The Encounter: Atahuallpa and Pizarro

Preparation Assignment: Read Jared Diamond’s account of the meeting between the Inca emperor, Atahauallpa, and the Spanish conquistador, Francisco Pizarro at the Peruvian town of Cajamarca in November of 1532.

1. While you are reading keep these introductory points in mind: a. Atahuallpa was the absolute monarch of the largest and most advanced state in the

Americas. b. Pizarro was a conquistador representing Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, monarch of

the most powerful state in Europe. c. Pizarro had 168 Spanish soldiers, unfamiliar with the terrain, ignorant of the local

inhabitants, and out of touch with the nearest Spaniards who were 1,000 miles away in Panama.

d. Atahuallpa was in the middle of his own empire of millions of subjects, surrounded by his army of 80,000 soldiers, recently victorious in a war with other Indians.

e. Nevertheless, Pizarro captured Atahuallpa within a few minutes after the two leaders first set eyes on each other.

f. Diamond believes the factors that resulted in Pizarro’s seizing of Atahuallpa were essentially the same ones that determined the outcome of many similar collisions between colonizers and native peoples elsewhere in the world.

2. As you read, highlight the major developments in the encounter and/or take notes on the reading.

Analysis reading:

1. Read the reprints by Diamond, Stearns and Fields. 2. Complete a dialectical journal on the three readings (remember in a dialectical journal, the

left side is a summary of a point you find interesting and the right side is for your personal response).

a. You need 6 entries from each of the 3 readings – this makes 18 total entries. Investigation and Analysis: Answer the following questions as you attempt to understand the chain of causation and the implication of this event.

1. When Pizarro and Atahuallpa met, why did Pizarro capture Atahuallpa and kill so many of his followers, instead of Atahuallpa capturing Pizarro and his men?

2. Why was Atahuallpa in Cajamarca? 3. How did Pizarro come to be ther to capture him, instead of Atahuallpa’s being in Spain to

capture the Spanish king? 4. Why did Atahuallpa walk into a trap? 5. Consult your summary sheet on Diamond’s thesis – does this incident support his position

that the reason Eurasians conquered others is the difference in the environments of the people? If so, what information supports this position?

6. What ultimate and proximate factors do you think played a role in the victory? 7. How does Field’s article help in determining the reason for the victory of the Spanish over

the Inca? 8. How can ethnocentrism in deliberating this question be dealt with?

adminTypewritten Text

CHAPTER 3

COLLISION AT CAJAMARCA

T:HE BIGGEST POPULATION SHIFT OF MODERN, TIMES HAS been the colonization of the New World by Europeans, and the resulting conquest, numerical reduction, or complete disappearance of most groups of Native Americans (American Indians). As I explained in Chapter 1, the New World was initially colonized around or before 11,000 B.C. by way of Alaska, the Bering Strait, and Siberia. Complex agricultural societies gradually arose in the Americas far to the south of that entry route, developing in complete isolation from the emerging complex societies of the Old World. After that initial colonization from Asia, the sole well-attested further contacts between the New World and Asia involved only hunter-gatherers living on opposite sides of the Bering Strait, plus an inferred transpacific voyage that introduced the sweet potato from South America to Polynesia.

As for contacts of New World peoples with Europe, the sole early ones involved the Norse who occupied Greenland in very small numbers Ill'tween A.D. 986 and about 1500. But those Norse visits had no discern,hk impact on Native American societies. Instead, for practical purposes rill' collision of advanced Old World and New World societies began .lhruptly in A.D. 1492, with Christopher Columbus's "discovery" of CaribIwan islands densely populated by Native Americans.

The most dramatic moment in subsequent European-Native American

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adminTypewritten TextFrom Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel.

relations was the first encounter between the Inca t'l11lwror Atahuallpa and the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro at the Peruvian highland town of Cajamarca on November 16, 1532. Atahuallpa was absolute monarch of the largest and most advanced state in the New World, while Pizarro represented the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (also known as King

Charles I of Spain), monarch of the most powerful state in Europe. Pizarro, leading a ragtag group of 168 Spanish soldiers, was in unfamiliar terrain, ignorant of the local inhabitants, completely out of touch with the nearest Spaniards (1,000 miles to the north in Panama) and far beyond the

reach of timely reinforcements. Atahuallpa was in the middle of his own empire of millions of subjects and immediately surrounded by his army of 80,000 soldiers, recently victorious in a war with other Indians. Nevertheless, Pizarro captured Atahuallpa within a few minutes after the two lead

ers first set eyes on each other. Pizarro proceeded to hold his prisoner for eight months, while extracting history's largest ransom in return for a promise to free him. After the ransom-enough gold to fill a room 22 feet

long by 17 feet wide to a height of over 8 feet-was delivered, Pizarro reneged on his promise and executed Atahuallpa.

