2020

:c'.-. ~.

Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany(Under Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India)

Lucknow2006

NVld3All)3dS~3d

Sf. tt. (l'"ttil4'l~

DR. T. RAMASAMISECRETARY

~mm

fcmR .afR ~~ftlc6) ~

fcmR .afR ~~ftlc6) fcMflT)d;:Jf.~ ~, -.:r:rr~ 1Wf, ~ ~-110 016

GOVERNMENT OF INDIAMINISTRY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGYTechnology Shavan, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi-110 016

07.06.2006

MESSAGE

Our Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, an autonomousinstitution under DST, has developed a perspective plan and Visionfor the year 2020 outlining the future directions of research. Theforethought is delightful.

The legacy of Founder of the Institute, Late Prof. BirbalSahni, FRS, remains a constant reminder and places a demand onall those who manage the institution a mind set to performperpetually. The Institute has turned 60 and this is the DiamondJubilee Vear. The Institute needs to rededicate itself to the loftygoals and objectives ofthe organization.

I am pleased the Vision 2020 of the Institute focuses both onthe development of the Science of Palaeobotany for possibleunderstanding of geobiospheric changes through the 3 billion yearsof the history of the earth and to render such a knowledge usefulfor exploration of Fossil Fuels.

I wish that the Vision of Institute is pursued rigorously,constantly improved and strengthened and Palaeobotany isbrought into the National Science mainstream.

~-(T. Ramasami)

Tel. : 26510068, 26511439 Fax: 0091-11-26863847, 0091-11-26862418 OJ E-mail: dstsec@nic.in

~~

m. q. ~. (1'"l~Rf

~

PROFESSOR V. S. RAMAMURTHYSECRETARY

1lm'f mmfcmR 3fR ~~fTl~ ~

fcmR 3fR ~~fT,~ fcMrT)::cJl::l'f.:fl 1lCFl", ~~ lWf, ~ ~-11 0 016

GOVERNMENT OF INDIAMINISTRY OF SCIENCE &TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGYTechnology Bhavan, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi-110 016

April 12, 2006

Prologue

Palaeobotany is the meeting ground between Botany and Geology, the two majordisciplines of Biological and Earth System Sciences. It had started somewhat as a purelyacademic pursuit to understand the evolutionary his troy of plant life through the geologictime.

As of now, Palaeobotany plays a vital role as a multidisciplinary science inunderstanding a vast spectrum of challenging fields of scientific enquiry, such as searchfor early life on our planet; climate, biota and environment of the past vis-a-vis changinggeography of the continents and oceans; vegetation dynamics; role of plant life in theorigin and exploration of fossil fuels (hydrocarbons & coal); climate change in the recentpast and anthropogenic influence; impact of plants in early civilization etc. Thisunderstanding and its future perception are the main driving force behind preparation ofthis Vision Document.

I understand that a large group of scientists from diverse disciplines havecontributed towards formulation of this vision document. Such team effort augers wellnot only for the science of Palaeobotany but also for the Institute which was establishedwith such lofty ideals by the visionary Late Prof. Birbal Sahni, dreaming of a place whereII men of all nations will co-operate in the spirit of Science and Service ". The documentcovers almost all the basic and applied aspects of this multidisciplinary science which

were visualized by the founder of this unique Institute almost six decades ago, and arestill remarkably relevant to the needs of the society and the Nation.

Lastly, it is my earnest desire that this document remains alive and getscontinuously refined as our understanding improves with time.

~~'<CIQ"fOIli~~S. Ramamurt~y~ JJ

Tel. : 26510068, 26511439 Fax: 0091-11-26863847, 0091-11-26862418. E-mail: dstsec@alpha.nic.in

VISION BSIP

Symbol of world's premier research Centre in

promoting Palaeobotanical research

interlinked with Scientific and Social

development involving basic research in areas

like origin and evolution of plant life, its

ecological ramifications and research to back

extended industrial application.

t( •••for the science ofPalaeobotany and this Institute an ever-brighter andmore useful future in which men ofaI/nations will co-operate in the spirit ofScience and ofService "

Birbal Sahni (April 03, 1949)

M SSION

• Excellence in R&D work through a dedicated scientific team.

