AncientRome and EarlyChristianity, 500 B.C.–A.D.500

Over the course of several centuries, Rome built one of the

largest empires the world had ever known. By A.D.120, the

Romans controlled portions of three continents, spreading their

civilization across much of the ancient world. The map at the

right shows the Roman Empire at its height. Use the map to

answer the following questions.

1. About how many miles did the Roman Empire stretch from east to west?

2. Why would the Mediterranean Sea have been important to Rome?

3. What problems might Rome have had inmanaging such a vast empire?

Connect History and Geography

509 B.C.Rome becomes a republic.

264 B.C. TheFirst Punic War withCarthage begins.

For more information about ancient Romeand early Christianity . . .

CLASSZONE.COM

138

The Roman soldier shown here in asculpture from the second century A.D.was a member of the elite Praetorian

Guard, once the emperor’s bodyguard.

The life and teachings of Jesus gaverise in the first century A.D. to one of theworld’s major religions—Christianity.Jesus appears here in a detail from aRoman mosaic of the fifth century.

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RhineR

iver

DanubeR

iver

Po River

TiberR

.

Nile

River

Euphrates Rive r

Tigris River

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Re

dS

ea

B l a c k S e a

BalearicIs.

Corsica

Sardinia

Crete

Cyprus

Sicily

Alexandria

Athens

Gades

Massilia

Memphis

Rome

Thebes

Cyrene

Damascus

CaesareaTyre

Ephesus

Byzantium

Antioch

ARABIA

SYRIA

BRITAIN

DACIA

EGYPT

GAUL

ITALY

JUDEA

MACEDONIASPAIN

ANATOLIA

THRACE

A F R I C A

A S I A

E U R O P E

45°N

60°N0°15°W

15°W

30°N

N

0 500 Miles250

0 500 Kilometers250Robinson Projection

Roman Republic, 265 B.C.

Roman Empire, A.D. 117

The Roman World, 265 B.C. – A.D. 117

218 B.C. In the Second Punic War,Hannibal invades Italy.

A.D. 284 Diocletian,who will divide the RomanEmpire, becomes emperor.

44 B.C.Conspirators killJulius Caesar.

A.D. 476 Western Roman Empirefalls with the ouster of the lastemperor, Romulus Augustulus.

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140 Chapter 6

Interact with History

“The poor adore him.”

“Yes, but he bought theirsupport with huge sums forpublic entertainments.”

”Brilliant orator”

”Decisive“

”Shrewd“

”Fair“

”Manipulates people“

”Too ambitious“

”Devious“

”Ruthless“

Y ou are a senator in ancient Rome. You have listened tohours of heated debate about a powerful leader who

wants to be ruler. As you consider whether to support oroppose him, you recall some of the arguments.

“He is a military genius who added vast territory andwealth to Rome.”

“Yes, but he disobeyed orders in his quest for personalglory.”

“He has a great vision for the future of Rome.” “But he wants absolute power and would override the law

to get it.”Before you decide, you must consider:

What qualitiesmake a goodleader?

EXAMINING the ISSUES

• What are the qualities of a good leader?

• Should leaders always be measured bythe results they achieve?

• Have the qualities of good leaderschanged over time?

As a class, discuss these questions. Based onthe qualities you have discussed, think aboutwhat you have learned about other leaders inhistory, such as Alexander the Great and Dariusof Persia. What qualities helped them to besuccessful or caused them to fail?

As you read about Rome, see how thequalities of its leaders helped or hindered itsdevelopment. See also what happened to itsmost famous leader—Julius Caesar.

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SETTING THE STAGE While the great civilization of Greece was in decline, a new civ-ilization to the west was developing and increasing its power. The city of Rome grewfrom a small village to a mighty empire. It adopted and preserved much of Greek art,philosophy, religion, and drama. And it created a lasting legacy of its own.

The Beginnings of RomeAccording to Roman legend, the city was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus,twin sons of the god Mars and a Latin princess. The twins were abandoned on the TiberRiver as infants and raised by a she-wolf. They decided to build a city near the spot. Inreality, Rome developed because of its strategic location and its fertile soil. Rome wasbuilt on seven rolling hills at a curve on the Tiber River, near the center of the Italianpeninsula. It was midway between the Alps and Italy’s southern tip. Rome also was nearthe midpoint of the Mediterranean Sea. The historian Livy wrote about the city’s site:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TNot without reason did gods and men choose this spot for the site of our city—the [salu-brious] hills, the river to bring us produce from the inland regions and sea-borne com-merce from abroad, the sea itself, near enough for convenience yet not so near as tobring danger from foreign fleets, our situation in the very heart of Italy—all theseadvantages make it of all places in the world the best for a city destined to grow great.LIVY, The Early History of Rome

The earliest settlers on the Italian peninsula arrived in prehistoric times. Fromabout 1000 to 500 B.C., three groups inhabited the region and eventually battled forcontrol. They were the Latins, the Greeks, and the Etruscans. The Latins were farm-ers and shepherds who wandered into Italy across the Alps around 1000 B.C. They settled on either side of the Tiber River in a region they called Latium. They built theoriginal settlement at Rome, a cluster of wooden huts atop one of its seven hills,Palatine Hill. These settlers were the first Romans. (See the map on pages 138–139.)

Between 750 and 600 B.C., Greek settlers established about 50 colonies on thecoasts of southern Italy and Sicily. The cities became prosperous and commerciallyactive. They brought all of Italy, including Rome, into closer contact with Greek civi-lization. The Greeks also taught the Romans how to grow grapes and olives.

The Etruscans were native to northern Italy. They were skilled metalworkers andengineers. The Etruscans strongly influenced the development of Roman civilization.They had a system of writing, and the Romans adopted their alphabet. They alsoinfluenced Rome’s architecture, especially the use of the arch.

Romans borrowed religious ideas from both the Greeks and the Etruscans. TheRomans adopted Etruscan rituals that they believed helped them to win the favor ofthe gods. Roman gods even took on the personalities and legends of the Greek gods.Romans, however, gave their gods different names. Thus Zeus, the king of the Greekgods, became Jupiter in Rome, and Hera, the queen of the gods, became Juno.

Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 141

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. MakingInferences Whywas the geographicallocation of Rome anadvantage?A. Answer Rome’scentral location onItalian peninsula andits site at midpoint ofMediterranean goodfor trade.

BackgroundThe name Rome isEtruscan in origin.

The Romans Create a Republic

1TERMS & NAMES

• republic• patrician• plebeian• tribune• consul• senate• dictator • legion• Hannibal• Scipio

MAIN IDEA

The early Romans established arepublic, which grew powerful andspread its influence.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Some of the most fundamental valuesand institutions of Western civilizationbegan in the Roman Republic.

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BackgroundRome was never ademocracy, a govern-ment by and for allthe people. In Romeonly upper-class orwealthy men hadpower. Women didnot vote.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Why didpatricians want toprevent plebeiansfrom holding impor-tant positions?B. Answer Patri-cians feared losingtheir status andpower; also patriciansconsidered them-selves guardians ofRoman virtues.

Once the center ofpolitical power andintrigue, the Forumnow lies in ruin inthe center ofmodern Rome.

The Early RepublicAround 600 B.C., an Etruscan became king. However, Rome was not controlled by theEtruscan cities. Under its Etruscan kings, Rome grew from a collection of hilltop villages to a city that covered nearly 500 square miles. Much of Rome was rich agri-cultural land. Various kings ordered the construction of Rome’s first temples and public buildings. By royal order, the swampy valley below the Palatine Hill wasdrained, making a public meeting place. Later it became the Forum, the heart ofRoman political life.

The last king of Rome was Tarquin the Proud. A harsh tyrant, he was driven frompower in 509 B.C. Roman aristocrats, wealthy landowners who resented the Etruscankings, overthrew him. The Romans declared they would never again be ruled by aking. They swore to put to death anyone who plotted to make himself king.

Having deposed the monarch, the Romans established a new government. Theycalled it a republic, from the Latin phrase res publica, which means “public affairs.” A republic is a form of government in which power rests with citizens who have theright to vote to select their leaders. In Rome, citizenship with voting rights wasgranted only to free-born male citizens.

Patricians and Plebeians In the early republic, different groups of Romans strug-gled for power. One group was the patricians, the aristocratic landowners who heldmost of the power. The other important group was the plebeians, the common farm-ers, artisans, and merchants who made up the majority of the population.

The patricians inherited their power and social status. They claimed that theirancestry gave them the authority to make laws for Rome and its people. The ple-beians were citizens of Rome with the right to vote. They, however, were barred bylaw from holding most important government positions. In time, the Senate allowedthem to form their own assembly and elect representatives called tribunes. Tribunesprotected the rights of the plebeians from unfair acts of patrician officials. Eventually,plebeian pressure on the patricians gained them additional political power.

Twelve Tables An important victory for the plebeians was to force the creation of awritten law code. With laws unwritten, patrician officials often interpreted the law tosuit themselves. In 451 B.C., a group of ten officials began writing down Rome’s laws.The laws were carved on twelve tablets, or tables, and hung in the Forum. Theybecame the basis for later Roman law. The Twelve Tables established the idea that all free citizens, patricians and plebeians, had a right to the protection of the law.

Government Under the Republic In the first century B.C., Roman writers boastedthat Rome had achieved a balanced government. What they meant was that their government had taken the best features of a monarchy (government by a king), anaristocracy (government by nobles), and a democracy (government by the people). Inplace of a king, Rome had two officials called consuls. Like kings, they commanded thearmy and directed the government. However, their power was limited. First, a consul’s

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Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 143

term was only one year long. The same person could not be elected consul again for tenyears. Second, one consul could always overrule, or veto, the other’s decisions.

The senate was the aristocratic branch of Rome’s government. It had both legislativeand administrative functions in the republic. By tradition, therewere 300 members, chosen from the upper class of Roman society.Later, plebeians were allowed in the senate. Because membershipwas for life, the senate provided continuity. It also exercised enor-mous influence over both foreign and domestic policy.

The assemblies were the more democratic side of thegovernment. All citizen-soldiers were members of theCenturiate Assembly. In the early days of the republic, thispatrician-controlled assembly appointed the consuls andmade laws. It had less power than the senate. An assem-bly organized by the plebeians, the Tribal Assembly,elected the tribunes and made laws for the commonpeople. Later, it won the right to make laws for therepublic.

In times of crisis, the republic could appoint a dictator—a leader who had absolute power to make lawsand command the army. A dictator’s power lasted for only sixmonths. Dictators were chosen by the consuls and thenelected by the senate.

The Roman Army All citizens who owned land were requiredto serve in the army. To secure certain public offices, ten yearsof military service were required. Roman soldiers were organ-ized into large military units called legions. The Roman legionwas made up of some 5,000 heavily armed foot soldiers (infantry). A

Vocabularyveto: comes from theLatin for “I forbid.”

Vocabularylegion: also means amultitude.

Comparing Republican Governments

United States of AmericaRome

Two consuls, elected by the assembly for one year—chief executives of the government and commanders-in-chief of the army.

Senate of 300 members, chosen from aristocracy forlife—controls foreign and financial policies,advises consuls.

Centuriate Assembly, all citizen-soldiers are membersfor life—selects consuls, makes laws.