Atahuallpa's capture was decisive for the European conquest of the Inca Empire. Although the Spaniards' superior weapons would have assured an

ultimate Spanish victory in any case, the capture made the conquest quicker and infinitely easier. Atahuallpa was revered by the Incas as a sungod and exercised absolute authority over his subjects, who obeyed even

the orders he issued from captivity. The months until his death gave Pizarro time to dispatch exploring parties unmolested to other parts of the Inca Empire, and to send for reinforcements from Panama. When fighting

between Spaniards and Incas finally did commence after Atahuallpa's execution, the Spanish forces were more formidable.

Thus, Atahuallpa's capture interests us specifically as marking the decisive moment in the greatest collision of modern history. But it is also of more general interest, because the factors that resulted in Pizarro's seizing Atahuallpa were essentially the same ones that determined the outcome of

l11allY similar collisions between colonizers and native peoples elsewhere 111 I hl' modern world. Hence Atahuallpa's capture offers us a broad windllw Ollto world history.

Willi I IINHII.IJIW THAT day at Cajamarca is well known, because it W,I~ II'~ md('d ill writing hy many of the Spanish participants. To get a

flavor of those events, let us relive them by weaving together excerpts from eyewitness accounts by six of Pizarro's companions, including his brothers

Hernando and Pedro: "The prudence, fortitude, military discipline, labors, perilous naviga

tions, and battles of the Spaniards-vassals of the most invincible Emperor of the Roman Catholic Empire, our natural King and Lord-will cause joy

to the faithful and terror to the infidels. For this reason, and for the glory of God our Lord and for the service of the Catholic Imperial Majesty, it

has seemed good to me to write this narrative, and to send it to Your Majesty, that all may have a knowledge of what is here related. It will be

to the glory of God, because they have conquered and brought to our holy Catholic Faith so vast a number of heathens, aided by His holy guidance. It will be to the honor of our Emperor because, by reason of his great power and good fortune, such events happened in his time. It will give joy

to the faithful that such battles have been won, such provinces discovered and conquered, such riches brought home for the King and for themselves; and that such terror has been spread among the infidels, such admiration

excited in all mankind. "For when, either in ancient or modern times, have such great exploits

been achieved by so few against so many, over so many climes, across so many seas, over such distances by land, to subdue the unseen and

unknown? Whose deeds can be compared with those of Spain? Our Spaniards, being few in number, never having more than 200 or 300 men together, and sometimes only 100 and even fewer, have, in our times, con

quered more territory than has ever been known before, or than all the faithful and infidel princes possess. I will only write, at present, of what befell in the conquest, and I will not write much, in order to avoid pro

lixity. "Governor Pizarro wished to obtain intelligence from some Indians

who had come from Cajamarca, so he had them tortured. They confessed that they had heard that Atahuallpa was waiting for the Governor at Cajamarca. The Governor then ordered us to advance. On reaching the

entrance to Cajamarca, we saw the camp of Atahuallpa at a distance of a league, in the skirts of the mountains. The Indians' camp looked like a very beautiful city. They had so many tents that we were all filled with great apprehension. Until then, we had never seen anything like this in the

Indies. It filled all our Spaniards with fear and confusion. But we could not show any fear or turn back, for if the Indians had sensed any weakness

in us, even the Indians that we were bringing with us as guides would have

7 0 GUNS, GERMS, AND STEEL

killed us. So we made a show of good spirits, and after carefully observing the town and the tents, we descended into the valley and entered Cajamarca.

