A HISTORY OF THE NAYARS OF SOUTH TRAVANCORE

A Thesis submitted to the Manonmaniam Sundaranar University

for the award of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY

M. JANARTHANAN

(Reg. No. 219)

Lecturer in History

Raja Duraisingam Government Arts College

Sivagangai - 630 561

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University

Tirunelveli - 627 012

June 2008

Dr. P. RAJENDRAN, M.A., Ph.D.,

(Professor of History (Retd.)),

220, Vaithianathapuram,

Kottar Post,

Nagercoil 2.

Certificate by the supervisor

This is to certify that the thesis A HISTORY OF THE

NAYARS OF SOUTH TRAVANCORE submitted for the award of

Ph.D., degree by M. JANARTHANAN, Lecturer in History, Raja

Duraisingam Government Arts College, Sivagangai is a record of

Research work done by him and the thesis has not previously formed

the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or

any other similar title and that it represents an independent work on the

part of the candidate.

Place : Nagercoil

Date : (Dr. P. RAJENDRAN)

Dr. A. DEVANESAN, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D.,

Reader and Head,

Nesamoni Memorial Christian College,

Marthandam 629 165.

Certificate by the co-guide

This is to certify that the thesis A HISTORY OF THE

NAYARS OF SOUTH TRAVANCORE submitted for the award of

Ph.D., degree by M. JANARTHANAN, Lecturer in History, Raja

Duraisingam Government Arts College, Sivagangai is a record of

Research work done by him and the thesis has not previously formed

the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or

any other similar title and that it represents an independent work on the

part of the candidate.

Place : Marthandam

Date : (Dr. A. DEVANESAN)

M. JANARTHANAN, M.A., M.Ed., M.Phil.,

Lecturer in History,

Raja Duraisingam Government Arts College,

Sivagangai 630 561.

STATEMENT BY THE CANDIDATE

I hereby state that the thesis for the Ph.D., Degree

A HISTORY OF THE NAYARS OF SOUTH TRAVANCORE

is my original work and that it has not previously formed the basis for

the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship of any other

similar title.

Place : Sivagangai

Date : (M. JANARTHANAN)

Preface

The thesis entitled A HISTORY OF THE NAYARS OF

SOUTH TRAVANCORE aims at bringing out the role of Nayars in

various aspects of life in South Travancore. The Nayars as a community

developed a composite culture which had been enriched through the

ages. Their history is the story of synthesis, assimilation and fusion of

traditions of Dravidianism and practices of Brahmanical social systems. In

South Travancore, the Nayars moulded a cultural synthesis and helped the

other Savarna Communities to follow their family organization and social

customs and manners. Being a predominant community, the Nayars

enjoyed pre-eminent political status, social identity and economic

prosperity. But the social transformation that emerged out of the political

development in the princely State of Travancore threatened their political

position. The agrarian reforms, western contacts and depressed class

movements established novel phase in the social history of Travancore that

eventually affected the social position of the Nayars of South Travancore.

Historians and scholars who dealt the History of the Nayars

both on macro and micro levels, paid no attention of their role in South

Travancore. This work made an attempt to trace a comprehensive study of

the Nayars of South Travancore and their contribution towards the cultural

fusion and transmission of our Tamil culture. This study is based on

original sources collected from State Central Archieves at Nalanda, Fort

Archieves at East Fort, Trivandrum, Tamilnadu Archieves, Madras,

Regional Archieves, Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli. Further a field study

has been undertaken to make the study more uptodate.

First of all I thank God Almighty who having given me the

strength in all ways to complete the research work a successful one.

I am very much indebted to my Supervisor and Guide

Dr. P. Rajendran M.A., Ph.D., Former Professor & Head of History

Department, S.T. Hindu College, Nagercoil for his invaluable guidance,

inspiration and encouragement.

I am very much beholden to my Co-Guide Dr. A. Devanesan

M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Professor and Head, Department of History,

Nesamoni Memorial Christian College, Marthandam, for his guidance

throughout.

I extend my gratitude to my wife M. Neelambika M.Sc.,

M.Ed., M.Phil., P.G. Asst., GHSS, Tenkasi and my children Mani Ram

and Dilak for having supported and encouraged me during my

research study.

I convey my thanks to Thiru. C.S. Rajendran M.A.

(History), M.A. (Philosophy), Secretary of Kamaraj College, Thoothukudi

who kindled me to undertake the research work.

I also wish to record my sincere thanks to Prof. N. Govindan,

M.A., B.L., M.Phil., Head, Department of History, R.D. Government Arts

College, Sivagangai, and my Former H.O.D. Prof. C. Paul Suyambu,

M.A., M.Phil., now H.O.D. of History, Government College,

Poolankurichi.

My sincere thanks to Mr. C. Gopalakrishnan M.Sc., M.B.A.,

S.D.E. (BSNL), Nagercoil and Mr. John Jerome Melode, P.G. Asst.,

G.H.S.S., Eraniel and his family for rendering Valuable helps to me.

My special thanks to Mr. Sundar Rajan, Librarian, Madras

Archieves and Mr. Moses, Librarian, University Library, Trivandrum for

rendering all sorts of help and provided all the relevant materials needed

for my research work.

I would like to express my thanks to the Staff, Kerala State

Central Archieves at Nalanda, Fort Archieves, East Fort, University

Library, Palayam, Thiruvananthapuram, Tamilnadu Archieves, Madras,

Library of S.T. Hindu College, Nagercoil, Library of Sivanthi Aditanar

College, Pillayarpuram for having given me access for consulting

relevant source materials pertaining to my topic.

Last but not the least, I express my sincere thanks to

Ln. A. Sukumaran, Proprietor, Kannan Computech, Nagercoil for the

neat execution of the work.

(M. JANARTHANAN)

CONTENTS

Page No.

Preface

Introduction 1 - 14

I. Origin of Nayar Society 15 - 42

II. Unique Customs and Traditions of

Nayar Community 43 - 73

III. Nayar Marriage System 74 - 94

IV. Meteoric Up and Down of Nayars 95 - 129

V. Social Challenges and Nayar Responses 130 - 161

VI. N.S.S. Movements in South Travancore 162 - 184

VII. Social Movements among the Oppressed in

South Travancore and Nayar Antipathy 185 - 201

VIII. Cultural Reciprocity A Retrospect 202 - 216

Conclusion 217 - 223

Appendixes 1 - 12

Glossary 13 - 22

Bibliography 23 - 36

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Kerala is said to be Gods own country which is located on the

Western side of the Southern region of India. Though this stretch of land

is not as big as other states represented in India, the cultural synthesis and

the political developments have had a great impact on the early

settlements. The early history of Kerala is very complicated and there are

many problems remaining to be resolved by historians. The region was

united approximately between A.D. 216 and 825, when the Malayalam era

was said to have begun. By the beginning of the ninth century A.D. the

area was divided into a number of small kingdoms, each ruled by a Nayar

or Kshatriya (higher matrilineal subcastes related to Nayars) royal family.

Those families were relatively autonomous, owing little allegiance to any

overlord. Between the thirteenth century and 1498 (when the Portuguese

arrived in Kerala) two Nayar chieftains, Kolattiri in the north and

Travancore in the south, expanded into small kingdoms.1

In the central part of the coast the Zamorin of Calicut was in

the process of establishing ascendancy over many of the petty rulers and

was slowly expanding his territory through an alliance with the local

Muslims and Arab traders.2 Although the Portuguese and later the Dutch

___________________________________________________________

1. Balakrishnan Nayar, U., The Sterner Aspects of Nayar Life, Calcutta Review, Vol. IV, 1897, p. 22.

2. Balakrishnan Nayar, U., The Origin of the Malabar Nayars, Calcutta Review, Vol. CVII, 1898, p. 72.

2

and the British built up the rule at Cochin (another central Kerala coastal

kingdom), the Zamorin's kingdom remained powerful until the invasions of

the Mysoreans in the eighteenth century. After defeating the Mysoreans in

1792, the British amalgamated the seven northern kingdoms (including

the reduced domain of the Zamorin) to form the Malabar District of the

Madras Presidency.

The kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore remained

independent, though each had a British resident and many British

businesses. When India became independent in 1947, Malabar District

became part of Madras Province and Travancore-Cochin became a

separate state and in 1956 the state of Kerala was formed, uniting the

Malabar District.3

Hindu Caste in the Southern Indian State of Kerala

Nayars are an integral part of Kerala's culture and have a long

and illustrious history. Nayars are a warrior class (a martial

nobility). They are similar to the Samurai of Japan. The word Nayar is

either derived from the Sanskrit word Nayaka (leader) or Naga (snakes,

which the Nayars worshipped). The Nayar class name also encompasses

____________________________________________________________

3. Fuller, Christopher, J., The Nayars Today, New York: Cambridge University

Press, 1976, p. 220.