• Continuous development of Palaeobotany through integratedscientific approach; innovative ideas in basic and applied research;interpretation in relation to plant life evolution and geologicalprocesses and to understand environmental evolution through time.

• Promoting industrial application, particularly in Fossil FuelsExploration for enhancing institutional leadership and contributing tothe development ofsociety.

• To enhance BSIP's role in the academic and industrial development ofthe country.

"Palaeobotany is the common ground between Botany and Geology-it is infact tire botany ofthe rocks It would not only allow us glimpses intothe evolutionary history ofplants, but helps us more and more accurately totell the ages ofstrata and thereby to explore the mineral wealth ofthe earth,particularly coal and oil, to picture the geography ofthe past, and tounderstand the structure ofthe earth's crust with its recurring phases ofearthmovements some ofthem affecting entire continents. "

Birbal Sahni (April 03, 1949)

2

VISION-2020

BSIP is dedicated to promote research on basic as well as applied aspects ofPalaeobotany and

allied Earth System Sciences. The aim is to bring excellence in R&D through dedicated

scientific team work so that we are able to improve our understanding in the following

perspective areas ofresearch:

• Precambrian palaeobiology and search for early life.

• Gondwana and Cenozoic floristics, biodiversity, palaeobiogeography,

biostratigraphy and palaeoclimates.

• High-resolution sequence biostratigraphy, relative sea level changes, and

palaeoenvironmental modeling ofpetroliferous basins. Study of major time

boundaries and extreme climatic events in earth history.

• Source rock evaluation of Mesozoic-Cenozoic successions in petroliferous

basins.

• Coal and Organic Petrology related to CBM and economic utilization'

• Quaternary palaeoclimate (through palynology of continental and manne

sediments, Dendrochronology and Archaeobotany; supported by geochemistry!

geomagnetic studies).

• Understanding temporal variability of Indian Monsoon system through

palynological and other palaeobotanical proxies.

• Study of mangrove swamps on aspects of organic matter preservation

(palynological and organo-geochemical studies).

• Molecular palaeobiology (evolution ofearly protists and flowering plants).

• Aerobiology and biopollutant prediction.

• Geochronometry and Isotopic studies.

Creation of multispeciality National Facilities at BSIP for enhancing Institutional leadership

and contributing to the development ofsociety and nation's growth is further envisaged by:

• Developing BSIP as a partial revenue generation centre by promoting industrial

application of High Impact Palynology in studies related to Fossil Fuel

exploration (oil/gas, coal, lignite, peat, CBM).

• Establishing an integrated multidisciplinary Quaternary Palaeoclimate

Research Centre.

• Upgradation ofGeochronometry and Isotope Laboratory.

The other objectives will be to:

• Promote Palaeobotanical education in Universities, Research Institutes and

Industry through contact programmes.

3 /

• Disseminate information through publications and software development.

• Maintain and develop library ofdocuments and published records.

• Maintain and develop museums ofPalaeobotany for Education and Research at

various centres.

• To maintain and continuously develop Repository of Palynological study

material and modem plant herbarium.

• National and International cooperation through organization and participation

in meetings, seminars, conferences and through collaborative scientific

programmes.

• Maximize efforts through training, integrated approach and marketing

technologies in developing application of Palaeobotanical science in industry,

particularly in Fossil Fuel exploration and obtaining contractual work from the

domestic and foreign agencies.

"here we study not only fossil plants but also the rocks illwhich theyarefoU/,d"

Birbal Sahni (April 03, 1949)

4

~ c'j51.

PREAMBLE

Professor Birbal Sahni, FRS established the Institute in the year 1946 for development of the

science of Palaeobotany visualizing its potential to understand the origin and evolution ofplant life, and to use the knowledge of fossil plants in resolving various geologic problemsincluding exploration offossil fuels.

