete mitochondrial genome of a Pleistocene jawbone unveils the origin of polar bear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 107:5053-5057. Murray, M.S. 2008. Zooarchaeology and arctic marine mammal biogeography, conservation and management. Ecological Applications 18 (Suppl):S41-S55. Pitul'ko, V. 2003. The bear-hunters of Zhokhov Island, east Russian Arctic. Senri Ethnological Studies 63:141–152 Pitul'ko, V. V., and A. V. Kasparov. 1996. Ancient arctic hunters: material cultural and survival strategy. Arctic Anthropology 33:1–36. Rasmussen K.L. 1996. Carbon-14 datings from northern East Greenland. In B.Grønnow & J.Pind (eds.): The paleo-eskimo cultures of Greenland. Pp. 188–189. Copenhagen: Danish Polar Center. Ray, C.E. 1971. Polar bear and mammoth on the Pribilof Islands. Arctic 24, 9-18. Saleeby, B. 1994. Appendix II: Results of the faunal analysis. In Eskimo Prehistory on the Seward Peninsula by R.K. Harritt, pp. 317-382. Unpublished Resources Report NPS/ARO/RCR/CRR-93/21 U.S. National Park Service, Alaska Region, Anchorage. Savinetsky, A.B., Kiseleva, N.K., and Khassanov, B.F. 2004. Dynamics of sea mammal and bird populations of the Bering Sea region over the last several millennia. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 209:335-352. Stanford, D. J. 1976. The Walakpa Site, Alaska: its place in the Birnirk and Thule cultures. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA. Valen V., Mangerud J., Larsen E. & Hufthammer A.K. 1996. Sedimentology and stratigraphy in the cave Hamnsundhelleren, western Norway. Journal of Quaternary Science 11, 185–201.

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Veltre, D.W., Yesner, D.R., Crossen, K.J., Graham, R.W., and Coltrain, J.B. 2008. Patterns of faunal extinction and paleoclimatic change from mid-Holocene mammoth and polar bear remains, Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Quaternary Research 70, 40-50. Vereshchagin, N. K. 1969. The origin and evolution of the polar bear. Pages 25–53in Bannikov, A. G., A. A. Kishchinskii, and S. M. Uspenskii. The polar bear and its conservation in the Soviet Arctic. Hydrometeorological Publishing House, Leningrad, Russia. Vincent, J.-S. 1989. Quaternary geology of the northern Canadian Interior Plains. pp. 100-137 in Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland. Geology of Canada No. 1 (R.J. Fulton, ed.). Geological Survey of Canada. Wingguth, C., Mickelson, D.M., Larsen, E., Darter, J.R., Moeller, C.A. & Stalsberg, K. 2005. Thickness evolution of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the Late Weichselian in Nordfjord, western Norway: evidence from ice-flow modelling. Boreas 34:176-185.