3

Menon, Panicker, Kurup, Pillai, Unni, Unnithan, Kartha, Thampan,

Kaimal, Nayanar, Thampi, and Nambiar.

Nayars are not a caste, but a race with its numerous sub-castes

and surnames. Nayars can be found in all walks of life. They are aware of

their cultural traditions and history and form an integral and active part

of Kerala society. Nayars are the Savarna Hindus who constituted the

warriors, landed gentry and yeoman of Kerala.4

Nayars are the largest and most important section of the

society of Kerala, comprising bureaucrats, writers, artists, administrators

and diplomats. They are the only matrilineal community in the country.

They were the lords of the country and guardian of public weal and

traditionally a martial people. The Nayars made history in Kerala. Today

they are more distinguished as the Nayar community of Kerala, at the

peninsular tip of India, inheriting a rich cultural repertoire. Kerala, the

legendary state of history, was sought after by sea farers like Vasco Da

Gama. Members of the Nayar community are now spread over the country

and the entire world. Anthropologically looked at, the Nayars have many

unique attributes celebrated by different authors.5

___________________________________________________________

4. Jeffrey, Robin, The Decline of Nayar Dominance, Society and Politics in

Travancore (1847-1908), New Delhi, 1976, p. 28.

5. Logan William, Manual of Malabar, Government Press, Madras, Reprint 1906,

p. 22.

4

With the changing times, economically also there are

challenges which need to be addressed. It is essential that the community,

with the younger generations should have an objective sense of its own

making. Originally having a martial nobility the Nayar culture also shows

a great degree of symbiosis with nature. With an undying continuity the

Nayars have withstood all onslaughts in history.

However, facing modernization and cultural homogenization

the inherent strength of the people are fast getting eroded and the

community members often lack a proper understanding of the unique

attributes as there are no concrete efforts to do that. More over the

enormous resources and talented people consolidating these strengths

have been lacking. It is also necessary to make use of frontier areas of

management to tackle the problems. A community which has courageously

met challenges before has no reason not to do that now.6

But it is important that the community members in whatever

position they are and wherever they are realize the present reality and

strive for its continued excellence. This is a totally independent

initiative by a team of professionals with the support of eminent persons

____________________________________________________________

6. Gough, E. Kathleen, and Schneider, David M. (1961). Matrilineal Kinship,

University of California Press, Berkeley, 1961, p. 72.

5

of the community. It attempts to complement the existing activities by

various organizations and has no political or other bias or partisan

interests whatsoever.

Each village of ancient Kerala was self-sufficient. They had

the strong foundation of the peoples' rule. All matters pertaining to a

village were discussed in the 'yogam' or grama sabha. Nayars were the

leaders of such yogams. The lowest unit of the organization was known

as Karayogam or Tharakoottam.7 This was under the control of the

landlords known as Deshavazhis. The Karayogam in a district was

under the control of Nattukoottam. Nattukoottam has the power even to

disobey the orders of the King. Ettuveettil Pillamar constituted a

Nattukoottam in old Venad (Travancore).8 By the end of 18

th century,

Marthandavarma defeated the Ettuveetil Pillamar with the help of the

Dutch and became the supreme ruler of Venad. With the advent of the

British, the Nattukoottam gradually disappeared and the Nayar supremacy

was also wounded.

Onnu kure Ayiram Yogam (one minus one thousand

organisation) was such a grama sabha existed at Kodungallur, which was

the capital city of the old rulers of Kerala. This was a strong organisation

____________________________________________________________

7. Velu Pillai, T.K., Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Trivandrum, 1940, p. 857.

8. Ibid., p. 859.

6

of Nayars, which stood for the welfare of the society. Various sub classes

of Nayar community from 'Kiriyam' to 'Vattakkadan' had representation in

the yogam. The yogam met on the first day of the month in front of

Kodungallur Bhagavathy temple; discussed all aspects related to the

people residing within their jurisdiction and took appropriate decisions.

In fact, the members of the yogam were the rulers of the locality as well as

the Bhagavathy temple of Kodungallur.

The Nayars had no organization of their own upto the first

half of the 19th

century. The lovers of the Nayar Community who were

conscious of the renaissance of their society formed the first organisation

in 1877 known as Malayalee Social Union at Thiruvananthapuram.9 This

organisation was active till 1881. It was converted as Malayalee Sabha

in 1884. Gradually the Malayalee Sabha became the nerve centre of

political thoughts in Travancore. Karaleeya Nayar Samajam was a

unified organisation of the early Nayar Samajams scattered over various

regions of Travancore. The Nayar Regulation Bill of 1911 was enacted

only because of its efforts.10

On 31st October 1914 witnessed the birth of a great event in

the History of Kerala, the birth of Nayar Bhrithyajana Sangam that was

____________________________________________________________

9. Mannathu Padmanabhan, Reminiscences of MY LIFE (Malayalam) (Translated

into English by Prof. P.C. Mohan) Nayar Service Society, Changanacherry, 1998,

p. 51.

10. The N.S.S. Charitha Grantham, Changanacherry, 1972, p. 155.

7

transformed as Nayar Service Society after one year. It had its origin at

Mannathu Bhavanam (House of Mannathu Padmanabhan) of Perunna,

Changanassery. The holy light lit from the Mannathu Bhavanam spread its

shining light throughout Kerala. It became the spirit, energy and leading

force of majority of people.11

The social renaissance movement of Kerala

had its birth from this holy light. It eradicated the dirt and darkness from

the minds of the people and society. It became the guiding force of the

social renaissance movement.12

Significance of the Study

Study of this kind deserves special attention since Nayar

community is the integral part of the population of Kerala. The study is a

historical and community oriented one which is focussed on the different

dimensions of community associated with a traditional society, different

culture and leadership activities of this specific community in our country.

It is significant to study this specific Nayar community and

the services rendered in India and the cultural values and religious

practices related to this community. This study is significant to know the

details of their marriage system, culture and language and it is very

____________________________________________________________

11. Ibid., p. 156.

12. Mannathu Padmanabhan, op.cit., p. 72.

8

essential to know their socio-economic status as well as the leadership

qualities of this specific community. It is essential to study the different

divisions of this community and to know about their behaviour, personality

and adjustment among the community.

This study critically examines the contemporary reality of

Nayar communities who had been historically favoured in formal

education, for a society that had lived for a millennium by a value system

based on division and hierarchy, classically manifested in the system of

caste-feudal patriarchy. The post- independent Constitutional commitment

to social equality and social justice marked a watershed in its historical

evolution. A synthesis of two ideologically divergent principles i.e. the

principle of merit and the principle of compensation constituted the

modern Indian political discourse on equality and was operationalised in

the establishment of democratic socialism and the welfare state. Along

with guaranteeing equality of citizenship, the state assumed primary

responsibility compensating for histories of discrimination in their lives in

Kerala state. This study is significant to know the social status and the

educational status of Nayar community, and their services to the other

community people in the Kerala state.

Review of Related Literature

The origin of Malabar Nairs written by V. Balakrishnan

Nayar expose the various theories regarding the origin of the Nayars. The

9

study of Robin Jeffery The Decline of Nayar Dominance exhibits the

status and the decline of Nayars in the field of politics of Kerala.

Changing cultures, Nayars today by C.J. Fuller deals with the Nayars

cultural change regarding their habits, customs and conventions mostly in

social aspects. The work of Krishna Variar Marumakkathayam and the

Reports of the Marumakkathayam Committee of 1908 highlights the

most peculiar customs of Nayars, the marumakkathayam, a system of

inheritance is decided in the female line.

Nayar polyandry written by A. Aiyappan depicts only the

family life of the Nayars. U. Balakrishnan Nairs The Sterner Aspects of

Nair life cover the family system and some of their customs. Gopinatha

Pillais Socio Economic Changes in the Nayar Community in Travancore

from 1900-1947 describes their changing economic status years together

during the first half of the 20th

century.

U. Balakrishnan Nayars, work Nair as warrior expose their

role in the Travancore military History, and expecialy their services to the

Government of Travancore under the banner of Nayar Brigade.

Mannathu Padmanabhan and the Revival of Nairs in Kerala written by

V. Balakrishnan and R. Leela Devi, the published works like NSS

Charitha Grandham, The NSS Charitham, The NSS Diary 1 Kanni and the

NSS Golden Book give details only about the formation and functions of

Nayar Service Society, and steps were taken to uplift the Nayar

10

Community in the Social History of Travancore, further the key role

played by Mannathu Padmanabhan for the rise and growth of Nayar

Service Society in Travancore.

But no attempt is so far made to trace a comprehensive

account of Nayars. So that this work is taken to unearthen details of

Nayars in all levels, and further concentrate the research area in particular

the Nayars of South Travancore, a part of the erstwhile Travancore State

i.e. modern Kanyakumari District of Tamilnadu since 1st November 1956,

the Re-organisation of States.