Tribal Assembly, citizens grouped according to wherethey live are members for life—elects tribunes andmakes laws.

Senate of 100 members, elected by the people forsix-year terms—makes laws, advises president onforeign policy.

House of Representatives of 435 members, elected by the people for two years—makes laws, originatesrevenue bills.

Praetors, eight judges chosen for one year by Cen-turiate Assembly—two oversee civil and criminalcourts (the others govern provinces).

Supreme Court, nine justices appointed for life bypresident—highest court, hears civil and criminalappeals cases.

Twelve Tables—a list of rules that were the basis ofRoman legal system

U.S. Constitution—basic law of the United States

All adult male landowners All native-born or naturalized persons

A president, elected by the people for four years—chief executive of the government and commander-in-chief of the army.

Executive

Legislative

Judicial

Legal Code

Citizenship

SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Charts1. What similarities do you see in the governments of the Roman Republic and the United States?2. Which government seems more democratic? Why?

Roman Legions

The legions were the fightingforce that spread Rome’s

power around theMediterranean. Eachlegion had a nicknameand a flag, called itseagle. Losing the eaglein battle was a disgrace.

Legions were self-sufficient and could live

off the land. They didtheir own construction

and even built roadsand bridges.

Each soldier had armor, ahelmet, a shield, a sword, anda dagger. He also carried toolsfor digging and stakes thatbecame part of a wall around

the camp. In addition, eachsoldier brought a cooking

pot, clothing, and anyother items he needed.

SPOTLIGHTON

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group of soldiers on horseback (cavalry) supported each legion. Legions were dividedinto smaller groups of 80 men, each of which was called a century. In battle, thestrength of the legion was its flexibility. Each century in a legion could act indepen-dently. The military organization and fighting skill of the Roman army were key factors in Rome’s rise to greatness.

Rome Spreads Its PowerFor hundreds of years after the founding of the republic, Rome sought to expand itsterritories through conquest and trade.

Rome Conquers Italy Roman power grew slowly but steadily as the legions battledfor control of the Italian peninsula. By the fourth century B.C., Rome dominated cen-tral Italy. Then it suffered a major defeat. In 390 B.C., the Gauls, a Celtic people fromthe Po River Valley, north of the Apennines, sacked Rome. However, the Romansquickly recovered and rebuilt the city. They reestablished control by subduing onerival after another. They defeated the Etruscans to the north and the Greek city-statesto the south. By 265 B.C., the Romans were masters of all Italy except the Po Valley.

Rome had different laws and treatment for different parts of its conquered territory.The neighboring Latins on the Tiber became full citizens of Rome. In territories far-ther from Rome, conquered peoples were given all the rights of Roman citizenship

except the vote. All other conquered groups fell into a third category,allies of Rome. Rome did not interfere with its allies, as long as theysent troops to the Roman army and did not make treaties of friend-ship with any other state. The new citizens and allies became partnersin Rome’s growth. This lenient policy toward defeated enemieshelped Rome to succeed in building a long-lasting empire. For the250 years after 265 B.C., Roman power spread far beyond Italy.

Rome’s Commercial Network Rome’s location gave it easyaccess to the riches of the lands ringing the Mediterranean Sea.Roman merchants moved by land and sea. They traded Roman wineand olive oil for a variety of foods, raw materials, and manufacturedgoods from other lands. However, other large and powerful citiesinterfered with Roman access to the Mediterranean. The dominantcity on the Mediterranean was Carthage, once a colony ofPhoenicia. Carthage was located on a peninsula on the NorthAfrican coast. Eventually Rome and Carthage fought bitterly forcontrol of the Mediterranean.

War with Carthage In 264 B.C., Rome and Carthage went to war.This was the beginning of the long struggle known as the Punic Wars.

Between 264 and 146 B.C., Rome and Carthage fought three wars.The first, for control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean, lasted23 years (264–241 B.C.). It ended in the defeat of Carthage. Rometook the rich, grain-growing island of Sicily as the chief prize of victory. It thus gained its first province, or administrative unit, over-seas. An uneasy peace followed. The Second Punic War began in 218B.C. The mastermind behind the war was a 29-year-old Carthaginiangeneral named Hannibal. Hannibal was a brilliant military strategistwho wanted to avenge Carthage’s earlier defeat.

Hannibal assembled an army of 50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and60 elephants with the intent of capturing Rome. To surprise the Romans, he led hisarmy on a long trek from Spain across France and through the Alps. Although he hadlost more than half his men and most of his elephants, Hannibal invaded northern Italy.For more than a decade, he marched his forces up and down the Italian peninsula at

C. Answer Sincemost conquered peo-ples were contentwith their treatmentby Rome, the empirecould concentrate onfurther expansion.THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. RecognizingEffects How did itstreatment of con-quered people affectRome’s expansion?

VocabularyPunic: comes fromthe Latin word forPhoenician.

Hannibal247–183 B.C.

When Hannibal was only a boy ofnine, his father, Hamilcar Barca, ageneral in Carthage’s army, madehim swear that he would alwayshate Rome and seek to destroy it.Hannibal became a lifelong foe ofRome. His war cry was “conqueror die!”

After his defeat at the battle ofZama and Carthage’s loss in theSecond Punic War, Hannibal tookrefuge among Rome’s enemies. Hefought against Roman forces as anally of the kings of Syria andBithynia. When Roman agents camefor him in Bithynia on the Black Seain Anatolia in 183 B.C., he committedsuicide rather than submit to Rome.

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144 Chapter 6

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Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 145

will. His soldiers lived off the land. They seized crops and cattle and pillaged farm-houses. Hannibal won his greatest victory at Cannae, in 216 B.C. There his armyinflicted enormous losses on the Romans. However, the Romans regrouped and withthe aid of many allies stood firm. They prevented Hannibal from capturing Rome.

Finally the Romans found a daring military leader to match Hannibal’s boldness. Ageneral named Scipio (SIHP•ee•oh) devised a plan to attack Carthage. This strategyforced Hannibal to return to defend his native city. In 202 B.C., at Zama nearCarthage, the Romans finally defeated Hannibal.

By the time of the Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.), Carthage was no longer a threatto Rome. Yet some Romans remembered the devastation Carthage had brought to Italyand were angered by its return to prosperity. An aged and influential senator namedCato ended all his speeches with the same message: “Carthage must be destroyed.” In149 B.C., Rome laid siege to Carthage. In 146 B.C., the city was set afire and its 50,000inhabitants sold into slavery. Its territory was made the new province of Africa.

Rome Controls the Mediterranean Rome’s victories in the Punic Wars gave it domi-nation over the western Mediterranean. The Romans went on to conquer the easternhalf. Rome took control of Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Anatolia. By about 70 B.C.,Rome’s Mediterranean empire stretched from Anatolia on the east to Spain on the west.

D. AnswerEliminated major rivalin area and gaveRome control of western half of theMediterranean.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. RecognizingEffects Why werethe Punic Wars important?

Vocabularypillaged: took goodsby force in wartime.

2. TAKING NOTESUsing a time line like the onebelow, show the main events thatmark the growth of Rome into apowerful republic.

What was the most importantevent, and why do you think so?

3. FORMING OPINIONS

Do you think the Roman Republicowed its success more to its formof government or to its army?Why?

THINK ABOUT• the structure of the republic• how citizenship spread• Rome’s policies toward

conquered peoples

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Power and Authority Howdid the office of dictator con-tribute to the balance and stabilityof the Roman Republic?THINK ABOUT• the role of the dictator• the power of consuls• the need for speedy decisions in

a crisis

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• republic• patrician• plebeian• tribune• consul• senate• dictator• legion• Hannibal• Scipio

Section Assessment1

Extent of Carthage’s rule in 264 B.C.

Roman territory in 146 B.C.

Extent of Roman rule in 264 B.C.

Hannibal’s invasion routeScipio’s invasion routeMajor battle

0 400 Miles

0 800 Kilometers

A T L A N T I CO C E A N

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

A d r i a t i cS e a

B l a c k S e a

Tagus R.

Danube R.

40°N

40°E

0°

Carthage

Rome

Athens

Pergamum

Corinth

Alexandria

SPAIN

EGYPTA F R I C A

NUMIDIA

GAUL

DALMATIA

MACEDONIA

GREECE

A N A T O L I A

ITALYPYRENEES

A L P S

Cannae(216)

Zama (202)

BALEARICISLANDS

CORSICA

SARDINIA

SICILY

Punic Wars, 264–146 B.C.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Movement How many miles did Hannibal’s forces march to reach Cannae?2. Region What territory did Rome add between 264 B.C. and 146 B.C.?

509 B.C.—Romans overthrow Etruscan king

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146 Chapter 6

SETTING THE STAGE Rome grew rapidly, and growth brought political, economic,and social changes. Some leaders attempted reforms, but the republican governmentwas unable to deal with the problems caused by these changes.

Expansion Creates Problems in the RepublicThe Punic Wars and Rome’s increasing wealth and expanding empire brought manyproblems. The most serious was the widening gap between rich and poor.

Rich landowners lived on huge estates called latifundia. Many of these estates hadbeen created by occupying conquered lands and by taking farms left untended by sol-

diers serving in the army. Romans had made slaves of thousands of capturedpeoples during the wars. These slaves were made to work on the latifundia.By 100 b.c., slaves formed perhaps one-third of Rome’s population.

Small farmers found it difficult to compete with the large estates run byslave labor. Some could not afford to repair the damage caused by Han-

nibal’s invasion. They sold their lands to wealthy landowners. Many of thesefarmers, a large number of whom were returning soldiers, became

homeless and jobless. Most stayed in the countryside and workedas seasonal migrant laborers. Some headed to Rome and other

cities looking for work. The landless and unskilled in the citiesfound few jobs. They joined the ranks of the urban poor, agroup that totaled about one-fourth of Roman society.

While wealthy Romans became corrupted by money andluxury, discontent arose among the slaves. Resentment also

grew among the poor. Class tensions planted the seeds of therepublic’s collapse.

The Republic CollapsesTwo brothers, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (GRAK•us), attempted to help Rome’spoor. As tribunes, they proposed reforms. The reforms included limiting the size ofestates and giving land to the poor. Tiberius spoke eloquently about the plight of thelandless former soldiers:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe savage beasts have their . . . dens . . . , but the men who bear arms and expose theirlives for the safety of their country, enjoy . . . nothing more in it but the air and light . . .and wander from place to place with their wives and children.TIBERIUS GRACCHUS quoted in Plutarch, The Lives of Noble Greeks and Romans

The brothers were strongly opposed by senators who felt threatened by their ideas.Both met violent deaths—Tiberius in 133 B.C. and Gaius in 121 B.C. A period of civilwar, or conflict between groups within the same country, followed their deaths.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. MakingInferences Whatproblems did increas-ing wealth bring to Rome?A. Answer Problemsincluded growing gapbetween rich andpoor, more slavery,corruption, and grow-ing numbers of home-less and jobless.

The Roman EmpireBrings Change

2TERMS & NAMES

• civil war• Julius Caesar• triumvirate• absolute ruler• Augustus• Pax Romana• gladiator

MAIN IDEA

The creation of the Roman Empiretransformed Roman government,society, economy, and culture.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

The Roman Empire has servedthroughout history as a model ofpolitical organization and control.