"We talked a lot among ourselves about what to do. All of us were full of fear, because we were so few in number and we had penetrated so far into a land where we could not hope to receive reinforcements. We all met with the Governor to debate what we should undertake the next day. Few of us slept that night, and we kept watch in the square of Cajamarca, looking at the campfires of the Indian army. It was a frightening sight. Most of the campfires were on a hillside and so dose to each other that it looked like the sky brightly studded with stars. There was no distinction that night between the mighty and the lowly, or between foot soldiers and horsemen. Everyone carried out sentry duty fully armed. So too did the good old Governor, who went about encouraging his men. The Governor's brother Hernando Pizarro estimated the number of Indian soldiers there at 40,000, but he was telling a lie just to encourage us, for there were actually more than 80,000 Indians.

"On the next morning a messenger from Atahuallpa arrived, and the Governor said to him, 'Tell your lord to come when and how he pleases, and that, in what way soever he may come I will receive him as a friend and brother. I pray that he may come quickly, for I desire to see him. No harm or insult will befall him.'

"The Governor concealed his troops around the square at Cajamarca, dividing the cavalry into two portions of which he gave the command of one to his brother Hernando Pizarro and the command of the other to Hernando de Soto. In like manner he divided the infantry, he himself taking one part and giving the other to his brother Juan Pizarro. At the same time, he ordered Pedro de Candia with two or three infantrymen to go with trumpets to a small fort in the plaza and to station themselves there with a small piece of artillery. When all the Indians, and Atahuallpa with them, had entered the Plaza, the Governor would give a signal to Candia and his men, after which they should start firing the gun, and the trumpets should sound, and at the sound of the trumpets the cavalry should dash out of the large court where they were waiting hidden in readiness.

"At noon Atahuallpa began to draw up his men and to approach. Soon we saw the entire plain full of Indians, halting periodically to wait for more Indians who kept filing out of the camp behind them. They kept tilling out in separate detachments into the afternoon. The front detach

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COLLISION AT CAJAMARCA 7 I

ments were now close to our camp, and still more troops kept issuing from the camp of the Indians. In front of Atahuallpa went 2,000 Indians who swept the road ahead of him, and these were followed by the warriors, half of whom were marching in the fields on one side of him and half on

the other side. "First came a squadron of Indians dressed in clothes of different colors,

like a chessboard. They advanced, removing the straws from the ground and sweeping the road. Next came three squadrons in different dresses, dancing and singing. Then came a number of men with armor, large metal plates, and crowns of gold and silver. So great was the amount of furniture of gold and silver which they bore, that it was a marvel to observe how the sun glinted upon it. Among them came the figure of Atahuallpa in a very fine litter with the ends of its timbers covered in silver. Eighty lords carried him on their shoulders, all wearing a very rich blue livery. Atahuallpa himself was very richly dressed, with his crown on his head and a collar of large emeralds around his neck. He sat on a small stool with a rich saddle cushion resting on his litter. The litter was lined with parrot feathers of many colors and decorated with plates of gold and silver.

"Behind Atahuallpa came two other litters and two hammocks, in which were some high chiefs, then several squadrons of Indians with crowns of gold and silver. These Indian squadrons began to enter the plaza to the accompaniment of great songs, and thus entering they occupied every part of the plaza. In the meantime all of us Spaniards were waiting ready, hidden in a courtyard, full of fear. Many of us urinated without noticing it, out of sheer terror. Op reaching the center of the plaza, Atahuallpa remained in his litter on high, while his troops continued to file in

behind him. "Governor Pizarro now sent Friar Vicente de Valverde to go speak to

Atahuallpa, and to require Atahuallpa in the name of God and of the King of Spain that Atahuallpa subject himself to the law of our .Lord Jesus Christ and to the service of His Majesty the King of Spain. Advancing with a cross in one hand and the Bible in the other hand, and going among the Indian troops up to the place where Atahuallpa was, the Friar thus addressed him: 'I am a Priest of God, and I teach Christians the things of God, and in like manner I come to teach you. What I teach is that which God says to us in this Book. Therefore, on the part of God and of the Christians, I beseech you to be their friend, for such is God's will, and it

will be for your good.'