A number of socio-religious reform movements, which were

also the earliest democratic mass movements in Kerala, took shape from

the late 1800. The Nayars also felt the need for reform in response to such

changes. Throughout the medieval period and until well into the 19th

century,the Nayars had a pre-eminent role in Kerala. By the middle of the

19th century, however, this dominance started waning. Institutions like the

sambandham and the matrilineal joint family system which had ensured

the strength of the Nayar community earlier, now became productive of

many evils in the changing socio-political background of Kerala. The

impact of the market economy, the disappearance of traditional military

training, the absorption of new values through the new system of

education, the self-consciousness being generated among the lower castes

and their cry for equality and privileges - all these factors brought about

11

a decline of Nayar dominance. The sense of decline gave an impetus to

the spirit of reform that expressed itself in the work of religious men like

Chattambi Swamikal, in literature, on the press and platform and later in

legislative enactments in respect of marriage, inheritance, property rights,

etc. Ultimately, the movements crystallized in the foundation of the Nayar

Service Society, in 1914.13

The Society owns and manages a large number of educational

institutions and hospitals. These include the NSS College of Engineering at

Palakkad, NSS Hindu College at Changanassery, NSS College at

Pandalam, Mahatma Gandhi College at Thiruvananthapuram, Pazhassi

Raja NSS College at Mattanur, Kannur and the Women's College at

Niramankara, Thiruvananthapuram.The N.S.S runs more than hundred

schools, 15 Arts and Science colleges, 3 Training colleges, 1 Engineering

college, 1 Homoeo Medical College, several Nursing Colleges,

Polytechnic Colleges, T.T.C Schools, Working Women Hostels and

Technical institutions. Taking the lead given by Mannathu Padmanabhan,

expatriate Nayars both in Kerala and other states of India as well as in

countries other than India have formed Nayar Service Societies in their

states and countries of domicile. Examples are Karnataka Nayar Service

Society with 21 karayogams in Bangalore, and the Calcutta Nayar Service

____________________________________________________________

13. NSS Charitha Grandham, op.cit., p. 20.

12

Society in Kolkata. These Societies of Non - Kerala origin retain the

cultural uniqueness of the Nayars at the same time adapting many practices

to the times and country of their adoption. Efforts are on to bring together

all Nayar groups of the world under an umbrella "International Federation

of Nayar Societies".

Objectives of the Study

The study has been conducted with the following main

objectives:

1. To identify the origin of the Nayar community.

2. To identify and analyse the various sub divisions of the Nayar

community.

3. Assessment of the customs and traditions of Nayar community.

4. To identify and analyse the marriage system of Nayar community

by tracing the primary data which is available in different temples

situated in Kerala.

5. To investigate the historical development of military forces,

nobility among the Nayar community and their up and down.

6. Assessment of social organization and challenges and responses.

7. To investigate the establishment of NSS among the Nayar

community and its role and functions in South Travancore.

8. To assess the cultural background of Nayar community and

transmission of culture towards Tamils and vice versa.

13

Limitations

The greatest limitations of the present work is the inability to

go into the Temples and to collect the related aspects of all characteristics

of Nayar community directly. The investigator only depend on the

primary and secondary sources of data available in the records of Kerala

Government and the data from the temples.

Chapterisation

The thesis consists of eight chapters besides an introduction

and conclusion which are outlined below. The study opens with an

introduction, significance of the study, review of earlier works, objectives

of the study and limitations of the study.

The first chapter gives a coverage of Nayar origin and their

sub divisions.

The second chapter explains the unique customs and

Traditions of Nayar Community prevailed among them.

The third chapter analyses various types of marriages among

the Nayars.

The fourth chapter deals with the meteoric up and down of

Nayar community, especially their role in the military of Travancore.

The fifth chapter examines the social challenges met by the

Nayars and their responses.

14

The sixth chapter describes the formation, growth and

functions of Nayar Service Society.

The seventh chapter dealt with the social movements among

the oppressed classes against caste Hindus for equality and Nayar

antipathy to it in South Travancore.

The eighth chapter analyses the cultural reciprocity between

Nayars and Tamils in South Travancore throughout the ages.

The conclusion brings out the sum up and findings.

Chapter - I

Origin of Nayar Society

CHAPTER - I

ORIGIN OF NAYAR SOCIETY

Kerala, ideally called as "God's own country" is a land of

beauty, customs and traditions. This beautiful land has got many places of

tourist importance. Foreigners as well as tourists from other Indian states

flock the state of Kerala during festivals and vacations. The famous

Thrissur Pooram and the Annual boat races like Nehru Trophy Boat Race

attract a lot of tourist to this small state.

Most of the tourists who visit Kerala will like to have a stay in

the Kerala house boats and an enchanting voyage through the serene

backwaters. So the Backwater Tourism is prominent in areas like

Alappuzha, Kumarakom, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram and Kozhikkode1.

Kerala festivals like Onam and Vishu have a great attraction.

The traditions and customs followed during these festivals attract a lot of

foreign tourists. They can enjoy and become part of these celebrations by

residing in the Home Stay Resorts where the visitors and the home owners

stay together and the guests are served with the home food and homely

comforts.

The artforms of Kerala like Kathakali, Koothu, Koodiyattam,

Mohiniyattom and Ottan Thullal are also liked by the visitors. Many

___________________________________________________________

1. Logan William, The Malabar Manual, Vol. I, Madras , 1906, p.187.

16

foreigners stay in Kerala to learn the artforms like Kathakali and

Ottan Thullal.

The Nayar Heritage

K. M. Panikkar justly remarks: "The Nayars [Nayars] were

not a caste, they were a race." Few historians will reject this contention

because many customs and traditions distinguished the Nayars from the

other Keralites. They had their own marital customs (Sambandham), their

own form of inheritance (Marumakkathayam). their own art of warfare,

their own war goddess (Bhadrakali), their own cult of ancestor worship,

and their own art form, the Kathakali. (dance drama). In swordsmanship

and suicidal squads (Chavers), they are similar to the Samurai of Japan and

as the warrior class they used to look down upon manual work and entrust

their lands to tenants to till and plant. Though Nayars were once

technically classified by the Brahmins under the name of the pure Sudras

of Malayala, they were always an honored caste.2 Some think Nayar is the

honorific plural of nayan which is derived from the Sanskrit nayaka

(leader). Others derive Nayar from the naga (snakes) which they

worship.3 The Brahmin-inspired Keralolpathi regards them as the

____________________________________________________________

2. Velu Pillai, T.K., Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, 1940, p. 258.

3. Sobhanan, B., A Decade of Crisis in Travancore, Journal of Kerala Studies,

Vol. VI, March-June, Part I and II, 1979, p. 23.

17

descendants of the Sudras who accompanied the Brahmin

immigrants from outside Kerala.

Obviously, like all Keralite tribes, the Nayars came from

outside. There is a great deal of truth in the theory that they came from the

Nepal Valley, adjacent to Tibet. Some consider them to be early

descendants of the Newars of Nepal. The Kathakali, is a Nayar art-form is

closely related to Tibetan dances.4 Nayar polyandry is very similar to

Tibetan marriage customs and in the mode of inheritance the Newars are

like the Nayars. Like the Newars, the Nayars are distinguished by their

lighter color, Mongolian features, and smooth hair. The most remarkable

thing about the Nayars is their style of pagoda-like temple architecture and

house construction which are almost identical with the Newar style of

temples and houses found all along the Kulu and Nepal Valleys. Serpent

worship is another common custom between the Newars and Nayars.5

As mentioned earlier, the settlers of Kerala came from the

northwestern parts of India and the Nepal Valley. Groups of Newars who

were partially Aryanized and later Dravidianized joined the Munda exodus

and finally settled down in Kerala after a long period of sojourn in the

eastern plains of Tamil Nadu. It is the Newar-Nayar builders who had

____________________________________________________________

4. Faw Cett, F., Nayars of Malabar, New Delhi, 1985, p. 285.

5. Srinivasadas, M.N., Social Change in modern India, Madras, 1966, p. 28.

18

given Kerala both the pagoda-type architectural style of the Hindu

temples and the angular roof and dormer of Kerala houses.6

One fact appears to be certain that the Nayars were in Kerala

before the Brahmins arrived in the seventh century A.D.7 The Chera kings

were Nayars, and the Nayars were also Dravidians and not Kshatriya

Aryans and the Brahmins, in fact, considered them as Sudras.8 However,

the younger sons of Brahmin families could form morganatic relationships

(Sambandham) with Nayar women, the children remaining Nayars and

thus introduced a new element in the race. This helped the junior members

of the Brahmin family to be relieved of their life-long bachelorhood

without the responsibility of supporting their wives and children from their

family property. It does not mean that the Nayars had loose marriage

morals; it only means that this type of relationship was tolerated as an

exception for the advantages of the Brahmins and Nayars; the rule of real

marriage was endogamous monagamy between Nayars especially between

the daughter of a maternal uncle and his nephew.9

The original inhabitants of Kerala were probably shepherds,

agriculturalists and fishermen. The early inhabitants are Erulans, Katans,

Kurumpans and Malapandarams. The origin of the Nayar caste is

uncertain. Some anthropologists are of the view that the Nayars are not

____________________________________________________________

6. Walter Hamilton, Description of Hindustan, Vol.II., London, 1820, p.79.

7. Malabaar Marriage Commissions Report, 1891.

8. Sreekumar, T.T, Urban Process in Kerala, Trivandrum, 1912, p.78.

9. Puthenkalam, J., Marriage and the family in Kerala, New Delhi, 1956, p.160.

19

indigenous to Kerala. One theory is that Nayars are actually the

descendants of the Newars of Nepal.