Cicero, Rome’sgreatest orator, wasa strong defender ofthe republic. Thismarble bust is fromthe first century B.C.

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Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 147

Changes in the character of the army had led to the rise of politically powerful mil-itary leaders. Generals began recruiting soldiers from the landless poor by promisingthem land. These soldiers fought for pay and owed allegiance only to their comman-der. They replaced the citizen-soldiers whose loyalty had been to the republic. It nowwas possible for a politician supported by his own troops to take over by force.

Two such generals were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. During 88–82B.C., their supporters fought a bloody civil war. The war ended with Sulla beingnamed dictator. Rivalries between generals continued to threaten the republic.Eventually an ambitious and daring leader, Julius Caesar (SEE•zuhr), emerged tobring order to Rome.

Julius Caesar Takes Control In 60 B.C., Julius Caesar joined forces with Crassus, awealthy Roman, and Pompey, a popular general. With their help, Caesar was electedconsul in 59 B.C. For the next ten years, these men dominated Romeas a triumvirate, a group of three rulers.

Caesar was a strong leader and a genius at military strategy.Abiding by tradition, he served only one year as consul. He thenappointed himself governor of Gaul (now France). During 58–50B.C., Caesar led his legions in a grueling but successful campaign toconquer all of Gaul. Because he shared fully in the hardships of war,he won his men’s loyalty and devotion. Here he speaks of rallying histroops in battle:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TI had no shield with me but I snatched one from a soldier in the rearranks and went forward to the front line. Once there, I called to all thecenturions by name and shouted encouragement to the rest of themen. . . . My arrival gave the troops fresh hope. . . .JULIUS CAESAR, Commentaries

The reports of Caesar’s successes in Gaul made him very popularwith the people of Rome. Pompey, who had become his politicalrival, feared Caesar’s ambitions. In 50 B.C., the senate, at Pompey’surgings, ordered Caesar to disband his legions and return home.

Caesar’s next move led to civil war. He defied the senate’s order.On the night of January 10, 49 B.C., he took his army across theRubicon River in Italy, the southern limit of the area he commanded.He marched his army swiftly toward Rome, and Pompey fled.Caesar’s troops defeated Pompey’s armies in Greece, Asia, Spain, and Egypt. In 46 B.C., Caesar returned to Rome, where he had thesupport of the army and the masses. That same year, the senateappointed him dictator; in 44 B.C., he was named dictator for life.

Caesar’s Reforms Caesar governed as an absolute ruler, one whohas total power. He made sweeping changes. He granted Roman cit-izenship to many people in the provinces. He expanded the senate,adding friends and supporters from Italy and the provinces. Caesarhelped the poor by creating jobs, especially through the constructionof new public buildings. He started colonies where the landlesscould own land and increased pay for soldiers.

Many nobles and senators were troubled by Caesar’s growing power, success, andpopularity. Some feared losing their influence. Others considered him a tyrant. Anumber of important senators, led by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius, plotted hisassassination. On March 15, 44 b.c., they stabbed him to death in the senate chamber.

Beginning of the Empire After Caesar’s death, civil war broke out again anddestroyed what was left of the Roman Republic. Three of Caesar’s supporters banded

BackgroundAll future Romanemperors would takethe name “Caesar” asa title, and the wordwould be adopted inother languages:kaiser (German) andczar (Russian).B. Possible AnswerCaesar had totalpower, and therewere no governmentalmeans to remove himfrom office.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingMotives Why didCaesar’s rivals feelthey had to kill him?

Julius Caesar

100–44 B.C.

In 44 B.C, on March 15 (known toRomans as the Ides of March),Caesar prepared to go to speak tothe Senate, unaware that importantsenators plotted his death.According to legend, his wife,Calpurnia, begged him not to go.She said she had seen him in adream dying in her arms of stabwounds. He earlier had beenwarned of danger by a soothsayer(fortune teller).

When Caesar arrived at theSenate chamber, he sat in his chair.Soon the plotters encircled him,took knives hidden in their togas,and stabbed him 23 times. Theywere led by Gaius Cassius andCaesar’s friend Marcus Brutus.Caesar’s last words were “Et tu,Brute?” (“You, too, Brutus?”)

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together to crush the assassins. Caesar’s 18-year-old grand-nephew and adopted son Octavian (ahk•TAY•vee•uhn) joinedwith an experienced general named Mark Antony and a power-ful politician named Lepidus. In 43 B.C., they took control ofRome and ruled for ten years as the Second Triumvirate.Among those killed in the Triumvirate’s purge of Caesar’s ene-mies was Cicero, a defender of the republic in the senate.

The Second Triumvirate ended in jealousy and violence.Octavian forced Lepidus to retire. He and Mark Antony thenbecame rivals. While leading troops against Rome’s enemies inAnatolia, Mark Antony met Queen Cleopatra of Egypt. He fellin love with her and followed her to Egypt. Octavian accusedAntony of plotting to rule Rome from Egypt, and another civilwar erupted. Octavian defeated the combined forces of Antonyand Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium in 31 B.C. Later,Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

Octavian claimed he would restore the republic, and, in fact,did retain some of its forms and traditions.The senate, for example, continued to meet, and Octavian consultedit on important matters. However, Octavian became the unchal-lenged ruler of Rome. Eventually he accepted the title of Augustus(aw•GUHS•tuhs), or “exalted one.” He also kept the title imperator,or “supreme military commander,” a term from which emperor isderived. Rome was now an empire ruled by one man.

A Vast and Powerful EmpireRome was at the peak of its power from the beginning of Augustus’rule in 27 B.C. to A.D. 180. For 207 years, peace reigned throughoutthe empire, except for some fighting with tribes along the borders.This period of peace and prosperity is known as the Pax Romana—“Roman peace.”

During this time, the Roman Empire included more than 3 millionsquare miles. Its population numbered between 60 and 80 millionpeople. About 1 million people lived in the city of Rome itself.

An Economy Based on Agriculture and Trade Agriculture wasthe most important industry in the empire. All else depended on it.About 90 percent of the people were engaged in farming. MostRomans survived on the produce from their local area. Additionalfoodstuffs (when needed) and luxury items for the rich wereobtained through trade. In Augustus’ time, a silver coin called adenarius was in use throughout the empire. Having common coinagemade trade between different parts of the empire much easier.

Rome had a vast trading network. Ships from the east traveled theMediterranean protected by the Roman navy. Cities such as Corinth inGreece, Ephesus in Anatolia, and Antioch on the eastern coast of theMediterranean grew wealthy. Rome also traded with China and India.

A complex network of roads linked the empire to such far-flungplaces as Persia and southern Russia. These roads were originallybuilt by the Roman army for military purposes. The most importantof the roads were the Silk Roads, named for the overland routes onwhich silk from China came through Asia to the Romans. Other lux-ury goods traveled along the same routes. Trade also brought Romanways to the provinces and beyond.

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Cleopatra, whoappears here in amarble sculpturefrom the first cen-tury B.C., wasEgypt’s last queen.In her quest forpower, she alliedherself first withJulius Caesar andthen with MarkAntony.

Vocabularypurge: a removal ofpeople consideredundesirable.

Augustus

63 B.C.–A.D. 14

Augustus was the most powerfulruler of the mightiest empire of theancient world. Yet, amid the pompof imperial Rome, he lived a simpleand frugal life. His home wasmodest by Roman standards. Hisfavorite meal consisted of coarsebread, a few sardines, and a pieceof cheese—the usual food of acommon laborer.

Augustus was also a veryreligious and family-oriented man.He held to a strict moral code. Hehad his only child, Julia, exiled fromRome for not being faithful in hermarriage.

As he neared death, he gatheredhis family, including Livia, his wife of52 years, to his bedside. He askedthem if he had done well in life.When they replied that he had,Augustus said, “Since well I’veplayed my part, then, gentle people,pray applaud, and send me withyour thanks on my way.”

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS

BackgroundThe denarius andother Roman coinswere more than cur-rency. They were usedfor propaganda orpublic relations purposes. They oftencarried the likeness of the emperor or depicted a Romanachievement.

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Managing a Huge Empire The borders of the Roman Empire measured some10,000 miles. By the second century A.D., the empire reached from Spain to Mesopo-tamia, from North Africa to Britain. Included in its provinces were people of manylanguages, cultures, and customs.

The Roman army drew upon the men of the provinces as auxiliary, or support,forces. They were not citizens of Rome. But they learned Roman customs and becamecitizens when they were discharged from military service. In this way, the army alsospread the Roman way of life to the provinces and Roman rights to non-Romans.

A Sound Government Augustus was Rome’s ablest emperor. He stabilized thefrontier, glorified Rome with splendid public buildings, and created a system of gov-ernment that survived for centuries. He set up a civil service. That is, he paid workersto manage the affairs of government, such as the grain supply, tax collection, and thepostal system. Although the senate still functioned, civil servants drawn from ple-beians and even former slaves actually administered the empire.

After Augustus died in A.D. 14, the senate chose his adopted son Tiberius as hissuccessor. During the Pax Romana, some of Rome’s emperors were able and intelli-gent. Some were cruel. Two, Caligula and Nero, were either insane or unstable. Yetthe system of government set up by Augustus proved to be stable. This was duemainly to the effectiveness of the civil service in carrying out day-to-day operations.

The Emperors and Succession Rome’s peace and prosperity depended upon theorderly transfer of power. Because Rome had no written law for selecting a newemperor, a crisis or a civil war was always a possibility when an emperor died. Thesuccession problem was temporarily solved by the leaders known as the Five GoodEmperors. Beginning with Nerva in A.D. 96, each of them adopted as his heir a

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. SummarizingSummarize howRoman culture spreadto the provinces.

Vocabularycivil service: personsemployed in the civiladministration of government

C. Answer TheRomans brought cus-toms and rights to theprovinces throughtrade and through theuse of men from theprovinces as a part ofthe Roman army.

Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 149

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Trade in the Roman Empire, A.D. 200

Grain Slaves Metals Olive oil

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Trade Goods

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Movement From what three continents did trade goods come to Rome?2. Location Which goods were supplied by all three areas?

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respected leader who had the support of both the army and the peopleto be the next emperor. The reign of Marcus Aurelius, the last ofthe five, ended in A.D. 180. His death marked the beginning of the

empire’s decline and the end of the Pax Romana.

Life in Imperial RomeMerchants, soldiers, slaves, foreigners, and philosophers all shared the crowded, noisystreets of Rome. However, most people in the Roman Empire did not live in the citiesand towns. They lived in the countryside and worked on farms. For all Romans, lifechanged as Rome moved from republic to empire.

Men and Women Throughout its history, Rome emphasized the values of discipline,strength, and loyalty. A person with these qualities was said to have the importantvirtue of gravitas. The Romans were a practical people. They honored strength morethan beauty, power more than grace, and usefulness more than elegance.

At the heart of Roman society was the family. By law and custom, the eldest man,known as the paterfamilias, or “father of the family,” had power to rule the household.He controlled all property and had authority over all family members. He could dis-own newborn children, banish family members, or even sell them into slavery.