.. Atahuallpa a!,kl·d for till' Hook. ,ha' II

7 4 • GUNS, GERMS, AND STEEL

greater kingdoms than yours, and have defeated other more powerful lords than you, imposing upon them the dominion of the Emperor, whose vassal I am, and who is King of Spain and of the universal world. We come to conquer this land by his command, that all may come to a knowledge of God and of His Holy Catholic Faith; and by reason of our good mission, God, the Creator of heaven and earth and of all things in them, permits this, in order that you may know Him and come out from the bestial and diabolical life that you lead. It is for this reason rhat we, being so few in number, subjugate that vast host. When you have seen the errors in which you live, you will understand the good that we have done you by coming to your land by order of his Majesty the King of Spain. Our Lord permitted that your pride should be brought low and that no Indian should be able to offend a Christian.' "

C HAP T E R 22

Exploring Modernity

MODERNI1Y'S FIRST PHASE: THE EARLY MODERNERA,AROUND 1500-AROUND 1750

MODERNI1Y'S SECOND PHASE: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND WESTERNIZATION,AROUND 1750-1905

MODERNI1Y'S THIRD PHASE: UPHEAVAL AND REBUILDING,1905-PRESENT

SUMMARY

SUGGESTED READINGS

If human existence were an apple, then civilization would be no thicker than its skin and the modern era would be no thicker than the insecticide on it. Human beings evolved from distant ancestors who lived more than a million years ago, and change came slowly until the invention of agriculture. Sedentary people lived in villages, towns, and eventually cities that soon became centers of civilization with characteristics such as social-class distinctions and long-distance trade.

Change accelerated, producing kingdoms and empires, groups of peoples and territories ruled by a single power. Over the centuries, empires rose, dominated, and collapsed. while long periods of rule by local and regional leaders alternated with domination by larger kingdoms and empires. Science and technology brought forth many important inventions and discoveries, such as metallurgy, paper, and gunpowder. In addition, religions met certain needs, and some faiths spread far beyond the places where they originated.

In this volume, we will explore the forces of change that led to modernity and the peoples who brought increasing global contact and often conflict. Modernity has accumulated some unfortunate associations, and it too often is assumed that modern societies are somehow superior to premodern societies, a judgment we will avoid. In this textbook, we will discuss modernity in terms of its characteristics. Not all ofthese features need be in place, but at least most of them must be present in order for a society to be considered modern.

545

adminTypewritten TextFrom Fields, The Global Past

546 C HAP T E R 22 • EXPLORING MODERNITY

What is modernity? Let us examine its features:

- a cultural outlook that focuses on progress;

- a perspective that seeks to accelerate the systematic application of science and technology to improve economic production;

-a view that shifts from a predominantly religious to a predominantly secular understanding of the world and the universe;

-governments. often nation-states, that usually seek wider participation of a broader spectrum of people in all aspects of life, especially politics;

an increase in the determination of social status according to merit rather than birth, and the breaking of social barriers to the advancement of talented people; and

- the accelerating integration of regional economies into a global economic nenvork that is increasingly dominated by capitalism or socialism.

Modernity slowly emerged in the western part of Europe and in Japan and by the nineteenth century across much of the world.

Progress is a crucial component of modernity. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, intellectuals developed and espoused progressivism, the idea that things are getting better and better. Thus, change is for the good and the result of change is always superior to the beginning. Optimism flowed from this perspective and characterized the thinking of a wide array of the ruling elite in the nineteenth century.

Part of this positive outlook developed from the systematic application of science and technology to the improvement of production. Although science and technology previously had been used to improve production, the applications had been unsystematic. In the mid-eighteenth century, Enlightenment thinkers like Denis Diderot implemented their vision of prosperity by writing the Encyclopedie. This reference work, illustrated with many drawings, offered information about many manufacturing techniques. Successful Japanese farmers printed and sold agricultural manuals to help increase agricultural yields throughout Japan. By the nineteenth century, German chemists developed fertilizers to help farmers, especially in Germany. One result of the great success in apply

ing science to production was the belief that science can solve all problems.

Secularism, the practice of applying nonreligious ideas to the service of humanity, developed in the late eighteenth century and became an element of modernity. As scientists understood and explained a universe that ran according to natural laws, some people began to ignore religion as necessary to the society's functioning and well-being. A few Enlightenment thinkers espoused atheism, the belief in a godless universe, and some others gradually shrugged off spiritual concerns as irrelevant to progress. By the nineteenth century, scientists developed theories about nondivine origins of the earth and human beings. To some people, religion was outmoded and riddled with superstition. Science, they felt, had replaced religion in the modern era.