There exists another disputed view that the Nayars and

Rajputs (A dominant Hindu military caste in northern India) were related.10

There is no real proof behind this claim, which may or may not be true.

Yet another theory is that the Nayars are indigenous to Kerala,

but gained the sharper features and fairer complexion due to intermarriages

with the Namboothiris (The namboothiris are the brahmins of Kerala....)

In short we can clear the fact - the Nayars are a large matrilineal warrior

caste of Kerala State in India. Traditional Nayar families are headed by a

woman, with whom lives her siblings, sisters' children and other

matrilineal relatives. In Nayar tradition, a man moves back to his mother's

residence shortly after his wedding ceremony and his children belong to

this mother's lineage.

Now the exceptions are coming as social order is changed and

families are becoming nuclear and the purpose of living with their children

and wives make Nayar youths to take steps to find a way to live out side

the family arena and try to lead a life by themselves than the common big

combined tharavadus.

The rise and decline of the Nayars of South Travancore

represent an exciting epoch in the caste history of South India. The

____________________________________________________________

10. Velu Pillai, T.K, op.cit., p. 257.

20

Nayars, as a community developed a composite culture which had been

enriched through the ages. Their history is the story of synthesis,

assimilation and fusion of traditions of Dravidianism and practices of

Brahminical social systems. In South Travancore, the Nayars moulded a

cultural synthesis and helped the other savarni communities to

follow their family organization and social customs and manners.

Being predominant community, the Nayars, enjoyed a pre-eminent

political status, social identity and economic prosperity.11

But the social

transformation that emerged out of the political development in the

princely state of Travancore threatened their, political position. The

agrarian reforms, western contacts and depressed class movements

established novel phases; in the social history of Travancore that

eventually affected -the social position of the Nayars. In a changing

process, the family organization centred around collectivism which

challenged their economic progress. The subsequent communal solidarity

move among them strikes a conspicuous theme in the history of the Nayars

of South Travancore.

The State of Travancore

Travancore is an oriental microcosm, a representative land

and a country of striking contrasts, the most Southern of Indian States.

____________________________________________________________

11. Ibid, p. 403.

21

Travancore is unique with its physical features, social structure and

cultural complex. It is a most caste ridden and custom ridden part of the

Nation.12

Travancore is one of the most picturesque portions of India.

Nagam Aiya called it a panorama of expressible grandeur.13

Lord

Curson, the Viceroy of India said, "Since I have been in India, I have had

a great desire to visit the state of Travancore. I have for many years beared

so much of its exuberant natural beauties, its old world, simplicity and. its

arcadian charm. Here nature has spread upon the land her richest bounties

and the land is capable of culture"14

Sir M.E Grant Duff described it. as

"one of the fairest and most interesting realms that Asia has to snow".

Lord Connemara another Governor of Madras, compared it to Italy and

called it a fairy land.15

Travancore along with Cochin states and Malabar districts of

the Madras presidency constituted the ancient Kingdom of Kerala.

Travancore is scheduled by its geographical position and distinguished

from other part of India by many peculiarities. The Geographical insulation

provided by the natural, boundaries on all sides, Arabian sea on the west,

____________________________________________________________

12. Mateer, S., The Land of charity, London, John Snow, 1871, p. 13.

13. Nagam Aiya, V., Report on the Census of Travancore, Trivandrum, 1881, p.19.

14. Quoted in V.P. Menon, Story of the Integration of the Indian States,

Trivandrum, p. 274.

15. Velu Pillai, T.K, The Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Trivandrum, The Govt.

Press, 1940, p. 3.

22

Indian Ocean on the south and the Western Ghats on the east and north had

indeed exercised a considerable restraining influence on the outlook and

way of life of the people of Kerala.16

The state was bounded on the north by the princely state of

Cochin and the Coimbatore District of the Madras presidency, on the-

east by the Western Ghats and the districts of Madurai, Ramnad and

Tinnevelly of the Madras province.17

Travancore attracted the attention

that it deserves by reason of its wonderful and varied scenery and its

cultural and political individuality....18

Travancore forms an irregular

triangle, with its apex at Cape Comorin between 8 4' and 10 22' north

latitude and between 7613' and 7738' east longitude.19

Theories of Origin

Indian (Kerala): Hindu (Nayar) name denoting

membership of the Nayar community, which is from Malayalam Nayar

leader, lord, soldier (from Sanskrit naya(ka) leader + the honorific

plural ending -r). The Nayars were regarded as protectors of the land.

Northern Irish: reduced form of McNayar.

___________________________________________________________

16. Kunjan Pillai, N., (Supt.), Census of India, Travancore, Part I, Vol. XXVIII,

1931, p.14.

17. Nagam Aiya, V., The Travancore State Manual , Vol. I, Trivandrum, 1906, p.3.

18. Sir. Ramaswamy Aiyar, C.P, Broadcast at Bombay, 1936, Quoted in Velu Pillai,

T.K, op.cit., p. 2.

19. English Records, Trivandrum Chief Secretary File No. 714. Watts M.E.

memorandum on Travancore administration, 25 January 1929, p. 2.

23

Ancient South Indian history, historians, and foreign travellers

referred to the Nayars as a dignified martial nobility. The earliest reference

to Nayars comes from the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. In his accounts

of ancient India, he refers to the "Nayars of Malabar" and the "Kingdom of

Chera". However the earlier origin of the Nayar caste is uncertain and

several alternate and sometimes conflicting theories exist.

Some sociologists are of the view that the Nayars are not

indigenous to Kerala, as many customs and traditions distinguish them

from other Keralites. According to one theory, Nayars are descendants of

the Newars of Nepal, who joined the Munda exodus and later migrated to

Kerala. The most prominent arguments given in support of this theory are

the presence of distinct pagoda like architectural style of Nayar

Tharavaadus and Temples and the practice of Marumakkathaayam

(matrilineal) system of inheritance similar to both Nayar and Newars.20

There is also a hypothesis on the basis of mythology that the

Nayars are Nagas and were Kshatriyas belonging to the Serpent dynasty

(Nagavanshar who removed their sacred thread and migrated south to

escape the wrath of a vengeful Parashurama. The affinity of the Nayar

community towards serpent worship, their martial past, and the absence of

the sacred thread lends support to this theory. In addition, the Travancore

____________________________________________________________

20. Fuller, C.J., The Nayars Today, Cambridge, 1976, p. 126.

24

State Manual states that there were indeed serpent-worshipping Nagas

in Kerala who fought with the Namboothiris till they reached a consensus.

According to Chattampi Swamikal, who interpreted old Tamil

texts, the Nayars were Naka (Naga or Snake) Lords who ruled as feudal

lords in the Chera kingdom. Therefore this theory proposes Nayars to be

descendants of the rulers and martial nobility of pre-brahmin Kerala who,

after the arrival of the Namboothiris (and establishment of the

Varnas/Caste System), were categorized as sat Sudras. One finds mention

of the Nayars during the reign of the King Rama Varma Kulashekhara

(1020-1102) of the second Chera dynasty, when the Chera Kingdom was

attacked by the Cholas. The Nayars fought by forming suicide squads

(Chavers) against the invading force. It is not clear whether the Cheras

themselves were Nayars, or if the Chera employed the Nayars as a warrior

class.21

Irrespective of the different theories that seek to explain the

origin of Nayars, it is clear that till the early 20th century, Nayars exerted

their influence in medieval Kerala society as feudal lords and owned large

estates. Nayars dominated the civil, administrative and military elite of the

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

21. The Kerala Mahatmayam, an ancient Sanskrit Purana, calls them the progeny of

Namboodiri men with Deva, Rakshasa and Gandharva women. The 17th century

Brahmin-inspired Keralolpathi and Grama Padhati describes the Nayars of

Kerala and the Bunts of Southern Tulu nadu as descendants of the Sudras who

accompanied the Brahmins to Kerala and Tulu nadu respectively from

Ahichatra/Ahikshetra in southern Panchala. In addition, Manual of Madras

Administration Vol II (printed in 1885) notes that the Nadavas/Nayars of Malabar

and the Bunts of Southern Tulu nadu are same.