The Institute is devoted to develop both fundamental and applied aspects ofPalaeobotany, and has adopted an integrated and multidisciplinary approach for fulfilling itsaims and objectives:

• To develop Palaeobotany, including palaeopalynology, in all its Botanical andGeological aspects,

• To constantly update the data for interaction with allied disciplines,

• To co-ordinate with other knowledge centers in areas ofmutual interest, such asearly life, exploration of fossil fuels, vegetation dynamics, climatic modelling,conservation offorests, etc., and

• To disseminate palaeobotanical knowledge.

A vast amount ofpalaeobotanical (including palynological) data from Precambrian toRecent has been generated from the various Indian sedimentary basins strengthening itsacademic database. The applied and economic aspects of palaeobotanical! palynologicalresearches that are for the benefit offossil fuels industry (Hydrocarbon, Coal and CBM) haveremained, to this date, yet to be fully realized to help materialize fully the vision of theFounder.

In order to develop and promote the science of Palaeobotany and to enhance BSIP'srole in the industrial development of the country, we need reorientation consistent with thevision and objectives of our Founder laid down almost six decades ago. This is necessary forits future growth in the right direction and to enhance its reputation as an international Centreof excellence in palaeobotanical research and education. In fulfilling the multi-dimensionalutility ofthis fusion science, mutually beneficial programmes with appropriate institutions arealso essential for a holistic approach.

The present document provides the different facets of Palaeobotany and the ever­expanding wide spectrum of palaeobotanical researches. The areas of focus in coming yearsemerging out of synergy with colleagues in the Institute and outside are elaborated in thepages that follow.

Naresh C. MehrotraDirector

"to achieve for this young Institute a hopeful future ofbroad and trulyinterllational outlook which is one ofour main objectives"

Birbal Sahni (April 03, 1949)

5

Precambrian Palaeobiology

India has an important position on the globe having some of the earliest cratonic remains,which survived subsequent weathering and deformation and are suitable for early life formsstudies. Understanding the Archaean life is the key to understanding the earliest biosphere onthe Earth. The organo-sedimentary structures and organic remains viz, archaebacteria,cyanobacteria and eubacteria have been recorded in these cratonic Archaean sediments ofSandur, Simoga and Chitradurga Schist Belts ofKarnataka and Iron Ore Formation ofBonaiKeonjhar area of Orissa. These remains are so fragmentary and incomplete that at variousinstances only chemical signals are to be relied upon to believe their presence. Theseevidences are crucial in the chain of meager records world over. The global records of fossilspreserved in sediments deposited over Eparchaean unconformity provide an in-depth insightinto the Proterozoic biosphere and leaves many questions to be answered. The trends ofmacro-evolutionary changes, stratigraphic implications and interpretations are highly dataintensive. Strengthening of available data base would provide higher resolution ofevolutionary perceptions.

With its advantageous situation oflarge surface exposure of Precambrian sediments,India can offer answers to many questions related to advent, evolution and diversification ofearly life forms. Some of the important aspects of Precambrian Palaeobiology, which needattention are:

• Evidence of life in extreme conditions (Thermophophiles, Halophiles andMethanogens)

• Advent ofArchaea and its manifestations

• Evolution ofoxygen in the atmosphere

• Phophogenesis

• Origin ofEukaryotes

• Megascopic life

• Multicellular life (metc'i~·hytic and metazoan remains)

• Biomineralization

• Ediacara fossils

• Ichnofossils

• Advent, diversity and extinction patterns ofPrecambrian fossils

The study ofPalaeobiochemistry ofPrecambrian sediments and fossils is an importanttool to decipher early biogenic processes as well as to understand the antiquity of importantsteps in the evolution of biological kingdom. Astropalaeobiology is a new dimension of thePrecambrian palaeobiology that will help in understanding the origin oflife on earth as well aspossibly on other planetary bodies. New missions to Mars and study of fallen asteroids arebeing given importance to understand the early biosynthesis. With the ambitious spaceresearch plans ofIndia, BSIP intends to take a step forward to work on all these aspects, whichfall in the ambit ofastropalaeobiology.