By the time of the empire’s establishment, Roman women, both rich and poor, hadbecome nearly the social equals of men. Upper-class women ran the household andwere given authority and respect. They had more personal freedom than the womenof Greece and than most women would have until the 19th century. Roman womencould own property and testify in court. However, they could not vote. Officially theywere expected to remain in the background. Butthey frequently attended the public baths (wheremost Romans went to bathe), plays, festivals, andgames. Lower-class women could work at such jobsas spinners, weavers, shopkeepers, midwives,entertainers, and waitresses.

Children and Education Romans favored boychildren over girls. Boys would become citizenswith the right to vote and would carry on familytraditions. Girls were not even given their ownnames. Daughters received the feminine form ofthe father’s name, with “the elder” or “theyounger” or a number added, such as Octavia II.

Few children went to school. Those who didwere usually boys from noble or wealthy families.Their schooling continued until they officiallybecame adults at 16. Girls from these families most

Nero

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Bad Emperors

Caligula

Vocabularygravitas: Latin forweightiness.

This Roman hus-band and wife fromfirst-century Pom-peii show theirpride at being ableto read and write.Their portraitincludes writingimplements and ascroll.

Roman Emperors A.D. 37–A.D. 180

Caligula• 37–41• Mentally

disturbed• Assassinated

after short, brutal reign

Nero• 54–68• Good admin-

istrator butvicious

• Murdered many• Persecuted

Christians• Committed

suicide

Domitian• 81–96• Ruled dictatorially• Feared treason

everywhere andexecuted many

• Assassinated

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Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 151

often were educated at home and were prepared for marriage and motherhood. Theywere usually married at the age of 12 to 15, to much older husbands.

Poor children, whether they lived in the city or on a farm, had to work. They didnot go to school and generally remained illiterate.

Slaves and Captivity Slavery was a significant part of Roman life. It was wide-spread and important to the economy. The Romans made more use of slaves thanany previous civilization. Numbers of slaves may have reached as high as one-third ofthe population.

Most slaves were conquered peoples brought back by victorious Roman armies andincluded men, women, and children. Children born to slaves also became slaves. Slavescould be bought and sold. According to Roman law, slaves were the property of theirowner. They could be punished, rewarded, set free, or put to death as their master sawfit. Slaves worked both in the city and on the farm. Many were treated cruelly andworked at hard labor all day long. Some—strong, healthy males—were forced tobecome gladiators, or professional fighters, who fought to the death in public contests.Other slaves, particularly those who worked in wealthy households, were better treated.

Occasionally, slaves would rebel. None of the slave revolts succeeded. More than amillion slaves lost their lives attempting to gain their freedom.

Gods and Goddesses The earliest Romans worshipped powerful spirits or divineforces, called numina, that they thought resided in everything around them. Closelyrelated to these spirits were the Lares (LAIR•eez), who were the guardian spirits ofeach family. After the Romans came into contact with Etruscans and Greeks, theybegan to think of these powerful spirits as having humanlike forms and individual per-sonalities. They were given Roman names. Romans honored these powerful gods andgoddesses through various rituals, hoping to gain favor and avoid misfortune.

In Rome, government and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of thestate. Romans were expected to honor them not only in private rituals at shrines intheir homes but also in public worship ceremonies conducted by priests in temples.Among the most important Roman gods and goddesses were Jupiter, father of thegods; Juno, his wife, who supposedly watched over women; and Minerva, goddess ofwisdom and of the arts and crafts. During the empire, worship of the emperor alsobecame part of the official religion of Rome.

By A.D. 100, many Romans had become interested in the religions of Asia. Thesereligions had practices and beliefs that were more personal and emotional than thesomber rituals connected with Rome’s deities.

”Bread and Circuses”—Food and Entertainment By the time of the empire, wealthand social status had made huge differences in how people lived. Classes had little incommon. The rich lived extravagantly. They spent large sums of money on homes, gar-dens, slaves, and luxuries. They gave banquets that lasted for many hours and includedfoods that were rare and costly, such as boiled ostrich and parrot-tongue pie.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. Contrasting Howdid the lives of Romangirls differ from thoseof boys?C. Answer Boyswent to schools; mostgirls didn’t; societyfavored boys; girlsdidn’t get their ownnames; girls marriedearly to older men.

Good Emperors

Hadrian• 117–138• Consolidated

earlier conquests • Reorganized the

bureaucracy

Antoninus Pius• 138–161• Reign largely a

period of peaceand prosperity

Marcus Aurelius• 161–180• Brought empire

to height ofeconomicprosperity

• Defeatedinvaders

• Wrote philosophy

Nerva• 96–98• Began custom

of adopting heir

Trajan• 98–117• Empire reached

its greatest extent• Undertook vast

building program• Enlarged social

welfare

Trajan

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However, most people in Rome barely had the necessities of life.During the time of the empire, much of the city’s population wasunemployed. The government supported these people with dailyrations of grain. In the shadow of Rome’s great temples and publicbuildings, poor people crowded into rickety, sprawling tenements. Firewas a constant danger.

To distract and control the masses of Romans, the governmentprovided free games, races, mock battles, and gladiator contests.By A.D. 250, there were 150 holidays a year. On these days of cele-bration, the Colosseum, a huge arena that could hold 50,000,would fill with the rich and the poor alike. The spectacles theywatched combined bravery and cruelty, honor and violence. In theanimal shows, wild creatures brought from distant lands, such astigers, lions, and bears, fought to the death. In other contests, glad-iators engaged in combat with animals or with each other, oftenuntil one of them was killed.

The Pax Romana had brought 200 years of peace and prosperityto Rome. During this time, a new religion called Christianity devel-oped and began to spread throughout the empire.

BackgroundMany Roman citieshad arenas similar tothe Colosseum thatwere used for publicentertainment.

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2. TAKING NOTES

Make a bulleted chart like the onebelow, showing how Romechanged during the Pax Romana.

Which changes do you considernegative? Why?

3. ANALYZING CAUSES

What role did Julius Caesar playin the decline of the republic andthe rise of the empire?

THINK ABOUT• the problems facing the republic• how Caesar helped restore

order• Caesar’s defiance of the senate• Caesar’s rule as dictator

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Empire Building Role-play adiscussion in the Roman Forum, inwhich various members of societycomment on conditions in theRoman Empire during the PaxRomana. Participants mightinclude a senator, a civil servant, aslave, a merchant, and a landlessand jobless former soldier. Work-ing in small teams, one for eachparticipant, focus on the changesthat have come with the rise ofthe empire.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• civil war• Julius Caesar• triumvirate• absolute ruler• Augustus• Pax Romana• gladiator

Section Assessment2

Charioteers race theirchariots in this ancient wallpainting from Pompeii.

Changes in Rome

•

•

•

Charioteers—ProfessionalAthletes

Professional athletes are well-known personalities in the UnitedStates. In addition to the largesalaries paid by their teams, ath-letes earn extra money endorsingproducts from athletic shoes tofast food. Some athletes evenbecome actors; a few havebecome politicians.

Charioteers were popularathletes in ancient Rome. Theywere usually slaves or freedslaves. They raced for one of four"factions” (something like amodern team)—the whites, greens,reds, or blues. They competed forlarge cash prizes. When acharioteer won a big race, hisportrait would appear on walls allover the city.

CONNECT to TODAY

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Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 153

SETTING THE STAGE The worship of Roman gods was impersonal, practiced withouta great deal of emotion. Priests used sacred rites to intercede on behalf of worshippers.A new religion called Christianity, born as a movement within Judaism, emphasized thepersonal relationship between God and people. It attracted many Romans.

Jews Come Under Roman RuleRoman power spread to Judea, the home of the Jews, around 63 B.C. At first theJewish kingdom remained independent, at least in name. Jewish kings ruled as repre-sentatives of Rome. Some Jews allied with the Romans and accepted their plans to“Romanize” Jerusalem. The ruler Herod, for example, was a Romanized Jew. His loy-alties were divided between Rome and the Jewish people, but he ruled with an ironhand and angered many Jews. When he died, the Jews began a revolt against Romaninfluence that lasted for ten years. Rome finally took control of the Jewish kingdomand made it the province of Judea in A.D. 6.

In an attempt to restore order in Judea, the Romans gave control of reli-gious matters and local affairs to the Jewish court called the Sanhedrin. Jewswere divided into two major factions. One group, called the Zealots, wanted torid their homeland of the Romans. Another group believed that the Messiah, orsavior, was soon to appear. According to biblical tradition, God had promised thatthe Messiah would restore the kingdom of the Jews.

The Life and Teachings of JesusJesus was born in the town of Bethlehem in Judea. The date isuncertain but is thought to have been around 6 to 4 B.C. Jesuswas both a Jew and a Roman subject. He was raised in the village of Nazareth innorthern Palestine. Jesus was baptized by the prophet known as John the Baptist.As a young man, he took up the trade of carpentry.

Jesus’ Message At the age of 30 Jesus began his public ministry. For the nextthree years, he preached, taught, did good works, and reportedly performed miracles. His teachings contained many ideas from Jewish tradition, such asmonotheism, or belief in only one god, and the principles of the Ten Command-ments. Jesus emphasized God’s personal relationship to each human being. He stressedthe importance of people’s love for God, their neighbors, their enemies, and even them-selves. He also taught that God would end wickedness in the world and would establishan eternal kingdom after death for people who sincerely repented their sins.

Jesus gathered about himself twelve special disciples, or pupils. Historical records ofthe time mention very little about Jesus. The main source of information about Jesus’life and teachings are the Gospels, the first four books of the New Testament of theBible. Some of the Gospels are thought to have been written by one or more of Jesus’disciples, who later came to be called apostles.

VocabularyZealot: has come tomean a fanaticallycommitted person.

BackgroundThe original dating ofthe birth of Jesusmade in the sixth cen-tury A.D. is now gener-ally recognized asbeing four to six yearsin error.

VocabularyGospel: means goodnews.

The Rise of Christianity

3TERMS & NAMES

• Jesus• apostle• Peter• Paul• Diaspora• bishop• pope• Constantine• heresy

MAIN IDEA

Christianity arose in Roman-occupiedJudea and spread throughout theRoman Empire.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

As the world’s most widespreadreligion, Christianity guides the lives ofmillions today.

The cross becamethe universalsymbol of Christian-ity. This jewel-studded cross wasmade by a gold-smith centuriesafter the death ofJesus.

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As Jesus preached from town to town, his fame grew. He attracted large crowds,and many people were touched by his message. Many believed him to be the long-awaited Messiah, the son of God. Because Jesus ignored wealth and status, his message had special appeal to the poor. “Blessed are the meek: for they shall inheritthe earth,” he said. His words, as related in the Gospels, are simple and direct:

T H E B I B L ELove your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, and prayfor those who mistreat you. If anyone hits you on the cheek, let him hit the other onetoo; if someone takes your coat, let him have your shirt as well. Give to everyone whoasks you for something, and when someone takes what is yours, do not ask for it back.Do for others just what you want them to do for you.The Gospel of Luke, 6:27–31

Jesus’ Death Jesus’ growing popularity concerned both Roman and Jewish leaders.When Jesus visited Jerusalem about A.D. 29, enthusiastic crowds greeted him as theMessiah, or king. The chief priests of the Jews denied that Jesus was the Messiah.They said his teachings were blasphemy, or contempt for God. The Roman governorPontius Pilate thought that Jesus, whom the Romans mockingly called “King of theJews,” challenged the authority of Rome. Pilate arrested Jesus and sentenced him tobe crucified, or nailed to a large wooden cross to die.