25

pre-British era in Kerala. The decline of Nayar dominance came about in

multiple stages. During colonial times, the British perceived that Nayars

were an inherent threat to their hegemony in the region and therefore

outlawed their right to bear weapons and by banning the Nayar martial art

of Kalaripayattu. Weapons were integral to the Nayar psyche and power,

and combined with repressive legislation led to a loss of social standing for

Nayars. Later during post-colonial years, the Land reforms of 1950's led to

massive loss of land-ownership by Nayar feudal Lords and some Nayar

gentry were relegated to poverty overnight. Thus the decline of Nayar

dominance came to a full circle by the mid of 20th century.

Etymology

The word Nayar lends itself to two etymological

interpretations. The first interpretation is that the word Nayar could have

been derived from the Sanskrit word Nayaka which means leader. The

Sanskrit word Nayaka which appears in various forms in southern India

(Nayakan/Naicker in Tamil Nadu, Nayak in Karnataka and Maharashtra,

and Nayudu in Andhra Pradesh) could have been corrupted as Nayars in

Malayalam. The second interpretation is that the word Nayar is a corrupted

form of the word Nagar- serpent men because Nayars practiced snake

worship. The word Nayar also occurs in other parts of the world - although

no direct linkages with the Nayars in Kerala have been established.

26

Typical Nayar End Names

Nayar surnames were traditionally carried through

matrilineality, although most modern Nayars follow patrilineal

nomenclature. The surname Nayar is commonly used by all sub-castes

belonging to Nayar caste. However, there are surnames which are

reminders of the honours conferred upon individuals the powers that befall

from time to time in acknowledgement of exceptional act of valour,

erudition and scholarship, or excellence in chosen field of endeavour. The

families of these individuals inherited the titles. It is also possible that in

the majority of cases, such honours were bestowed by the loyalty in return

for services rendered and in recognition of a display of loyalty. In general,

the system of conferring honours points to the ruling Monarch's

dependence on the Nayars who provided them with military and

administrative support. While most of these are ranks and positions in a

feudal set up (similar to the Mughals' Mansabdari system), such royal

patronage was crucial to the development and promotion of strikingly

singular forms of lance and drama such as Kathakali of which, the Nayars

were exponents.

Achan

Adiyodi

Asan

27

Elayidom

Eradi

Ilayidam

Kaimal

Karnavar

Kartha

Kunnath

Kitavu

Kurup

Mannadiar

Menokki

Menon

Nambiar

Nayanar

Nayar

Nedungadi

PadaNayar

Panicker

Pandala

Pillai

Saamoothiri

28

Thampi

Thankkal

Unnithan

Valiathan

Vallilath

Vazhunnor

Vellodi

Subcastes

The Nayars come under the head of Malayala Sudras as per

the Jati Nirnayam which mentions eighteen such castes included within the

term. V.Nagam Aiya, Dewan Peishcar, Travancore, in his Travancore

State Manual states that although all the Malayala Sudras were classed

under the general head of Nayar, in reality there were only five "genuine"

Nayar castes. These included:

Kiryathil Nayars22

: They are the highest class of Nayars found

usually in Malabar and Cochin and rarely in Travancore. The 17th century

Keralolpathi states them to be descendants of warrior Naga tribes who

came to Kerala from the north along the western coast. It may be noted that

the earlier Keralamahatmayam, a Hindu Purana, did not make mention of

____________________________________________________________

22. Faw Cett, op.cit., p. 194.

29

any subcastes among the Nayars but only states them to be the

military caste of Kerala.

Illathu Nayars : They were brought in by Parasurama, as per the

Keralolpathi(it's a 17th century book written by Namputhiris to protect

the caste interest of them), to serve the Brahmins as tenants, servants,

warriors, cultivators etc. Purificatory rites by the Marars and priestly

service from the Elayatus distinguished the Illathu Nayars.

Swaroopathil Nayars or Cherna Nayars23

: These Nayars were the

warriors of Kshatriya Royal Households known as Swaroopams. In

Malabar they are classed as Akathu Cherna Nayars and Purathu Cherna

Nayars.

Padamangalam Nayars : They were the Nayars appointed by

Parasurama to serve in Temples. They migrated from Tamil Nadu of the

Pandyan kingdom as it was then known.

Tamil Padam Nayars : This class of Nayars, as the name indicates,

were migrants from Tamil Nadu who were embraced into the Nayar

community.

Beginning of the Nayar Dominance

In the social ladder, the Nayars or Sudras were below the

Brahmins. They formed the nobility, the magistracy and officials of the

____________________________________________________________

23. Ibid., pp. 214-218.

30

Government, the military and police wealthy farmers, the merchants and

the skilled artisans. However, their main duty was to carry on war. As the

ruling class the Nayars enjoyed great privileges.24

By the 11th

and 12th

centuries society in Travancore had become feudal in nature. The Nayars

formed the feudal aristocracy owning most of the land.25

With the rise of

the Nayar mobility there arose the class of madampis or Nayar Jenmies

who leased out their lands on tenure to inferior caste men whom they in

return reduced to bring their tenants26

Henmam right originally meant right

during life time. Only by 11th

century A.D., it began to mean inheritance

right through birth. But it was an undoubted fact that a considerable

portion of upper class Nayars were Jenmies. About the origin of the Jenmi

system Elamkulam writes "Before the trusteeship of temples became

hereditary, there was an interim period when that position was held by

person during his Jenmam or life time.27

It was from that Jenmam that the

term Jenmi was derived. This may be clarified further. In the beginning

some prominent persons were appointed as trustees. This appointment was

for a fixed tenure. Either by selection of otherwise, they were reappointed

again and again. So that it was possible that a person could be trustee for

____________________________________________________________

24. Yesudas, R. N., London Missionary Society of Travancore, 1806 - 1908,

Trivandrum, Kerala Historical Society, 1977, pp. 8-9.

25. Joy Gnanadasan, A Forgotten History, Madras, 1994, p. 22.

26. Rajayyan, K., History of Tamil Nadu, 1565-1982, Madurai, 1982, pp.568 - 571.

27. Saradamoni. K., "Agrostic Slavery in Kerala in the 19th century", Journal of

Kerala Studies, Vol. I, part IV, December 1974, p. 456.

31

life later it became the rule for a trustee to hold the post for life time. The

right of few trustee over the property under their control were limited to

their Jenmam right. Still later it became customary for a trustee's legal heir

to be appointed his successor to the trusteeship also and this led to the

trusteeship becoming hereditary. It was lightly probable that the Nambudiri

Jenmies were very lenient to Nayar tenant through the matrimonial

alliances between Nambudiries and Nayars. Their social existence as was

extremely bound of with that of their tenants.

Marthanda Varma's annexation of minor principalities into

Travancore resulted a situation in which a large number of tenants and

subtenants under Nambudiri Jenmies became sirkar land holders.28

This

was an indirect help to Nayars. The Jenmi system in Travancore was

changing owing to this direct. Government control on land. It created more

and more sirkar jobs and the Nayars were the beneficiaries of this change.

From top to bottom the revenue administration was under their control.29

In the latter half of the 19 century, the Jenmies used to collect

various levies like arukhazhecha, utsarakopu, purannal, chumadu etc. From

the tenants in addition to janapattom and verumpattom etc. The Jenmies

had complete right to evict the tenants.

___________________________________________________________

28. Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, P.N., Studies in Kerala History, Trivandrum, 1970,

pp. 348-361.

29. Calendar of Travancore Government, 1951, pp. 6-10.

32

It may be correct to say that the predominance of Nayars in

law holdings dwindled very much. The immediate effect of land reforms of

Travancore was thus favourable to Nayars. But in long run these reforms

became detrimental to Nayars as a large amount passed from Nayar

taravads.30

Because of the Jenmi system, the Nayars rose to aristocratic

family, and they dominated upto the middle of the 20th

century.

Nayars belongs to the Dravidian race with considerable

admixture of Aryan blood.31

The Keraolpati is more rational and says that

the Nayars are the descendants of the Sudras who accompanied the

original, Brahmin immigrants from outside Kerala.32

There are different theories about the origin and migration of

Nayars. One view is that Parasurama, the legendary hero reclaimed the

land of Kerala from the sea. After the creation of the region he brought

Nambudiri Brahmin and gave them ownership of all the lands. Along with

the Nambudiri Brahmins he brought another group of people called Sudras

to act as the servants and body guards of Nambudiries. This Sudras latter

came to be known as Nayars.33

___________________________________________________________

30. English Records, Travancore Government, Trivandrum Secretariat, Travancore,

Cover File No. 4801, p. 4.