Wider participation in the nation-state became the characteristic policy in the modern age. Politicians realized that securing a broad participation of citizens in the governing process strengthened the modern state. Leaders of the American Revolution developed this concept when writing and implementing the U.S. Constitution. A significant development in that view came in the French Revolution, which created the modern military state. While other countries had elected representatives to national or local office, the franchise had been limited to the privileged and wealthy few. The French government purposely opened voting to nearly all men, and voting became a regular practice in modern France. Soon, other countries followed the French example, and people who participated in governing became enthusiastic citizens who supported their governments.

A related feature of the modern age was the opening of governmental service to people of talent. For a long time, state offices had been restricted to aristocrats and people of substantial means. Enlightenment thinkers sharply criticized this practice, arguing that many officials were incompetent. During the French Revolution, buying offices was abolished, and government service was opened to a broader spectrum of social groups. By the nineteenth century, civil service examinations were regularly used to select people for office holding. At the same time. evaluation of officials became commonplace so that ineffective

ExPLORING MODERNITY 547

people could be released, and effective officials could be retained or promoted. The development of universal education policies helped provide aspiring individuals with the means to take and pass civil service examinations.

Modernity brought forth increasingly integrated regional, national. and international economies. Transoceanic voyaging by Europeans expanded opportunities for trade and the prosperity that flowed from such commerce. They also benefited from the establishment of colonies as exploitative bases. Soon, Japanese and American silver circulated in China, India, and France. The

Atlantic slave trade also increased the traffic in human beings by the tens of millions in exchange for goods, like rum from the Caribbean region.

The Industrial Revolution significantly increased the number of manufactured goods and the need to develop markets for their sale. Textiles were the major goods produced in the early phase of the Industrial Revolution, and they circulated in England, on the European mainland, and in other parts of the world. The need for regular and inexpensive supplies of raw materials and markets for finished products drove imperialism, the intensive subjugation of lands and peoples by industrialized

548 C HAP r E R 22 • liXPLORING MODERNITY

powers. In the late nineteenth century, imperialist countries like Great Britain, the United States, and Japan had carved out their empires.

A by-product of this economic and political expansion was an increasingly integrated global market system. Gradually, regional economic blocks were joined in larger economic units as

imperialist nations needed to trade with other countries as well as with their own colonies. By World War 1's outbreak in 1914, the globe was loosely tied together in an integrated economic system. One manifestation of this was that economic problems in one country might ripple across its national borders, affecting other coun-

FIGURE 22.1 Thomas More's Utopia. Information about the places explored by Europeans stimulated thinkers to imagine places of ideal or farCical conditions. One model was developed by the English official Sir Thomas More early in the sixteenth century. The fictional Utopia, which means "no place," was discovered by Hythlodaeus, "the dispenser ofnonsense." Thus. satirical elements were evident in More's fanciful island, which was compared with England. Warder CollectionfET Archive.

tries. Global economic downturns became increasingly widespread in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Two groups are intimately associated with modernity: the middle class, the class of business and professional people, and the intellectuals, a group whose members live by the exchange of ideas. Most civilizations have these two groups, but in the modern age they have been viewed as leaders of change. Members of these two classes increasingly believed that all barriers to what they saw as advancement had to be eliminated, and they worked hard to accomplish that goal. They increasingly advocated universal education as a primary means of advancement.

MODERNITY'S FIRST PHASE:

THE EARLY MODERN ERA~

AROUND 1500-AROUND 1750

Transoceanic voyaging had a profound impact on Europeans. Knowledge and wealth, for example, greatly enriched many in Europe. Trade and the systematic exploitation of peoples and resources, especially in the Americas and Africa, yielded vast riches.

European ships reached the New World in the late fifteenth century, and they first sailed in the Indian Ocean in the same century. The Americas were progressively explored, and South, Southeast, and East Asia came within the sphere of European discovery. (Australia remained out of European reach until the seventeenth century.) The global age had arrived when the crew of Ferdinand Magellan's ship successfully circumnavigated the globe between 1519 and 1522. Parts of Africa were explored by Europeans, especially beginning in the fifteenth century.

The European printing press, developed in the fifteenth century, helped the new information about the non-European world reach a wider audience because books and pamphlets could now be made more quickly, more inexpensively, and more numerously. Early in the era, Protestant Reformation leaders like Martin Luther founded breakaway religious movements, successful in part because of the large number of tracts printed in support of their ideas.

