ap psychology semester review chapters 9, 10, 6, 7

AP Psychology

Semester ReviewChapters 9, 10, 6, 7

Chapter 6

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Learning

• Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes

• Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus


The Essentials of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)


Classical ConditioningPrior to conditioning

Conditioning

After conditioning

Neutral stimulus(tone)

(Orientation to soundbut no response)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder in mouth)

Unconditioned response(salivation)

Neutral stimulusCS (tone)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder)

+Conditioned response

(salivation)

Conditioned stimulus(tone)

Conditioned response(salivation)


Classical Conditioning

• Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer

• Spontaneous recovery –Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay


Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery

(1)Acquisition(CS + UCS)

(3)Spontaneous Recovery(CS alone)

Res

t per

iod(2)

Extinction(CS alone)

(Time)

Trials

Str

engt

h of

the

CR

(Wea

k)(S

tron

g)


The Power of Reinforcement• Positive reinforcers –

Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again

• Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior


Schedules of Reinforcement

• Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses

• Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)


The Problem of Punishment

• Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows

• How does this differ from negative reinforcement?


Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement

Loud Noise Press Lever

Press Lever

Loud Noise Removed

Loud Noise Applied

Response ConsequenceNegative Reinforcement

Punishment

No Noise


The Problem of Punishment

• Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response

• Omission training (negative punishment) –The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response


Four Kinds of Consequences

Positive orappetitive

Negative or aversive

STIMULUS

-Remove

NegativeReinforcement

Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use

Omission TrainingMissing dinner leads to

less staying out late

+Present

PositiveReinforcement

Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work

PunishmentGetting speeding ticketleads to less speeding


Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism

• Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior


How DoesCognitive Psychology

Explain Learning?

• Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions

• Cognitive maps –A mental representation of physical space


Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism

• Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior

Chapter 7


-Human Memory is Good at:

• Information on which attention is focused• Information in which we are interested• Information that arouses us emotionally• Information that fits with our previous

experiences• Information that we rehearse


Encoding Storage Retrieval

Memory’s Three Basic Tasks


The Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory

Working Memory

Long-term Memory


The First Stage: Sensory Memory

• The actual capacity of sensory memory can be twelve or more items

• All but three or four items disappear before they can enter consciousness

• There is a separate sensory register for each sense


Encoding and Storage in Working Memory

• Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units

• Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory


Semantic memory

Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge

Episodic memory

Includes memory for:events, personal experiences

Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning

Long-term memory

Declarative memory Procedural memory


Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled

How Do WeRetrieve Memories?

• Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness


Other Factors Affecting Retrieval

• Mood congruent memory –A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood

• TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon –The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory


TransienceAbsent-

MindednessBlocking

Misattribution Suggestibility

Bias Persistence

Memory’s “Seven Sins”


Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

• Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten

Pe

rce

nt r

eta

ined

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Days

5 10 15 20 25 30


Blocking

• Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved• Proactive interference• Retroactive interference• Serial position effect


How Children Acquire Language• Innateness theory of language –

Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocabulary and grammar

• Language acquisition device (LAD) – Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar


How Children Acquire Language

• Early stages of language acquisition include the following:• The babbling stage• The one-word stage• The two-word stage• Telegraphic speech (short, simple sentences)• The naming explosion


Schemas and Scripts Help you Know What to Expect

• Schema – A knowledge cluster or general framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life

• Script – A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings


Selecting a Strategy• Algorithms –

Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied

• Heuristics – Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks; they do not guarantee a correct solution


Heuristics

• Useful heuristics include:• Working backward• Searching for analogies• Breaking a big problem into smaller problems


Judging and Making Decisions

Confirmation Bias

Hindsight Bias

Anchoring Bias

Representativeness Bias

Availability Bias

Chapter 10


Freud’s Model of the Mind


Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Ego defense mechanisms – Largely unconscious mental strategies employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety• Repression• Projection• Sublimination• Regression• Reaction formation• Denial• Rationalization• Displacement


Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory• Psychic determinism –

Freud’s assumption that all mental and behavioral reactions are caused by unconscious traumas desires or conflicts


• Archetypes

Animus

Anima

Shadow

Carl Jung: Extending the Unconscious


Alfred Adler:An early split from Psychoanalysis

• Inferiority complex –A feeling of inferiority that is largely unconscious, with it roots in childhood

• Compensation –Making up for one’s real or imagined deficiencies


Humanistic Theories

• Humanistic Theories include– Gordon Allport’s trait theory– Abraham Maslow’s self-actualizing personality– Carl Roger’s fully functioning person


Patterns in Personality

• The “Big Five” traits1. Openness to experience2. Conscientiousness3. Extraversion4. Agreeableness5. Neuroticism

• Cattell identifies 16 personality factors


Traits and the Person-Situation Debate

• Person-situation controversy – Theoretical dispute concerning the relative contribution of personality factors and situational factors in controlling behavior


Implicit Personality Theories• Implicit personality theories –

Assumptions about personality that are held by people to simplify the task of understanding others

• Fundamental attribution error – Assumption that another person’s behavior (especially undesirable behavior) is the result of a flaw in the personality, rather than in the situation

Chapter 9


The Nature-NurtureInteraction

• Nature-nurture issue –Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes


Gradual versus Abrupt Change

• Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view

Age

Per

form

ance Continuity view

Discontinuity view


Infancy(from one month to about 18 months)

• Babies learn through classical conditioning• Humans apparently have an inborn need for

attachment • Secure attachment• Anxious-ambivalent attachment• Avoidant attachment


Cognitive Development

• Cognitive development –The process by which thinking changes over time

• Schemes –Mental structures orprograms that guide adeveloping child’s thoughts


Accommodation –Mental process that restructures existing schemes so that new information is better understood

“Birds” are things that fly. But a “butterfly” flies and is not a bird…

Cognitive Development• Assimilation –

Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existingschemes

• (Schema of “Pizza” can include “pepperoni” as well as cheese)


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational


1. Authoritarian parents

2. Authoritative parents

3. Permissive parents

4. Uninvolved parents

Social and Emotional Development• Most approaches to child rearing fall into

one of the following four styles:


Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesAge/Period Principal Challenge

0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust

1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt

3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt

6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority

Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion

Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation

Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair


The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood

• Love and work– Intimacy versus isolation– Generativity versus stagnation– Generativity –

A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations

ap psychology semester review chapters 9, 10, 6, 7

Documents

stimulus3copyright allyn

aversive stimulus

appetitive stimulus

unpleasant stimulus

insight learning problem

classical conditioningprior

conditioned association

mental representation