31. Administrative Report of Travancore, 1901-2, Appendix, p. 26.

32. Gopinatha Pillai, Socio Economic changes in the Nayar Community in

Travancore from 1900-1947, Kerala, 1984, p. 1.

33. Ibid., p. 32.

33

In the book Kerala Mahatmyam the Nayars are referred to as

the offspring of the junior member of Nambudiri family where the eldest

son alone was permitted to marry in his own caste with Deva grandarra and

Rakshasa women brought by Parasurama.34

Edgar Thurston observes that

"the original Nayars were undoubtedly a military body holding land and

serving as a milita". They are described as the "Lords to the Land" ; the

best soldiers in the world and courageous, extremely skilled in the use of

arms.35

The Nayars were the "Protectors" of the country and as such

crystallized readily into the existing caste of Nayars with numerous

branches.36

Mr. N. Subramania Aiyar writes in a note on the Nayars of

Travancore "derived from Naga (Serpents) as the Aryans so termed the

earlier settlers of Malabar accountant of the special adoration which they

paid to snakes". The Travancore Nayars are popularly known as malayali

Sudras -term which contrasts them sharply with the pandi or foreign

Sudras.37

The Nayars were divided into several sub castes according to

the occupation. Each sub division performed a separate function. In

general the Nayars were agriculturalists and soldiers in the traditional

____________________________________________________________

34. Ibid., p. 34.

35. Velu Pillai, T.K., op. cit, Vol. I, p. 556.

36. William Logan, Malabar Manual, Vol. I, Madras, The Govt. Press, 1906,

p.111.

37. Edgar Thurston, Cases and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. V, Delhi, 1975, p.22.

34

society. Yet all Nayars were not soldiers and there were Nayar groups who

concentrated on land owning. There is evidence that only certain sections

of the Nayar caste were allowed to bear arms. None the less the great

majority of Nayar: probably spent some time under arms.38

Among the five genuine Nayar castes (i.e. Kiriyathil, Illakkars

of Illathu Nayars, Swarupam, Padamangalam and Tamil Padam) the

occupations of the Padamangalam Nayar is temple service such as

sweeping cleaning, carrying lamps during processing etc.39

Vathi or Vattu : This name is not found in the Jatinirnaya,

probably because it had not been differentiated from Maran. They used a

peculiar drum called nantuni. They follow the makkathayam system of

inheritance (in the male line).

Itacheri : They are called as Pantaris in South Travancore and

they are seems to be closely related to Idaiyan caste of Tamil country.

Most of them vendors of milk, butter and curds.

Another group of people : Karuvelan commonly found in

Kappiyara and Thiruvattar. They serve at Maharaja's palace and they are

the custodians of kings treasuries and other valuables. It is believed that

about 52 families are originally brought from Kulatha Nadu.40

____________________________________________________________

38. Fuller, C.J., Changing Cultures Nayar's Today, Cambridge, 1976, p. 6.

39. Nagam Aiya, V., op.cit., Vol. II, p. 42.

40. Edgar Thurston, op. cit., Vol. V, p. 29.

35

Arikuravan : A division who reduce the quantity of rice from

paddy given to them to husk at the temple Kazhayakkuttam near

Trivandrum.41

Pallichenan : They were appointed as the Palanquin bearers

for Brahmins and Malabar chief cains. They are supposed to carry their

shields, swords etc. before them.

Vandikaran : are those who supply fuel to temples and cleans

the vessels there :

Kuttina : The only heiress of a Swarupam taravad is said to

have been a maid servant in the Vadakketam Brahmins house. Talikettu

ceremony also have been celebrated in her masters newly built cow shed.

Mattavar : Who are believed to have been good archers in

former times. They are also known as Puliyattu, Veliyattu and Kallur

Nayars.

Otatu also called kusa : Their occupation is to tile or thatch

temples and Brahmin houses. 42

Vattaykkatan : They are the lowest sub division in many

respects and are better known as Chakla Nayars in Travancore. They were

not allowed to take the title 'Pillai', and are obliged to stand out side the

____________________________________________________________

41. William Logan, op. cit., p. 34.

42. George wood Cock, Kerala - A Portrait of the Malabar Coast, London, 1967,

p.103.

36

sacrificial stones of a sanctuary 'Pulva' is a title of distinction among them.

A section of them were engaged in oil pressing which is a hereditary

occupation and occupies a lower position in the social scale than the

other.43

Various titles were given to the Nayars by the kings of

Travancore. The most common title in Travancore is 'Pillai', which was

once a distinction granted as a mark of royal favour. Now the Vellelas of

Tamil country and the Nayars of South Travancore are called as Pillai from

very early times. The ceremony of investiture was known as Thirumukkam

Pitikkuka and the honour conferred on the person was so highly esteemed

that even a Brahmin Dewan Sanku Annavi had it bestowed on him and

his family. It is enjoyed to this day by his descendants now

living at Vempannur in the Eraniel Taluk.44

If this title is used as a suffix

it is denoted as Pillai or if as prefix it will be as kanaku. The title Pillai and

Kanaku are never used together.45

A higher title Chembakaranam : Corresponds to the knight -

hood of medival times and was first instituted by Maharaja Marthanda

Varma in Memory, it is said of his great Prime Minister Rama iyen

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

43. Census of Travancore, 1891, p. III.

44. Nagam Aiya, V., op. cit, p. 36.

45. Sreedhara Menon, A., Social and Cultural History of Kerala, New Delhi,

1979, p. 83.

37

Dalavai.46

The honour is now rarely conferred still there are several ancient

houses in Travancore to which the honouric title is attached in perpetuity.

Thampi is a distinctive title given to the Nayars of Travancore

by Sovereigns as a mark of rare merit and devotion. The Thampies alone

among the Nayars are allowed to use Pallan Quins and permitted to appear

before the king without head dress. The title karu is attached to the names

of several families in North Travancore.47

The Tekkumkur and

Vadakumkur Rajas in Malabar as said to have first conferred the title Karta

on certain influencial Nayar families. In social matters authority of the

karta was supreme. All the kartas belongs to the 'Illam' sub division of

Nayar caste.48

The title 'Kurupu' denotes an ancient section of the Nayars

charge with various functions like instructions in the use of arms while

others were superintendents of maid. Servants in royal house-hold. Now

Kurupu is assumed by other castes then Nayars.

The word Panickars is derived from "Pani" means work. The

Panickars formely kept Kalaris, in North Travancore. But now they have

taken up the teaching of letters. But the name at present does not indicate

any particular section of Nayars.49

The Kailmals : - were recognized

____________________________________________________________

46. Ibid.

47. Nayam Aiya, V., op. cit, p. 368.

48. Velupillai, T.K., op. cit., Vol. I, p. 857.

49. Ramantha Aiyar, Progressive Travancore, Kottayam, 1924, p.85.

38

chieftains in former times. Some were in charge of royal treasury which

according to custom could not be seen even by the kings except in their

presence.50

Unnittan and Valiyatan were the sons of those Kshatriyas

who had no territorial sovereignty and were called Valiyattan and

Unnittans. Eman is another title affixed to the names of certain influential

families in central Travancore.51

The title Menon has been conferred upon

aristocratic several Nayar families by the Rajas of Cochin and corresponds

to Pillai in Travancore. They are superior, and generally they are writers

and accountants.52

Ettu Vittil Pillamar belonged to Nayar community who were

originally the farmers and tenants of Porri Jenmies.53

In 1050 A. D. the

right to govern Padmanabhaswami temple at Trivandrum was handed over

to yogakkar (councillors). The temple land was divided into eight

districts54

and over each district a Nayar was placed with lot of

administrative power and these Nayars were called Ettu Vittil Pillamar.

They belonged to eight houses situated in different districts viz.