After Jesus’ death, his body was placed in a tomb. According to the Gospels, threedays later his body was gone, and a living Jesus began appearing to his followers. Thenone day it was said that he ascended into heaven. The apostles were more than everconvinced that Jesus was the Messiah. It was from this belief that Jesus came to bereferred to as Jesus Christ. Christos is a Greek word meaning “messiah” or “savior.”The name Christianity was derived from “Christ.”

The followers of Jesus were strengthened by their conviction that he had tri-umphed over death. Led by Peter, the first apostle, they spread the teachings of Jesusthroughout Palestine and Syria. The cross on which he had been crucified became asymbol for their beliefs.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. HypothesizingWhy did the followersof Jesus think he wasthe Messiah?A. Answer He report-edly worked miracles,did good works,preached the word ofGod, rose after death.

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Jesus is portrayedin this glass mosaicfrom the fifth cen-tury as “the goodshepherd,” tendinghis flock, watchingover the faithful.

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THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. RecognizingEffects How did con-ditions in the RomanEmpire contribute tothe spread ofChristianity?B. Answer Travelwas easy and safebecause of peace inEmpire.

Vocabularyscapegoats: groupsor individuals thatinnocently bear theblame for others

Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 155

Christianity Spreads Through the EmpireJesus’ teachings did not contradict Jewish law, and his first followers were Jews. Soon,however, these followers began to create a new religion based on his messages. Despitepolitical and religious opposition, the new religion of Christianity spread slowly butsteadily throughout the Roman Empire.

Paul’s Mission One man, the apostle Paul, had enormous influence on Christianity’sdevelopment. Paul was a Jew whose Hebrew name was Saul. He had never met Jesusand at first was an enemy of Christianity. While traveling to Damascus in Syria, hereportedly had a vision of Christ. He then began using his Roman name, Paul, andspent the rest of his life spreading and interpreting Christ’s teachings.

The Pax Romana, which made travel and the exchange of ideas fairly safe, providedthe ideal conditions for Christianity to spread. The excellent Roman road system madepassage by land easy, and common languages—Latin and Greek—allowed the messageto be easily understood. Paul was able to travel freely from city to city around the east-ern Mediterranean to preach. He wrote influential letters, called Epistles, to groups ofbelievers. In his teaching, Paul stressed that Jesus was the son of God who died forpeople’s sins. He also declared that Christianity should welcome all converts, Jew orGentile (non-Jew). He said: “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave norfree, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” It was thisuniversality that enabled Christianity to become more than just a local religion.

Jewish Rebellion During the early years of Christianity, much Roman attention wasfocused on the land of Jesus’ birth and on the Jews. In A.D. 66, a band of Zealots rebelledagainst Rome. In A.D. 70, the Romans stormed Jerusalem and destroyed the Temple com-plex. All that remained was a western portion of the wall, which today is the holiest Jewish

shrine. The Jewish fortress near Masada held out until A.D. 73.About a half million Jews were killed in the course of this rebellion.

The Jews made another attempt to breakfree of the Romans in A.D. 132. Another half-million Jews died in three years of fighting.Although the Jewish religion survived, theJewish political state ceased to exist for more

than 1,800 years. Most Jews were driven from their homeland intoexile. This dispersal of the Jews is called the Diaspora.

Persecution of the Christians Christians also posed a problemfor Roman rulers because Christians refused to worship Romangods. This refusal was seen as opposition to Roman rule. SomeRoman rulers also used Christians as scapegoats for political andeconomic troubles. In A.D. 64, for example, when the emperor Nerowas blamed for a disastrous fire in Rome, he said Christians wereresponsible and ordered them to be persecuted. Both the apostlesPeter and Paul were put to death in Rome some time after A.D. 60.

The emperors who followed Nero in the first century did not con-tinue the persecutions. Later, however, as the Pax Romana began tocrumble, the Romans exiled, imprisoned, or executed Christians forrefusing to worship Roman gods. Thousands were crucified, burned,or killed by wild animals in the circus arenas. Other Christians andeven some non-Christians regarded persecuted Christians as martyrs.Martyrs were people willing to sacrifice their lives for the sake of a belief or a cause.

Despite persecution, Christianity became a powerful religious force. By the latethird century A.D., there were millions of Christians in the Roman Empire. Mission-aries spread the faith throughout the empire and beyond.

The Jewish Diaspora

Centuries of Jewish exile followedthe destruction of their Temple andthe fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Thisperiod is called the Diaspora, fromthe Greek word for “dispersal.”Jews fled to many parts of theworld. Some moved to Babyloniaand the Arabian Desert. Otherswent to Syria, Egypt, and Spain.

Eventually, Jews spread intoFrance, England, and the Rhineland,where they lived in small groups. Inthe 1100s, many European Jewswere expelled from their homes.Some moved to Turkey, Palestine,and Syria. Others went to Polandand nearby neighboring areas.

The statelessness of the Jewsdid not end until the creation ofIsrael in 1948.

GlobalImpactJerusalem

Masada

MediterraneanSea

Dead SeaJUDEA

GALILEE

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A World ReligionThe widespread appeal of Christianity was the result of a variety of reasons.

Christianity grew because it:• embraced all people—men and women; slaves, the poor, and nobles.• gave hope to the powerless.• appealed to those who were repelled by the extravagances of imperial Rome.• offered a personal relationship with a loving God.• promised eternal life after death.

Early Christian Church Christians soon began to give their religion a structure,much as the Roman Empire had a hierarchy. At the local level, a priest led each smallgroup of Christians. A bishop, who was also a priest, supervised several localchurches. The apostle Peter had traveled to Rome from Jerusalem and became thefirst bishop there. According to tradition, Jesus referred to Peter as the “rock” onwhich the Christian Church would be built. As a result, all priests and bishops tracedtheir authority to him.

Eventually, every major city had its own bishop. However, later bishops of Romeclaimed to be the heirs of Peter. These bishops said that Peter was the first pope, thefather or head of the Christian Church. They said that whoever was bishop of Romewas also the leader of the whole Church. Also, as Rome was the capital of the empire,it seemed the logical choice to be the center of the Church.

Constantine Accepts Christianity A critical moment in Christianity occurred in A.D.312, when the Roman emperor Constantine was fighting three rivals for his title. Hehad marched to the Tiber River at Rome to battle his chief rival. On the day before thebattle at Milvian Bridge, Constantine prayed for divine help. He reported that he then

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences Whywere the citizens ofthe Roman Empire soreceptive to a newreligion at this time?

Vocabularyhierarchy: a group ofpersons organized inorder of ranks, witheach level subject tothe authority of theone above.

C. Answer Itembraced all people,gave hope to power-less, appealed tothose who wererepelled by Romanextravagances, offeredpersonal relationshipwith God, promisedlife after death.

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Christian areas around 325

Boundary of Roman Empire, 395Christian areas around 500

40°N

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Ara lS ea

Red S ea

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Corinth

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BRITAINIRELAND

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JUDEA

SYRIA

ANATOLIAARMENIA

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Spread of Christianity in the Roman World to A.D. 500

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Location Where was Christianity most widespread in A.D. 325?2. Region What was the extent (north to south, east to west) of

Christianity’s spread by A.D. 500?

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saw a cross of light in the heavens bearing the inscription, “In this sign,conquer.” Constantine ordered artisans to put the Christian symbol onhis soldier’s shields. Constantine and his troops were victorious in bat-tle. He gave credit for his success to the help of the Christian God.

In the next year, A.D. 313, Constantine announced an end to thepersecution of Christians. In the Edict of Milan, he declared Chris-tianity to be one of the religions approved by the emperor. The edictgranted “both to the Christians and to all men freedom to follow thereligion that they choose.” Christianity continued to gain strength. In380, the emperor Theodosius made it the empire’s official religion.

Discord and Harmony As Christianity grew, disagreements aboutbeliefs developed among its followers. Church leaders called anybelief that appeared to contradict the basic teachings a heresy.Dispute over beliefs became intense. In an attempt to end conflicts,Church leaders sought to set a single, official standard of belief. Thesebeliefs were compiled in the New Testament, which contained thefour Gospels, the Epistles of Paul, and other documents. In A.D. 325,Constantine decided to end the disputes and the disorder they caused.He called Church leaders to Nicaea in Anatolia. There they wrote theNicene Creed, which defined the basic beliefs of the Church.

The Fathers of the Church Also influential in defining Churchteachings were several early writers and scholars who have beencalled the Fathers of the Church. One of the most important wasAugustine, who became bishop of the city of Hippo in North Africain 396. Augustine taught that while humans needed the grace of Godto be saved, God was merciful and gave his grace freely.

One of Augustine’s most famous books is The City of God. It waswritten after Rome was plundered in the fifth century. Augustinewrote that the fate of cities such as Rome was not important becausethe heavenly city, the city of God, could never be destroyed:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe one consists of those who live by human standards, the other ofthose who live according to God’s will. . . . By two cities I mean two soci-eties of human beings, one of which is predestined to reign with Godfor all eternity, the other is doomed to undergo eternal punishment with the Devil.ST. AUGUSTINE, The City of God

Christianity increased in both power and wealth despite the empire’s growing inter-nal and external problems.

Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 157

Vocabularyedict: decree orproclamation.

BackgroundThe New Testamentwas added to theHebrew Bible, whichChristians called theOld Testament.

2. TAKING NOTES

Using a sequence graphic like theone below, show the five or sixevents that led to the spread ofChristianity throughout the RomanEmpire.

Which event do you think had thebiggest impact? Explain.

3. HYPOTHESIZING

Do you think Christianity wouldhave developed in the same way ifit had arisen in an area outsidethe Roman Empire? Explain.

THINK ABOUT• Jesus’ growing popularity • the effect of actions Rome took

against Jesus and his followers• the depth of belief of Jesus’

followers• the advantages of being part of a

vast empire

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Religious and EthicalSystems Who do you think didmore to spread Christianity—Paulor Constantine?THINK ABOUT• Paul’s travels• the opening of Christianity to the

Gentiles• Constantine’s power as an

emperor

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Jesus• apostle• Peter• Paul• Diaspora• bishop• pope• Constantine• heresy

Section Assessment3

ConstantineA.D. 285?–337

Constantine was a deeply religiousman. He initially believed in thetraditional Roman gods. Heidentified with the god Apollo,whom he claimed to have seen in avision.

Sometime after his conversionto Christianity in A.D. 312,Constantine reportedly remarkedthat “God is the cause of theexploits I have performed.” Hemaintained that he receivedrevelations and instructions fromGod.

Although he legalizedChristianity throughout the empireand took a leading role in theaffairs of the Christian Church,Constantine was not formallybaptized until he was on hisdeathbed in 337.

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Rome takesover Jewish

kingdom.

D. Possible AnswerHe wanted to comfortthe Romans by lettingthem know thatearthly cities maycome and go but therewas an eternal citythat would never bedestroyed.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. AnalyzingMotives What doyou think was St.Augustine’s motive forwriting The City ofGod right after Romehad been attacked?

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THINK THROUGH HISTORY A. AnalyzingCauses Whatcaused the weakeningof the Roman economy?A. Answer Inflation,meager harvests, dis-ruption of trade.