6

Gondwana Floristics, Palaeoclimate and Palaeoecology

Gondwana System represents fluvio-lacustrine deposits with rich coal measures. Gondwanasediments are floristically represented by three distinct floral successions in ascendingorder- Glossopteris flora of Permian age, Dicroidium flora of Triassic age, and thePtilophyllum flora ofJurassic-Cretaceous age. Enormous data have been generated regardingmorphotaxonomy, cuticular study, anatomy, ontogeny, reconstruction of plants andvegetational scenario, phylogeny, evolution of floras, biostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy forunderstanding basinal development in space and time, correlation ofIndian Gondwana florawith other Gondwana floras and antiquity ofplant groups.

Palynological investigations have helped to study various stratotype of Gondwanaformations and coeval rocks in the Himalaya. High-resolution palynological data hasprovided information about significant marker species to know morpho-evolutionary trendsin various Gondwana palynoassemblages.

From Lower Gondwana exposures several new findings of Glossopteris leaf as wellas fertile organs have been made from various localities. Studies have revealed well­diversified Triassic flora of Middle Gondwana mainly from South Rewa Gondwana Basin.Significant recovery of Upper Gondwana flora characterized by the dominance ofbennettitalian taxa along with marker fern genera and conifers have been made from differentIndian sedimentary basins. Record of Phyllopteroides laevis, index genus taxa of EarlyCretaceous of eastern Australia, from Rajmahal Formation indicates the proximity of Indiawith Australia during Early Cretaceous Period. Recent findings of angiospermous remains(Sonajoricarpon rajmahalensis, a fruit and pollen) from the Rajmahal Formation suggest theevolution of angiospenns during Early Cretaceous Period in India also. More areas to befocused are:

• Morphotaxonomy, cuticular, anatomical and ontogenetic features, ultrastructural study (SEM & TEM), reconstruction of plant parts as well asvegetational scenario and palaeoclimatic interpretation and to identify variousindex taxa and assemblages and their biostratigraphic potential.

• Evolution, diversification, extinctions, antiquity and relationship of variousplant groups (including early land plants and flowering plants) and ecologicalvariation and palaeoenvironmental interpretation.

• Terrestrialization, pattern of colonization and palaeocommunity structureanalysis for micro and mega climatic variations.

• Palynological study (micro-/ megaspores and DOM) for identification,morpho- character analysis and pattern of evolution. Palynodating by markertaxa as well as assemblage and correlation of coal-bearing horizons inGondwana successions and coeval successions in the Himalaya.

• Taphonomic studies for palaeoclimatic interpretations.• Modelling ofpalaeovegetational succession ofthe basin and palaeogeographic

and palaeoclimatic simulation.

• Conservation of suitable sites to preserve the palaeobotanical andpalaeontological wealth for general awareness.

The integrated multidisciplinary approach of research on the palaeofloral knowledgeto understand the web of interactions of the past dynamic earth's ecosystem as well aspotentiality ofits economic resources will be enhanced.

7

Tertiary Floristics and Biostratigraphy

In view of the collision of Indian Plate with the Asian Plate and uplift of the Himalayas, the

investigation ofHimalayan flora particularly ofthe Higher Himalayas is very significant. Thework on Tertiary floristics of Higher Himalaya will throw light on the advent ofcooler Sino­Japanese and European elements in India. Likewise work on the Tertiary flora of northeastand northwest India will give the idea of intennixing of Southeastern and Afro-Arabianelements in India and vice-versa during Tertiary Period. The work on the DeccanIntertrappean will provide data on the early history ofangiospenns in India and evolutionarylineages ofangiospenns taxa. Future avenues ofresearch based on Tertiary floral studies are:

• Search for early flowering plants in India as they suddenly became the mostdominant group ofterrestrial plants from Cretaceous onwards and to trace theantiquity and evolutionary lineages ofvarious angiospennous families/taxa.

• Study of morphological and anatomical features in relation to environment(CLAMP Analysis). The features in the extant woods and leaves (which fonnthe most commonly available fossil material) in relation toenvironment/climate and their correlation with the fossils will provide betterpicture about the past climate.

• The data generated will be utilized for climate modelling based on computerprogrammes.

• The analysis of cuticular remains has played an important role inunderstanding the taxonomy and evolution of fossil plants. Emphasis on thestudy ofcuticle ultrastructure is desirable since this membrane is composed ofa number of layers that can be identified based on structural and chemicalfeatures.