Kullathoor, Kalakuttam, Cempalanti, Kudaman, Pallichall, Vannanur

Ramanatham and Martanda Nadha.55

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

50. Krishna Iyer, L.A., Social History of Kerala, Vol.II., Madras, 1970, p. 91.

51. Nagam Aiya, V., op.cit., Vol.II., p. 369.

52. William Logan, op.cit., Vol.I, p. 134.

53. Nagam Aiya, V., op. cit., Vol. I, p. 50.

54. Panikkar, K.M, A History of Kerala, Madras, 1960, p. 226.

55. Panikkar, K.M., Malabar and the Dutch, Bombay, 1931, p. 58.

39

Shangoonny Menon states, "the king having little authority

over them and they rose in power and importance and gradually became

lords in their villages.56

It is inferred that the people were more loyal to the

Pillamars than the kings.57

The tyranny of the Pillamar was unbearable and

so the people of Nanjilnad revolted against them in 1702 A. D.58

They held

a series of five meetings and passed resolutions which protested against

their tyrannical activities and demanded redressal of grievances.59

The king Ravi Varma (1684 to 1718) took quick steps and

determined to put an end to these obnoxious factions of the Pillamars.60

The power and authority of the Pillamars assumed menancing proportions

during the short period of Aditya Varma.61

Again in 1726 King Ravi

Varma made consultation and on the advice of Prince Martanda Varma, his

nephew entered into a treaty with the Madurai Nayaks and agreed to pay a

sum of rupees 3000 as tribute annually. The Nayaks in turn offered to

supply a contingent of troops to help the Venad king in his fight against the

Pillamars and other rebels.52

It was a period of terror for the Pillamars and their

confederates. They took a unanimous decision to put an end to the life of

____________________________________________________________

56. Shungoonny Menon, P., History of Travancore, Madras, 1878, p. 97.

57. Nagam Aiya, V., op. cit., Vol. I, p. 311.

58. Ibid.

59. Travancore Archaeological Series, Vol. V, p. 210.

60. Sreedhara Menon, A., A survey of Kerala History, Kottayam, 1967, p. 243.

61. Ibid, p. 18.

62. Ibid., p. 24.

40

Martanda Varna and thereby anoint Thambi as his next successor.63

Many

battles were fought between Thampimar and Pillamars and Azhakappa

Mudaliar.64

While the fortune was smiling on the side of the Thampimar,

the king bribed the commander.65

The fall of Ettu Vittil Pillamar was attributed to many reasons

like their arrogant nature and treacherous activities. As they had no steady

policies and programmes for the causes of their country they could not get

the support of the people for a long time. Though they were powerful they

failed to offer any resistance to the invaders. Their oppressive policy, with

heavy taxation system turned the common people against them. Their

support to Thampimar and their attitude against kings fetched Marthanda

Varma's immortal enemity. Added to these, the betrayal of Mudaliar in the

wars frustrated the Pillamars. When Marthanda Varma succeeded to the

throne all their conspiracy were brought to light and they were forced to

pay heavily for their sins. The Ettu Vittil Pillamars vanished with the rise

of Marthanda Varma.66

The appearance of the well nourished Nayar is perhaps one of

the finest in all over India. The climate and nature of their occupation

___________________________________________________________

63. Maheswaran Nayar, K., Oru Tiruvitamkur Charitham, (Malayalam),

Trivandrum, 1975, p. 33.

64. Raman Pillai, C.V., Martandavarma, (Malayalam), Kottayam, 1981, p.49.

65. Natarajan, T., and Sarveswaran, P. (ed.), Thampimar Kathai, (Tamil), Madurai,

1971, p. 57.

66. Justin Wilson, A., Rise and fall of Ettu Vittil Pillamars in Travancore, Journal

of Kerala Studies, Vol. V, Trivandrum, p. 431.

41

added to the situation of their houses which nestle as it were under canopy

trees promote their complexion and general appearance.67

One of the

conspicuous features of the Nayars of both the sects is the scrupulous

attention of their personality, cleanliness in which they differ from their

brethren of other castes.68

The dress of the Nayars is extremely scanty. The women cloth

themselves in a single white of fine texture reaching from the waist to the

knees, and occasionally while abroad they throw over shoulders and

blossom, another similar cloth. But by the custom, the Nayar women go

uncovered above the waist. The men wear a white cloth and another clothe

is also occasionally thrown over the shoulders.69

The Nayars do not wear much jewellery. As rule ornamentals

own by Nayar women are few and cannot be considered expensive as

compared with those of their sisters in the neighbouring provinces. For the

neck they have the Kantasaram Addiyal, Ponnunool, Nagapatham,

Arimbumani, Jana-Kuzhal, Nalu-Panthi, Maniyam, Arasilai-Tali,

Pacchakkal-Tali, Puli Nag-Tali, Kasu Malai, Kulalmalai, Rasi-Tali,

Padakka-Tali etc.70

____________________________________________________________

67. Travancore Census Report for 1901, p. 11.

68. William Logan, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 35.

69. Ibid., p. 50.

70. Nagam Aiya, V., op. cit., Vol. II, p. 51.

42

Nayars ranked high in the social hierarchy of Kerala. They

came next to the Kshtriyas and broadly speaking the Nayars enjoyed

second position next to the Nambudiries in the Malabar and they occupy

the same position in the princely states of Cochin and Travancore.71

In the

pre British period, the Nayars had enjoyed many privileges and exercised

powers. Although they probably never accounted for more than 20 or 25%

of the population, as for as ritual status was concerned they were graded

only as Sudras. The Nayars were a privileged community till middle of the

19th

century. The chief land holders in most villages were Nayars and

Nambudiries. Nayars had slaves who belonged to the lower caste servile

community. Nayars were responsible for maintaining the law and order in

the society. In the administration of the land also, they had a prominent

place. The matrilineal system of inheritance helps them to keep lands of

the family intact. In Travancore Nayars enjoyed the privilege of being the

most numerous upper class Hindu.

______________________________________________________________________

71. Balakrishnan,V., Leela Devi, R., Mannathu Padmanabhan and the Revival of

Nairs in Kerala, Delhi, 1982, p. 9.

Chapter - II

unique Customs and

traditions of Nayar

Community

CHAPTER - II

UNIQUE CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS OF

NAYAR COMMUNITY

Marumakkathayam and Tharavadu

Nayars followed the Marumakkathayam (Matrilineal) system

of inheritance and lived in units called Tharavadus (matrilineal joint-

family).1

The tharavadu referred to relations of property (mudal

sambandham) shared by a group tracing descent from a common

ancestress. The outer boundary of tharavadus seems to have been defined

by relations of pollution (pula sambandham), whereby a wider matrilineal

kin group was knit by symbolic ties prominently in sharing birth and death

pollution and a memory of common descent. However there are indications

that when expediency demanded it was possible to even break off pollution

ties. For instance, in the case of a numerically large tharavadu, comprising

a considerable section of the population of territory, death and birth

pollution spelt a great inconvenience. In such cases it could be decided to

terminate pollution ties, even while the related groups continued to share a

cremation ground.2

____________________________________________________________

1. Dr. Hermann Gundert, Keralolpathiyum Mattum,1843-1904, Kottayam, 1992,

p.185.

2. Kunhappa, H., Smaranakal Matram, (Autobiography), Kozhikode, 1981, p. 17.

44

Architecturally wealthy tharavadus encompassed a

Naalukettu or Ettukettu, a Kulam (fresh-water pond) and a Sarpa Kavu (a

sacred grove with trees and thick foliage for worship of the Nagathaan

(Serpents) while in the case of some exceptionally wealthy families a

private temple as well. The water body served the purpose of ritual baths,

followed by Tantric worship in the Sarpakavu, phased out into rituals and

ceremonies that repeated in cycles of days, months, and years often

accompanied by feasts that witnessed a grand assembly of kin.

Interestingly, eventhough tharavadus existed based on

descent from a common ancestress, it was comparatively rare for a

remembered founder of a tharavadu to be a woman alone3 and it showed

a "structural" patriarchy of the Karnavar (seniormost male member). For

instance in management of the tharavadu, Nayar women managed

domestic affairs in their natal tharavadus4 and the senior woman's decision

making role was restricted to the inner domain of larger tharavadus in

central and north Kerala.5 However it was also not that the Karnavar had

absolute powers in the tharavadu, but unlike in patrilineal families there

was more than one mode of power and a plural authority structure. In

________________________________________________________________________________

3. Arumina, G., Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in Kerala,

(c.1850-1940) , Orient Longman, Malabar, p. 290.

4. An Article on Marma Adi and Marma Shastra,lifepositive.com

5. Moore Melinda, A., "Symbol and Meaning in Nayar Marriage Ritual"

American Ethnologist, 15 (1998), pp. 254-273.