158 Chapter 6

SETTING THE STAGE In the third century A.D., Rome faced many problems. Theycame both from within the empire and from outside. Drastic economic, military, andpolitical reforms would be needed to hold off collapse.

A Century of CrisisHistorians generally agree that the Roman Empire began its decline at the end of thereign of the last of the Five Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161–180). Therulers that followed in the next century had little or no idea of how to deal with theproblems facing the empire. Most, like Aurelius’ son Commodus, were brutal andincompetent. They left the empire greatly weakened.

Rome’s Economy Declines During the Pax Romana, bustling trade flowed overroutes patrolled by Roman legions and ships. Rome’s treasuries were enriched by goldand silver taken from conquered territories. Most important of all, the empire’s farmsgrew enough grain to feed the population of the cities. During the third century A.D.,all three sources of prosperity evaporated.

Hostile tribes outside the boundaries of the empire and pirates on the MediterraneanSea disrupted trade. Frequent wars were costly. The wealthy spent money on luxurygoods from China, India, and Arabia. This spending drained the empire of gold and sil-ver. Since the empire’s expansion had come to an end, there were no new sources of

precious metals.Desperate to pay its mounting expenses, including

the rising cost of defense, the government raised taxes.It also started minting coins that contained less and lesssilver. It hoped to create more money with the sameamount of precious metal. However, the economy soonsuffered from inflation, a drastic drop in the value ofmoney coupled with a rise in prices.

Agriculture faced equally serious problems. Harvestsin Italy and western Europe became increasingly mea-ger because overworked soil had lost its fertility.Farmland was destroyed by warfare. The higher taxesimposed by the government caused many poor farmersto abandon their lands. The use of cheap slave laborhad discouraged improvements in technology. Seriousfood shortages resulted for all these reasons. Even-tually, disease spread and the population declined.

Rome Faces Military Upheaval The empire’s economic crisis was worsened byits growing military troubles. Throughout the third century, Germanic tribesrepeatedly overwhelmed the Roman legions guarding the northern frontiers. At thesame time, Persia threatened Roman territory in Syria and Anatolia. (Romans

The Decline of theRoman Empire

4TERMS & NAMES

• inflation• mercenary• Diocletian• Constantinople• Alaric• Attila

MAIN IDEA

Internal problems and nomadicinvasions spurred the division anddecline of the Roman empire.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

The decline and fall of greatcivilizations is a repeating pattern inworld history.

This Roman road,still in use inManchester,England, was partof a 53,000-milenetwork of pavedroads that con-nected the far-flungempire.

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Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 159

called all invaders “barbarians,” a term that they used to refer to non-Romans.)Rome’s most humiliating defeat occurred in A.D. 260, when the Persians capturedthe emperor Valerian.

In the army, discipline and loyalty had collapsed. Soldiers gave their loyalty not toRome but to their commanders, who fought among themselves for the throne. Todefend against the increasing threats to the empire, the government began to recruitmercenaries, foreign soldiers who fought for money. While mercenaries wouldaccept lower pay than Romans, they felt little sense of loyalty to the empire.

Roman Politics Decay Loyalty was in fact a key problem, perhaps the most seriousof all. In the past, Romans cared so deeply about their republic that they willingly sac-rificed their lives for it. Conditions in the later centuries of the empire caused citizensto lose their sense of patriotism. They became indifferent to the empire’s fate.

Romans had once considered holding political office to be an honor. It was also anopportunity to gain wealth. By the 200s, however, local officials usually lost moneybecause they were required to pay for the costly public circuses and baths out of theirown pockets. Few people chose to serve the government under those conditions.

Only the armies remained actively interested in politics. In a 50-year period (A.D. 235–284), armies in the provinces and in Rome proclaimed 50 generals to beemperors of Rome. Of these “barracks emperors,” 26 briefly won the approval of theRoman senate; 25 died violently.

Emperors Attempt ReformRemarkably, the empire survived intact for another 200 years. Its lifewas prolonged by reforming emperors and by its division into twoparts: eastern and western.

Diocletian Reforms the Empire In A.D. 284, Diocletian, astrong-willed army leader, became the new emperor. With amazingboldness, he restored order in the empire and increased its strength.To accomplish this, he governed as an absolute ruler and severely lim-ited personal freedoms.

Diocletian doubled the size of the Roman armies, drafting prison-ers of war and hiring German mercenaries. He attempted to controlinflation by setting fixed prices for goods. He also ordered farmers toremain on their lands and other workers to stay in their jobs for life.To restore the prestige of the office of emperor, Diocletian claimeddescent from the ancient Roman gods. He viewed Christianity as athreat and passed decrees to persecute the Christians.

Diocletian believed that the empire had grown too large and toocomplex for one ruler. In his most significant reform, he divided theempire into the Greek-speaking East (Greece, Anatolia, Syria, andEgypt) and the Latin-speaking West (Italy, Gaul, Britannia, andSpain). He took the eastern half for himself and appointed a co-rulerfor the West, General Maximian. Each emperor also selected anassistant, who was to be his successor. While Diocletian sharedauthority, he kept overall control. His half of the empire, the East,included most of the empire’s great cities and trade centers and wasfar wealthier than the West.

Diocletian’s reforms slowed the decline of the empire. The bordersbecame safe again, and the emperor’s prestige was restored. Because ofill health, Diocletian took the extraordinary step of retiring in A.D. 305.

However, his plans for orderly succession failed. Civil war brokeout immediately. By 311, four rivals were competing for power.

B. Answer Agree—He secured Rome’sboundaries, stabilizedeconomy and rule,restored prestige ofemperor. Disagree—limited personal free-doms, persecutedChristians, plans fororderly successionfailed and civil warresulted.THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SupportingOpinions Do youthink Diocletian was a good emperor?

DiocletianA.D. 245?–313

Diocletian, who may have beenborn the son of a slave in theprovince of Dalmatia, raised theoffice of emperor to a form ofdivine monarch. He declaredhimself to be a son of Jupiter, thefather of the gods. He devisedelaborate ceremonies to presenthimself in a godlike aura.

When he appeared in public,trumpets heralded his entrance.Anyone who approached theimperial presence had to kneel andkiss the hem of the his robe. Hehad his clothing and shoesdecorated with precious gems.By his actions, Diocletian sought torestore the dignity of the emperor.He also hoped to give himselfgreater security by making assassi-nation appear to be a crime againstthe gods.

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Among them was an ambitious young commander named Constantine, the sameConstantine who would later end the persecution of Christians.

Constantine Moves the Capital Constantine gained control of the western part ofthe empire in A.D. 312 and continued many of the social and economic policies ofDiocletian. In 324 Constantine also secured control of the East, thus restoring theconcept of a single ruler.

In A.D. 330, Constantine took a step that would have great consequence for theempire. He moved the capital from Rome to the Greek city of Byzantium(bih•ZAN•shee•uhm), in what is now Turkey. The new capital stood on the BosporusStrait, strategically located for trade and defense purposes on a crossroads betweenWest and East.

With Byzantium as its capital, the center of power in the empire shifted from Rome tothe East. Soon the new capital was protected by massive walls and filled with imperialbuildings modeled after those in Rome. The city was given a new name—Constantinople (KAHN•stan•tuhn•OH•puhl), city of Constantine. After Constantine’sdeath, the empire would again be divided. The East would survive; the West would fall.

Invaders Overrun the Western EmpireThe decline of the Western Roman Empire took place over many years. Its final col-lapse was the result of worsening internal problems, the separation of the WesternEmpire from the wealthier Eastern part, and outside invasions.

Since the days of Julius Caesar, Germanic peoples had gathered on the northernborders of the Empire. Some groups settled into a peaceful farming life. Eventuallythey adopted Roman ways, such as speaking Latin and becoming Christians. Othergroups remained nomads. From A.D. 376 to 476, huge numbers of Germans poured

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. AnalyzingMotives Why didConstantine choosethe location ofByzantium for his new capital?C. Answer It wasstrategically locatedfor trade and defense.

160 Chapter 6

Political• Political office seen as

burden, not reward

• Military interferencein politics

• Civil war and unrest

• Division of empire

• Moving of capital toByzantium

Social• Decline in interest in

public affairs

• Low confidence in empire

• Disloyalty, lack ofpatriotism, corruption

• Contrast between richand poor

Economic• Poor harvests

• Disruption of trade

• No more war plunder

• Gold and silver drain

• Inflation

• Crushing tax burden

• Widening gap betweenrich and poor and increas-ingly impoverishedWestern empire

Military• Threat from northern

European tribes

• Low funds for defense

• Problems recruitingRoman citizens; recruitingof non-Romans

• Decline of patriotism andloyalty among soldiers

Multiple Causes: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Charts1. Could changes in any contributing factors have reversed the decline of the empire?2. Which contributing factors—political, economic, or military—were the most significant in the fall of the

Western Roman Empire?

Contributing Factors

Immediate Causes

• Pressure from Huns • Invasion by Germanic tribes and by Huns • Sack of Rome • Conquest by invaders

FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE

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into Roman territory—Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Burgundians,Alemanni, and Vandals. Gradually, they overwhelmed the structures of Roman society.Finally, they drove the last Roman emperor from the throne.

The Huns Move West The main reason for the Germanic invasions of the Empirewas the movement into Europe of the Huns. The Huns were fierce Mongol nomadsfrom central Asia. They began invading the frontier regions of the Rhine and Danuberivers around A.D. 370, destroying all in their path. The pressure from the Hunsforced other groups to move as well—into the Roman Empire.

The following description from a fourth-century Roman historian shows howintensely the Huns were feared and scorned:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe nation of the Huns . . . surpasses all other barbarians in wildness of life. . . . Andthough [the Huns] do just bear the likeness of men (of a very ugly pattern), they are solittle advanced in civilization that they . . . feed upon the . . . half-raw flesh of any sortof animal. . . . When attacked, . . . they fill the air with varied and discordant cries . . .they fight in no regular order of battle, but by being extremely swift and sudden in theirmovements, they disperse . . . spread havoc over vast plains, and . . . pillage the camp oftheir enemy almost before he has become aware of their approach.AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, The Chronicle of Events (Rerum gestarum libri)

Germanic Invasions Germanic people near the Rhine River—Franks, Burgun-dians, and Vandals—fled the invading Huns and entered Roman lands. When theRhine River froze in the winter of 406, Vandal warriors and their families swarmedacross the ice. They kept moving through the Roman provinces of Gaul, Spain, andNorth Africa. The Western Empire was unable to field an army to stop them. FromCarthage, the Vandals raided some Mediterranean islands and Italy.

By the early fifth century, the city of Rome itself was vulnerable to attack. Morethan 600 years had passed since a foreign army, that of Hannibal, had threatened

Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 161

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Se a

Adriatic

Sea

DonR.

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perR.

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450

428

380–454

376

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Huns 375

451

406

443

409

440

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429–432

451–452

408–410

Huns underAttila 452

Alaric410

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Rome

Jerusalem

Constantinople

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A F R I C A A S I A

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Eastern Roman EmpireWestern Roman EmpireBurgundiansFranks, AlamanniHunsOstrogothsSaxons, Angles, JutesVandalsVisigoths

Invasions into the Roman Empire, A.D. 350–500

G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps 1. Movement What group of invaders came the greatest distance?2. Location What areas of the empire were not threatened by invasion?