• Plant-animal interactions can be seen by direct or indirect evidences. Thepresence ofnectaries in the flowers and their relationship with insects, possibledamages ofplant parts by herbivores and coprolite studies will provide usefulinformation about the c(H:volution ofplant and animals.

• Fungal stu<;lies may provide evidence ofparasitic mode oflife and demonstratethe early existence ofsymbiotic relationships.

• Charophytic gyrogonites frequently occur in sediments in the fossil fonns.Their study has largely been neglected. Charophytic remains (gyrogonites)can prove useful biostratigraphic tool.

• Stomatal studies with reference to atmospheric pC02 changes. The study canbe ofgreat use in deciphering C02 levels in the past, consequently giving cluesabout the past climate.

• The taphonomic studies of the fossil material will help in understanding theintricate processes involved in fossilization.

• The study of Paleosols and soil organic matter can be used for deducingpalaeoclimate by estimating proportion of C3/C4 plants once present at a site,using carbon isotopes from paleosol carbonates.

8

Marine Micropalaeontology of Petroliferous Basins

India has a fast growing energy requirement in the oil & natural gas sector with high importdependence. Demand for concerted geoscientific studies is bound to increase due to theexpansion of hydrocarbon exploration activities, especially in offshore region. Prediction ofhydrocarbon potential is one of the most challenging problems, as geoscientists need moreand more accurate techniques for stratigraphic analysis and source rock evaluation ofpetroliferous basins.

BSIP has a strong base in taxonomy, biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmentalanalysis based on terrestrial palynomorphs (spore-pollen), marine phytoplankton(dinoflagellate cysts and nannofossils) and organic matter studies (Palynofacies). Precisebiochronostratigraphy, palaeoenvironmental framework and source rock evaluation ofsedimentary successions are the essential components of hydrocarbon exploration whereBSIP can contribute effectively.

Sequence biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental analysis based on multimicrofossil/palynofacies distribution patterns especially in relation to the pervasive influenceof relative changes in sea level have emerged as a new approach to study sedimentarysequences. Organic-walled microfossils (dinoflagellate cysts) and palynofacies are importanttools for identification of sequence components and key stratal surfaces, besides the sourcerocks. Since organic rich sediments with high TOC value mostly accumulate in TransgressiveSystems Tract and High Stand Systems Tract, identification of systems tracts inoutcrop/subsurface sections (based on palynological/palynofacies /organic faciesparameters) is necessary for location and identification of source rocks. Taxonomic studiesneed to be emphasized to identify and continuously refine stratigraphic ranges andenvironmental signatures of key microfossil taxa! associations from both out crop andsubsurface sections. Multidisciplinary integrated studies on phytoplankton/palynology/palynofacies and source rock evaluation, thus, need to be rigorously pursued atBSIP to generate and update high impact palynological research database not only to providesupport to exploration related work in the industry but also to gain requisite academicexcellence in particular disciplines.

Important areas of focus visualized in marine micropaleontology and high impactpalynology are:

• Integrative high resolution biostratigraphy ofMesozoic-Cenozoic Successions• Organic Ir.:ltter studies (Organic facies/Palynofacies) for source rock

evaluation.• High-resolution sequence biostratigraphy, palaeoenvironmental analysis and

relative sea level changes, and development ofbasinal models.• Global bioevents, Time boundaries and Mass extinctions.• Past global climate changes, extreme climates and Oceanic Anoxic Events in

earth history (palynological proxy indicators of wanning/cooling orcatastrophic episodes)

• Phytoplakton /palynological study ofcoastal/ marine/Quaternary successions,especially ofmodern delta systems

• Study of calcareous algae for palaeoenvironment and biofaciescharacterization

9

Hydrocarbon xploration

Existing facilities in the country to systematically generate the necessary quantum of reliable

geo-scientific data in respect of Palynofacies and high-resolution biostratigraphy are limited.The currently established facilities existing with the National Oil companies seem to be justsufficient for their own needs. The increasing number of players that are being added up witheach new round of bidding for exploration blocks or for small and marginal field developmentand exploration often depend on offshore outsourcing in the field ofbiostratigraphy and sourcerock evaluation.