45

practice, the senior woman, was not necessarily determined by seniority

and might be the oldest competent woman and yet seniority was a crucial

factor in determining power relations between the Karnavar and the senior

woman. If the Karnavar was the son or younger brother of the senior

woman, she might indeed be the de facto head of the group keeping

accounts in her own hands and counseling him; but were he the older

brother of the senior woman then she was subordinate to him. In some

wealthy tharavadus lands were set aside for women as stanum (a special

status) property or otherwise over which they enjoyed varied claims does

not in any way suggest `separate rights' or access to their own separate

revenues and properties.6

In the matrilineal Tharavadus customary

practice, rather than any religious precepts embodied in written sources,

was the source of personal/family law. In the words of William Logan,

an administrator-historian with extensive experience of Malabar: If it were

necessary to sum up in one word the law of the country, that word would

undoubtedly be the word "custom". In Malayalam it would be "Maryada",

"Margam", "Acharam" all signifying established rule and custom.7

The marumakkathayam system and tharavadu system are not

viable any more and has declined in tune with the social and cultural

____________________________________________________________

6. Kunhappa, H., op.cit., p 17.

7. Moore Melinda, A., op.cit., pp. 121-139.

46

changes which have taken their toll on many old institutions. Social

reforms spread with modern education. In other words, Nayars switched

over to the patriarchal model of kinship and inheritance. The partition of

tharavadus into individual shares (Alohari Bhaagam) followed the

enactment of Land Reforms Ordinance that stipulated upper limits on land

holdings. Many tharavadus, already bursting at the seams with internal

dissensions and strife, collapsed under the pressure. The matrifocal system

was disintegrated. Fathers took charge of their sons and daughters and

husband and wife started living together with their offspring. The

"Marumakkathayam Law" which sanctioned dismantling of the tharavadus

and the partition of property, came into vogue in the year 1933.

32,900 families were partitioned in Travancore alone by 1938. The

tharavadu system of living became a thing of the past by the 1940s.

Naalukettu and Ettukettu structures began to collapse, or were sold off.8

The Vadakkan or northern style of Kalarippayattu is

associated with the Nayars. In earlier times, Kalarippayattu was an

essential component of education for Nayars. Nayar men and even women

learned the art of Kalaripayattu at an early age and used their skills in war

and combat. From Kalaripayattu, comes Marma Adi.

____________________________________________________________

8. Buchanan, F., A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore,

Canara and Malabar, Vol. II, Madras, 1988, p 513.

47

Marmam shastra was an advanced way to temporarily or

permanently disable or kill an opponent through a tap with a finger on a

specific nerve. Marma Adi capitalised on the knowledge of acupuncture

points. In recent times, however, Marmam shastra and Marma Adi have

been used only for therapeutic purposes.9 The Nayar subcastes known as

Kurup and Panicker were traditionally teachers of the Kalari Martial

Arts. Kalari may have given rise to Kung Fu10

according to ancient

documents. It was outlawed by British in 1793, leading to great loss of

self esteem among Nayars.

Marriage

In the past Nayars had three major marriage/rite of passage

ceremonies.

Kettukalyanam (Mock marriage ceremony)

The thaali tying rite took place before the onset of puberty.

During this ceremony the girl was married to a man, preferably a

Namboothiri Brahman. The ritual husband had no further duties to the girl

____________________________________________________________

9. Bina Agarwal, A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia, Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 113.

10. An Article on Marma Adi and Marma Sastra, Life Positive.com

48

after the completion of this ritual, although she had to observe a period of

death impurity upon the death of her ritual husband. The thaali ceremony

was a female centered ritual which emphasized fertility and household

prosperity.11

This ceremony had to be performed on pain of

excommunication.

Thirandukalyanam (Announcement and Celebration of puberty)

The Thirandukalyanam ceremony was the puberty ceremony,

during which femininity is celebrated as women occupy the parts of the

household typically inhabited by men.12

Sambandham/Podamuri (casual marriage alliance)

The Sambandham ritual is less auspicious than the thaali and

puberty rites, and literally means "alliance" or "relationship". It was the

customary institution that framed casual marriage alliances between men

and women following marumakkathayam. This ritual marks the union of

the bride and groom and was not necessarily a permanent arrangement.

However it was this innate weakness of sambandham that helped

maintaining the integrity of the matrilineal tharavadu.

____________________________________________________________

11. Arumina, G., op.cit., p. 292.

12. William Logan, Malabar Manual, Vol. I, Madras, 1906, p. 111.

49

Sambandham denoted hypergamy between Nayar women and

Namboothiri men as well as reciprocal marriage among Nayars.13

However

such an alliance was not recognized as constituting marriage by

Namboothiri Brahmins as well as by colonial courts but was seen as

comparable to concubinage.14

Two reasons cited for this were that

dissolution of sambandham was fairly easy and that it did not give rise to

property relations. Though viewed by Namboothiri Brahmins and

European commentators as immoral, allied with polyandry, or even

prostitution, sambandham was nothing of that sort for the Nayar women.

Sambandham essentially gave a Nayar woman the liberty to initiate,

consent to, or terminate a sexual relationship with any man and thereby

formed one of the foundations of matrilineality.

In case of sambandham with Namboothiri men, the system

benefited both the Namboothiri Brahmins as well as matrilineal castes

like the Nayars for two reasons. First, Namboothiri brahmins had

institutionalized primogeniture, permitting only the eldest son to marry

within the caste. Younger sons (also called aphans) in Namboothiri

families were expected to establish sambandham with Nayar and

Ambalavasi (temple service castes) women. Secondly, Nayar families

____________________________________________________________

13. Website on Kalari preceding Kung Fu

14. An Article on Marma Adi and Marma Shastra,lifepositive.com

50

encouraged the sambandham arrangement with Namboothiri men,

thereby increasing their tharavadu and caste status.15

Such alliances

between Nayar women and Namboothiri men came to an end after the

efforts of V.T Bhattathirippad in 1933.

Religious Customs

Kerala is a pluralistic society where no one ethnic community

or religious group dominates the scene. They are all minorities, and all

minorities have their place. All are Keralites first; then they are Brahmins,

Nayars, Ezhavas, Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The extinct religious

communities of Jainism and Buddhism also have made their contributions

to Kerala's culture.

Early Religion

The Cheras, the ancestors of present-day Keralites, were at

one time Indian Mundas and later Indian Dravidians, but not Hindus.16

They worshipped many gods and goddesses, among whom the most

important one was Lord Shiva, the Supreme God, who was specifically

adored as the Sun God. They did not have idols and icons; they

worshipped lingam-shaped stones as abodes of the divine presence; they

____________________________________________________________

15. Velupillai, T.K., Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Trivandrum, 1940, p. 858.

16. Ibid., p. 412.

51

believed that some of these self-grown stone pillars, as opposed to man-

made structures, were physical transformations of invisible gods. Besides

praying in front of these stones located usually under the sacred Pepal tree,

they used to anoint with water, alcohol, oil, and colored powder.

Occasionally they would sacrifice a chicken and pour the blood on the

stone. This form of worship is still practiced in many villages in Kerala.17

The Hindu temples also have taken over this form of worship and

perfected it with elaborate rituals and Sanskrit hymns and prayers.

The early people also worshipped the Mother-Goddess and

various manifestations of her, besides a number of minor gods and

ancestors.18

The reason for all this worship-ritual is their belief that the

universe is inhabited by super-natural beings and powers. All the rituals

and prayers are designed for coping with this religious world which is

not always consistent, but arbitrary; the gods control the destiny of man

and the universe. Therefore, it is necessary to propitiate these deities

and spirits so that they may be benevolent to the living or that they may

not at least bring harm to the people.

The remarkable thing about the early religion is that it was

never a static institution. It constantly evolved by the addition of new gods

and new rituals and by the dropping of some old gods and old rituals. The

____________________________________________________________

17. Faw Cett, F., Nayars of Malabar, New Delhi, 1985, p. 255.

18. Ibid., p. 258.

52

early Indians gradually absorbed many Vedic gods or identified their own

gods with the Vedic gods; for instance, the Shiva of the primitive religion

was identified with the Vedic Rudra and was absorbed into Brahminical

Hinduism; Murugan became identical with Subramonya/Kartikeya and

Madura Meenakshi with Parvati, and so on. As a result of this contact with

the Brahmins and their religion, a new pan-Indian religion called

"Hinduism" evolved in India. It was neither purely Aryan/Vedic nor

purely Munda/Dravidian; it was a healthy synthesis of the early religion

and Vedic Hinduism; the brilliant Brahmin theologians created new

mythologies and rituals to fit the needs of this new religion; they did not

destroy the old, pagan, primitive religion, but rather baptized it, enriched it,

and found a place for it in the new religious universe of Hindu India.

The best way to study the primitive religion is to study the

religions of the tribals who still retain the basic beliefs and basic rituals of

the early religion in spite of their exposure to Hinduism. The few remarks

on early religion made above are the result of the researcher's fieldwork

among the various tribes in India and particularly of Kerala.

The Meaning and origins of Onam and other National Festivals

Like every other culture, the Kerala culture also celebrates

some important festivals.19

Since Kerala is composed of several ethnic and

____________________________________________________________

19. Thundy Zacarias, The Meaning and Origins of Onam and Other National Festivalshttp://www.shelterbelt.com/KJ/khonam.html

53

religious groups, the country has a wide variety of festivals.20

Some of

these are not just special for Keralites, but common feasts, like Christmas

and Easter, which are celebrated by Christians of all denominations all

over Kerala, India, and the world. Like-wise, Muslims celebrate the