BackgroundMost of the Germanicinvaders wereChristians.

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Rome. Then in 408 Visigoths, led by their king,Alaric (AL•ur•ihk), marched across the Alps towardRome. After putting the city under siege, hordes ofGermans stormed Rome in 410 and plundered it forthree days.

Attila the Hun Meanwhile, the Huns, who wereindirectly responsible for the Germanic assault onthe Empire, became a direct threat. In 444 theyunited for the first time under a powerful chieftainnamed Attila (AT•uhl•uh). With his 100,000 soldiers,Attila terrorized both halves of the empire. In theEast, his armies attacked and plundered 70 cities.(They failed, however, to scale the high walls ofConstantinople.)

The Huns then swept into the West. In A.D. 452,Attila’s forces advanced against Rome, but they wereweakened by famine and disease. As a result, Pope

Leo I was able to negotiate their withdrawal. Although the Huns were no longer athreat to the empire after Attila’s death in 453, the Germanic invasions continued. In455 Vandals, under Gaiseric, sacked Rome, leaving it in chaos. Famine struck, and itspopulation eventually dropped from about one million to 20,000.

Rome’s Last Emperor The Roman emperor in the West had become practicallypowerless. Germanic tribes now fought one another for possession of the Westernprovinces. Spain belonged to the Visigoths, North Africa to the Vandals. Gaul wasoverrun by competing tribes—Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths. Britannia wasinvaded by Angles and Saxons. Italy was falling victim to raids by the Ostrogoths.

The last Roman emperor was a 14-year-old boy named Romulus Augustulus. In476 he was deposed by a German general named Odoacer (oh•doh•AY•sur) and sentinto exile. After that, no emperor even pretended to rule Rome and its westernprovinces. Roman power in the western half of the Empire had disappeared.

The eastern half of the Empire, which came to be called the Byzantine Empire,not only survived but flourished. It preserved the great heritage of Greek and Romanculture for another 1,000 years. (See Chapter 11.) The Byzantine emperors ruledfrom Constantinople and saw themselves as heirs to the power of Augustus Caesar.The empire endured until 1453, when it fell to the Ottoman Turks.

Even though Rome’s political power in the West ended, its cultural influence,through its ideas, customs, and institutions, continued to be deeply embedded inWestern civilization.

This skull from theperiod, still retain-ing its hair, showsa kind of topknot inthe hair that someGermanic peoplesfashioned to iden-tify themselves.

D. Possible AnswerStudents may noteoverall weakness ofthe Western Empiremade its fall likely.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. Hypothesizing Doyou think that Romewould have beentaken by invaders ifthe Huns had notmoved into the west?

Vocabularysacked: looted orplundered a capturedcity or town

BackgroundVandals gave theirname to the word forthose who willfullydestroy property.

162 Chapter 6

2. TAKING NOTES

Identify the causes of each of theeffects listed in the chart below.

How did these problems open theempire to invading peoples?

3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

How do you think the splitting ofthe empire into two parts helped itsurvive for another 200 years?

THINK ABOUT• the differences between the

eastern and western halves ofthe empire

• the advantages of a smallerempire

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Empire Building Imagine youare a journalist in the RomanEmpire. Write an editorial in whichyou comment—favorably orunfavorably—on Constantine’sdecision to move the capital of theempire. Present the facts of themove, but focus the editorial onthe effects you think the move willhave on Rome and its citizens.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• inflation• mercenary• Diocletian• Constantinople• Alaric• Attila

Section Assessment4

Decline of the Roman Empire

Effects Causes

Inflation

Untrustworthy army

Decreased citizen in-terest in government

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The Fall of the Roman EmpireSince the fifth century, historians and others have argued over the empire’s fall. Theyhave attributed it to a variety of causes, coming both from within and outside theempire. The following excerpts are examples of the differing opinions.

H I S T O R I C A L C O M M E N T A R Y

Edward GibbonIn the 1780s Gibbon published

The History of the Decline andFall of the Roman Empire. Inthis passage, Gibbonexplains that a major causeof the collapse was that theempire was simply just too

large.

The decline of Romewas the natural and inevitable effectof immoderate greatness. Prosperityripened the principle of decay; thecauses of destruction multiplied withthe extent of conquest; and, as soon astime or accident had removed theartificial supports, the stupendousfabric yielded to the pressure of itsown weight. The story of its ruin issimple and obvious; and instead ofinquiring why the Roman Empire wasdestroyed, we should rather besurprised that it had subsisted so long.

H I S T O R I C A L C O M M E N T A R Y

Arther FerrillIn his book The Fall of the Roman Empire (1986),Arther Ferrill argues that the fall of Rome was amilitary collapse.

In fact the Roman Empire of theWest did fall. Not every aspect of thelife of Roman subjects was changed bythat, but the fall of Rome as a politicalentity was one of the major events ofthe history of Western man. It willsimply not do to call that fall a myth orto ignore its historical significancemerely by focusing on those aspects ofRoman life that survived the fall inone form or another. At the openingof the fifth century a massive army,perhaps more than 200,000 strong,stood at the service of the Westernemperor and his generals. Thedestruction of Roman military powerin the fifth century was the obviouscause of the collapse of Romangovernment in the West.

H I S T O R I C A L C O M M E N T A R Y

Finley HooperIn this passage from his Roman Realities (1967),Hooper argues against the idea of a “fall.”

The year was 476. For those whodemand to know the date Rome fell,that is it. Others will realize that thefall of Rome was not an event but aprocess. Or, to put it another way,there was no fall at all—ancientRoman civilization simply becamesomething else, which is calledmedieval. [It evolved into anothercivilization, the civilization of theMiddle Ages.]

Comparing Compare the rea-sons given in these excerpts forthe fall of Rome. Which seem themost valid to you? Why?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R7

Comparing In 1991, the Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics col-lapsed after nearly 70 years ofexistence. Research that fall anddiscuss one way in which theSoviet Union’s decline can becompared to the fall of Rome.

For more informationabout the fall of the

Roman Empire, see the World HistoryElectronic Library of Primary Sources.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

differentPERSPECTIVES

Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 163

E Y E W I T N E S S A C C O U N T

St. Jerome This early Church leader did not live to

see the empire’s end, but he vividlydescribes his feelings after a majorevent in Rome’s decline—theattack and plunder of the city byVisigoths in 410. He said:

“It is the end of the world …Words fail me. My sobs break in …The city which took captive thewhole world has itself beencaptured.”

CD-ROM

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SETTING THE STAGE Romans borrowed and adapted cultural elements freely, espe-cially from the Greek and Hellenistic cultures. Rome created a great civilization,whose art and architecture, language and literature, engineering, and law became itslegacy to the world.

The Legacy of Greco-Roman CivilizationUnder the Roman Empire, hundreds of territories were knitted into a single state.Each Roman province and city was governed in the same way. The Romans wereproud of their ability to rule, but they acknowledged Greek leadership in the fields ofart, architecture, literature, and philosophy.

By the second century b.c., Romans had conquered Greece and had come togreatly admire Greek culture. Educated Romans learned the Greek language. AsHorace, a Roman poet said, “Greece, once overcome, overcame her wild conqueror.”The mixing of elements of Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman culture produced a newculture, called Greco-Roman culture. This is also often called classical civilization.

Roman artists, philosophers, and writers did not merely copy their Greek andHellenistic models. They adapted them for their own purposes and created a style oftheir own. Roman art and literature came to convey the Roman ideals of strength,permanence, solidity.

Roman Fine Arts Romans learned the art of sculpture from the Greeks. However,while the Greeks were known for the beauty and idealization of their sculpture,Roman sculptors created realistic portraits in stone. Much Roman art was practical inpurpose, intended for public education.

The reign of Augustus was a period of great artistic achievement. At that time theRomans further developed a type of sculpture called bas-relief. In bas-relief, or low-relief, images project from a flat background. Roman sculptors used bas-relief to tellstories and to represent crowds of people, soldiers in battle, and landscapes. (SeeTrajan’s Column on page 169.)

Roman artists were particularly skilled in creating mosaics. Mosaics were picturesor designs made by setting small pieces of stone, glass, or tile onto a surface. MostRoman villas, the country houses of the wealthy, had at least one colored mosaic.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. SummarizingWhat were the originsof Greco-Romanculture?A. Answer an inter-mixing of Greek,Hellenistic, andRoman cultures

5TERMS & NAMES

• Greco-Romanculture

• Pompeii• Virgil• Tacitus• aqueduct

MAIN IDEA

The Romans developed many ideas andinstitutions that became fundamental toWestern civilization.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Evidence of Roman culture is foundthroughout Europe and North Americaand in Asia and Africa.

Rome and the Roots ofWestern Civilization

Gladiators andleopards fight to thedeath in this third-century mosaic.

164

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Romans also excelled at the art of painting. Most wealthy Romans hadbright, large murals, called frescoes, painted directly on their walls. Fewhave survived. The best examples of Roman painting are found in theRoman town of Pompeii, and date from as early as the second cen-tury B.C. In a.d. 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted, covering Pompeii in athick layer of ash and killing about 2,000. The ash acted to preservemany buildings and works of art.

Learning and Literature Romans borrowed much of their philoso-phy from the Greeks. Stoicism, the philosophy of the Greek teacherZeno, was especially influential. Stoicism encouraged virtue, duty, mod-eration, and endurance. One of the most noted Stoics was the emperorMarcus Aurelius. His steadfastness is shown in his Meditations: “In themidst of it all, you must take your stand, good-temperedly and with-out disdain.”

In literature, as in philosophy, the Romans found inspiration in theworks of the Greeks. Writers used Roman themes and ideas whilefollowing Greek forms and models.

The poet Virgil spent ten years writing the most famouswork of Latin literature, the Aeneid (ih•NEE•ihd), the epic ofthe legendary Aeneas. Virgil modeled the Aeneid, written inpraise of Rome and Roman virtues, after the Greek epics of Homer. Here he speaksof government as being Rome’s most important contribution to civilization:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T. . . Romans, never forget that government is your medium! Be this your art:—to practicemen in habit of peace, Generosity to the conquered, and firmness against aggressors. VIRGIL, Aeneid

While Virgil’s writing carries all the weight and seriousness of the Roman character,the poet Ovid wrote light, witty poetry for enjoyment. In the Amores, Ovid relatesthat he can only compose when he is in love: “When I was from Cupid’s passions free,my Muse was mute and wrote no elegy.”

The Romans also wrote excellent prose, especially history. Livy compiled a multi-volume history of Rome from its origins to 9 b.c. He used legends freely, creatingmore of a national myth of Rome than a true history. Tacitus (TAS•ih•tuhs), anotherRoman historian, is notable among ancient historians because he presented the factsaccurately. He also was concerned about the Romans’ lack of morality. In his Annalsand Histories, he wrote about the good and bad of imperial Rome.

Roman AchievementsThe presence of Rome is still felt daily in the languages, the institutions, and thethought of the Western world.

Latin, the Language of Rome Latin remained the language of learning in theWest long after the fall of Rome. It was the official language of the Roman CatholicChurch into the 20th century.