MODERNITY'S FIRST PHASE: THE EARLY MODEIlN ERA 549

FIG U R E 22. 2 Readingat Home. This sixteenthcentury painting captures the sense ofseriousness and wonder associated with reading. Here a woman reads aloud to an old man. Although both European men and women could read, a far greater percentage ofmen were literate. In some Protestant territories, reading from the Bible was an expected daily occurrence that helped to spur literacy. Louvre R M. N.

Parallel developments occurred with the expansion of an intellectual class and the improvement of literacy in the cities and towns of Europe. Intellectuals using scientific methodology helped spread knowledge in areas such as astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. Through a rudimentary postal system that permitted limited correspondence, these thinkers kept abreast of recent discoveries. In the same era, popularization of various discoveries informed the wider reading public.

Measures of literacy are imprecise, but there seems to be a consensus among historians that growing numbers of urban dwellers in Europe could read during the Early Modern Era. Silent reading in the privacy of one's home became popular around the sixteenth century and led to

550 C HAP T E R 22 • ExPLORING MODERNITY

increased reflection about ideas. At the same time, the growth of private libraries mirrored the ease of attaining books, and it was not long before library rooms were being used as meeting places. By the mid-eighteenth century, intellectuals and members of other classes met to discuss all kinds of ideas, like the perspective that social status should be based on merit.

During the Early Modern period, Europeans played an active role in the accelerating integration of regional economies into a modern global economic network. The Portuguese established strategic bases around the Indian Ocean. The English and Dutch eventually followed the Portuguese, and they enjoyed a more stable financial backing in the form of the Dutch East Indies Company and the English East India Company. All of these efforts rapidly integrated regional Asian and African markets with markets in Europe.

Towns and cities benefited from the prosperity stemming from the growth of trade and the exploitation of resources in colonies. Merchants in Antwerp, Lisbon, and London often prospered, as did the artisans who produced the necessary goods to trade abroad. Much early modern economic growth and prosperity rested on technological developments from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries.

A combination of inventions and improvements to existing manufacturing techniques accelerated change, especially in Italy during the Early Modern period. Wind power was harnessed by windmills, bringing a significant source of power to manufacturers. New types of spinning wheels and looms appeared and facilitated the production of textiles.

J

'.' the tendency to dismiss any people who did not ( ~

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--

Guns, Ge~ms, and Steel by Jared Diamond

Some comments from Diamond's book:

1. The basic research question approached by Diamond is why do the people of Eurasian origins, especially those living in Europe and those transplanted to North America, dominate the modem world in wealth and power. Why do others remain far behind in wealth and PQwer. He focuses on trying to explain why wealth and power become distributed as they did. Why did Eurasians conquer, displace, or decimate Native Americans. Australians. and Africans instead of the reverse?

2. answer--" the striking difference between the long-term histories ofpeoples ofthe different continents have been due not to innate differences in the peoples themselves but to differences in their environments."

3. four sets ofdifferences are the most important: (ultimate factors) a. differences in the plant and animal species available as starting materials for

domestication--surplus food leads to advanced civilizations

b. diffUsion and migration within a continent

Most societies acquire much more of their technology and political institutions fft''''' other societies than they invent themselves. Societies on the same continent share each others'developments

c. diffusion and migration between continents-most rapid in Eurasia because of its east-west major axis and its relatively modest ecological and geographical barriers-ex. movement ofcrops, livestock and technological innovations

• d. differences in area or total population-·"a larger area or population means more

potential inventors, more competing societies, more innovations available to

adopt-and more pressure to adopt and retain innovations.. because societies

failing to do so will tend to be eliminated by competing societies."

• "all human societies contain inventive people. It's just that some

environments provide more starting materials~ and more favorable conditions for utilizing inventions, than do other environments."

4. Why within the Eurasian society were Europeans societies the ones that colonized America and Australia, took the lead in technology and became politically and economically dominant in the modem world? a. the proximate factors (those closely related in space, time and order): development ofa merchant class, capitalism, and patent protection for inventions, its failure to develop absolute despots and crushing taxation, its Greco-Iudeo-Christian traditions ofcritical empirical inquiry b. other possibilities: political fragmentation, cultural or religious idiosyncrasies,

idiosyncratic individual people

The Encounter Atahuallpa and PizarroThe Encounter Atahuallpa and Pizarro Documents