Latin was adopted by different peoples and developed into French, Spanish,Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian. These languages are called Romance languagesbecause of their common Roman heritage. Latin also influenced other languages. Forexample, more than half the words in English have a basis in Latin.

Architecture, Engineering, and Technology Visitors from all over the empiremarveled at the architecture of Rome. The arch, the dome, and concrete were com-bined to build spectacular structures, such as the Colosseum.

Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 165

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SupportingOpinions What isyour opinion of Virgil’sstatement that gov-ernment was Rome’smost important contri-bution to civilization?Support your opinion.B. Answer agree—representative form ofgovernment, guidedby officials elected bythe people, is basisfor most governmentstoday; disagree—might mention someother contribution,e.g. engineering orlaw

The Roman influencecan be seen in thisneoclassic 19th-century sculpture ofGeorge Washingtonin toga and tunic.

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The ColosseumThe Colosseum was one of the greatest feats of Roman engineering and a model

for the ages. The name comes from the Latin word colossus, meaning “gigantic.” Itsconstruction was started by the Emperor Vespasian and was completed by his sons,emperors Titus and Domitian. For centuries after its opening in A.D. 80, excitedspectators, both rich and poor, cheered a variety of free, bloody spectacles pre-sented for their entertainment. Gladiator fought gladiator to the death. Wild animalswere hunted and slaughtered. Christians were devoured by lions. The poor sat inthe higher seats, the rich and powerful closer to the action.

S C I E N C E T E C H N O L O G Y&

Drawing Conclusions What dothe kind of spectacles the Romanswatched tell us about them as apeople and their leaders?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R17

Comparing The Colosseum hasbeen the model for sports stadi-ums worldwide. How is the designof modern stadiums patternedafter that of the Colosseum? Whatare the similarities?

Connect to Today

Connect to History

Facts About the Colosseum

• Built—A.D. 72–81• Capacity—45,000–50,000• Materials—stone and concrete• Size—157 feet high, 620 feet long• Arena—287 feet long, 180 feet wide

166 Chapter 6

The Colosseum in Rome as it appears today.

exits—giant staircases that allowedthe building to be emptied in minutes

passageways—walkways thatled to seats

entrances—eighty in all

velarium—aretractablecanvas awningthat shieldedspectators fromsun and rain

arena—central areawhere spectaclestook place

Elevators andramps led fromthe cells andanimal cages inthe Colosseumbasement totrapdoors con-cealed in thearena floor.

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Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 167

Arches also supported bridges and aqueducts. Aque-ducts were designed by Roman engineers to bring waterinto cities and towns. When the water channel spanned ariver or ravine, the aqueduct was lifted high up on arches.

Because Roman architectural forms were so practical,they have remained popular. Thomas Jefferson began aRoman revival in the United States in the 18th century.Many large public buildings, such as the U.S. Capitol andnumerous state capitols, include Roman features.

Roman roads were also technological marvels. Thearmy built a vast network of roads constructed of stone,concrete, and sand that connected Rome to all parts ofthe empire. Many lasted into the Middle Ages; some arestill used.

Roman System of Law Rome’s most lasting and widespread con-tribution was its law. Early Roman law dealt mostly with the rightsof Roman citizens. As the empire grew, however, the Romans cameto believe that laws should be fair and apply equally to all people,rich and poor. Slowly, judges began to recognize certain standardsof justice. These standards were influenced largely by the teachings of Stoic philoso-phers and were based on common sense and practical ideas. Some of the most important principles of Roman law were:

• All persons had the right to equal treatment under the law.

• A person was considered innocent until proven guilty.

• The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused.

• A person should be punished only for actions, not thoughts.

• Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set aside.

The principles of Roman law endured to form the basis of legal systems in manyEuropean countries and of places influenced by Europe, including the United States.

Rome’s Enduring Influence By preserving and adding to Greek civilization, Romestrengthened the Western cultural tradition. The world would be a very differentplace had Rome not existed. Historian R. H. Barrow has stated that Rome never fellbecause it turned into something even greater—an idea—and achieved immortality.

Around the same time that Rome was developing its enduring culture, different butequally complex empires were growing in India and China, as you will see in Chapter 7.

C. Answer Lan-guage, law, and gov-ernment different;perhaps Greek andHellenistic culturelost.THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. HypothesizingHow would the worldbe different if Romehad not existed?

2. TAKING NOTES

Using a chart like the one below,list the accomplishments ofRoman culture.

Choose one and write a fewparagraphs on its importance.

3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Which principle of law do youthink has been Rome’s greatestcontribution to modern legalsystems?

THINK ABOUT• equality before the law• innocent until proven guilty • unfair laws could be set aside

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Power and Authority Whydo you think the Greek philosophyof Stoicism was so appealing toRomans?THINK ABOUT• Stoic philosophy• the Roman citizen-soldier• Roman law

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Greco-Roman culture• Pompeii• Virgil• Tacitus• aqueduct

Section Assessment5

This is a photo of aRoman aqueductin modern Spainthat has survived.The cross sectionshows how thewater moved with-in the aqueduct.

water

Fine Arts Literature Engineer-ing

Law

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6

1. republic

2. senate

3. Hannibal

4. Julius Caesar

5. Augustus

6. Jesus

7. Paul

8. Constantine

9. inflation

10. Virgil

Ancient Rome andEarly Christianity

Chapter Assessment

TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of each of the following to ancient Rome orto the rise of Christianity.

Visual Summary

Interact with History

On page 140, you considered thequalities that made a good leaderbefore knowing what the Romansthought about leadership. Now thatyou have read the chapter, reevalu-ate your decision. What qualitieswere needed for Roman leaders tobe effective? What qualities hin-dered their success? How wouldyou rate the overall leadership ofthe Roman Empire? Discuss youropinions with a small group.

Roman Republic

• 509 B.C. Republic created

• 451 B.C. Twelve Tables written

• 405–265 B.C. Italy conquered

• 264–146 B.C. Punic Wars fought

• 44 B.C. Julius Caesarassassinated

Roman Empire

• 27 B.C. Empire and Pax Romana begin with reign of Augustus

• A.D. 29 Jesus crucified

• A.D. 64 Christian persecution begins

• A.D. 79 Pompeii destroyed

• A.D. 180 Pax Romana ends

• A.D. 253 Germanic tribes enter frontier regions

• A.D. 285 Diocletian divides em-pire into East and West

• A.D. 313 Christianity given recognition

• A.D. 324 Constantine reunites empire

• A.D. 370 Huns invade frontier

• A.D. 380 Christianity made official religion

• A.D. 395 Empire permanently split

• A.D. 410 Visigoths attack Rome

• A.D. 455 Vandals sack Rome

• A.D. 476 Last emperor deposed

Early Rome

• 1000 B.C. Latins enter region

• 753 B.C. Rome founded

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1000 B.C.

900 B.C.

800 B.C.

700 B.C.

600 B.C.

500 B.C.

400 B.C.

300 B.C.

200 B.C.

100 B.C.

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A.D. 100

A.D. 200

A.D. 300

A.D. 400

A.D. 500

REVIEW QUESTIONS

SECTION 1 (pages 141–145)

The Romans Create a Republic11. Name the three main parts of government under the Roman republic.

12. How did Rome treat different sections of its conquered territory?

SECTION 2 (pages 146–152)

The Roman Empire Brings Change13. How did Augustus change Roman government?

14. How did Rome’s population fare during the golden age of the PaxRomana?

SECTION 3 (pages 153–157)

The Rise of Christianity15. How did the apostle Paul encourage the spread of Christianity?

16. Why did the Roman emperors persecute Christians?

SECTION 4 (pages 158–162)

The Decline of the Roman Empire17. What was the most important reform that the Emperor Diocletian

made?

18. How did the western Roman Empire fall?

SECTION 5 (pages 164–167)

Roman Culture and the Roots of Western Civilization19. Why did so much of Roman culture have a Greek flavor?

20. How might Western civilization be different today without the culturallegacy of the Roman Empire?

168 Chapter 6

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CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project

Your unit portfolio project focuses on tracingthe development and decline of power and authority (see page 107). ForChapter 6, you might use one of the following ideas.

• Draw two diagrams, side by side, to compare the balance of governmentachieved by the Roman Republic with the balance of power achieved bythe Constitution of the United States.

• As an adviser to Octavian, write a persuasive argument convincing him tobecome the sole ruler of Rome but not to abolish the Senate.

• With another student, role-play the meeting of Pope Leo and Attila in A.D. 452, in which the pope persuades the Hun to withdraw his forces.Record the meeting on videotape or audiotape or as a written dialogue.

2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning

The spread of the Roman Republic owed much tostrategic alliances made with territories distant from Rome. The UnitedStates, too, has used alliances to bolster its strength in the world. Work witha team to prepare and present a short television documentary about therelationship between the United States and one of its allies today.

Using the Internet or library resources, research information about thealliance. Devise a script that answers questions such as why the

United States made the alliance, what special historical circumstancessurrounded the alliance, and how the alliance has benefited both nations.

• Make comparisons with the Roman Republic. Do additional research on therepublic’s system of alliances if needed.

• Draw a conclusion about whether or not the United States used itsalliances for building a kind of “empire” or for other reasons.

3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE

Revisit the time line on pages 106–107. Did Christianity arise before, during,or after the Pax Romana? Explain your reasoning.

CRITICAL THINKING1. FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE

On a large sheet of paper, create a Venn diagram likethe one below. Use the diagram to compare theRoman Republic with the Roman Empire when bothwere at the peak of their power.

2. PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS

ManyChristians sacrificed their lives rather than give uptheir beliefs during the periods of Roman persecution.What kind of person do you think became a martyr?Consider the personal characteristics of individualswho refused to renounce their faith even in the faceof death.

3. DIOCLETIAN

What do you think of Diocletian’s decision to dividethe Roman Empire into two parts? Was it wise?Consider Diocletian’s possible motives and the resultsof his actions.

4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

The rule of Augustus began a long period of peaceand prosperity that spread from Rome into theprovinces. The following decree from the Romanprovince of Asia, which appeared in 9 B.C., suggestshow the governing class felt about their first emperor.

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TWhereas the divine providence that guidesour life has displayed its zeal and benevolenceby ordaining for our life the most perfectgood, bringing to us Augustus, whom it hasfilled with virtue for the benefit of mankind,employing him as a saviour for us and ourdescendants, him who has put an end to warsand adorned peace; . . . and the birthday ofthe god [Augustus] is the beginning of all thegood tidings brought by him to the world.

• How did the officials of this province feel towardAugustus? What descriptive words and phrasessupport your conclusion?

• Do you think Augustus deserved this evaluation?Why or why not?

FOCUS ON ART

Trajan’s Column in Rome is amonument that shows theEmperor Trajan’s victories againstDacia (modern Romania) on arelief spiral 650 feet long. Thisdetail depicts Roman soldiersdefeating the Dacians.

• What kinds of equipment dothe Roman soldiers have?

Connect to History Publicmonuments like Trajan’s Columnappeared all over the empire.

• Why do you think the Romanstold their history with imageson monuments rather thanwith words?

• What values are the Romanscelebrating on monuments likeTrajan’s Column?

THEME POWER AND AUTHORITY

THEME EMPIRE BUILDING

THEME RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS

republic only

both

empire only

CLASSZONE .COMTEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,

pp. S1–S33

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