It appears that even the national oil companies would need outsourcing of explorationrelated palynological work. Backed by its vast academic expertise and extensive database,BSIP is one of the relevant centers of excellence capable to effectively contribute towardsmeeting the growing demand of workload in the area of palynofacies, biostratigraphy,palaeoenvironment analysis, high-resolution sequence biostratigraphy and organic petrology.Availability under one roof of extensive taxonomic and stratigraphic database on all plantmega and microfossil groups from all geological ages, and specialist scientific group dealingwith Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic and Quaternary palynofossils and organicmatter studies are its inherent capabilities.

• The Institute needs to strengthen the applied palynological and stratigraphicwork, besides organic geochemistry studies to cater to the needs of oilcompanies and other organizations involved in oil!gas and CBM exploration.

• The Institute can provide applied database on palynofacies, biostratigraphy,organic petrology, and source rock evaluation within a flexible framework.

• The deliveries primarily based on high impact palynological inputs wouldinclude- Biostratigraphic Data Base, Sequence Biostratigraphy (based onintegrated data), Palaeoenvironmental Models, Source Rock Mapping,Geochemical finger-printing for source rock characterization and hydrocarbonpotential, Coal Petrology for CBM, and Atlases of various palynological!microfossil groups, palynofacies and coal micro constituents, StratigraphicRange Charts, Maps and Models emphasizing Less Explored, Deep Water andFrontier Basins.

Fundamental study on mangrove swamps on aspect of preservation of organic matterin the recent sediments with combined palynological, microbial and organo-geochemicalstudies is a potentially significant area of research for better understanding ofdeposition ofoilvs. gas source rocks and standardization of reference palynofacies for deltaic/coastal marineenvironments for quick-look Industrial Palynology. Comprehensive workshops from time totime involving experts in the fields of Sequence stratigraphy, sedimentology and faciesanalysis, organic matter studies, palaeoenvironment and micropaleontology are envisaged forkeeping update with the most modern technology and knowledge for the assessment ofhydrocarbon potential.

10

Coal Bed Methane Exploration

Coal bed methane (CBM), a saturated carbonaceous gas (CH4) generated and entrapped in

coal beds, has recently emerged as one of the most powerful natural energy resources.Presently, methane is a buzzword in energy sectors, however its demand will grow rapidlywith National/Industrial development.

With this fact in view, to gather CBM related information on coal is mandatory for itsexploration and exploitation. Coal petrography provides an insight to coal, which acts as boththe reservoir and producer for methane and inherits the properties to generate, store, adsorb,desorb and produce the gas. The methane generating and retention capacities of coal dependon its maceral, rank and porosity. To generate data for CBM exploration, petrological studieson coals should be on the following aspects:

• Maceral composition (both in normal and fluorescence modes}- in order toimprove our understanding on source material serving as raw material formethane generation and on methane adsorption capacity.

• Degree ofmaturation or rank- to get information on amount ofgas generatedand ability ofcoal to generate methane (thermogenic).

• Permeability- inherent porosity i.e. micro-cleats and micro-structures studiesthrough optical microscope with image analyzer, SEM, etc. are extremelyuseful in knowing desorption capacity (gas flow) ofcoals, which has a bearingon permeability.

• Adsorption behaviour ofdifferent macerals and its variation with their content(in different coal lithotypes) should be ascertained.

• Behaviour of macerals on hydro-fracturing (pre- and post-hydro-fracturing ofcoal) through laboratory simulation.

• Isotopic composition of CBM will help to ascertain its biogenic, mixed orthermogenic origin.

Organic matter studies conventionally utilized to understand coal are reliable forascertaining organic matter type (kerogen) and for determining the maturity oforganic matterin sediments for the evaluation ofsource rock. BSIP is one of the nodal centres of such studieshaving the academic expertise and database.

In this endeavour, continuous upgradation of instruments is required in order togenerate data of requisite standard. A close cooperation and coordination between BSIP andCBM industries is ofprime importance.

11

Coal Petrography

Huge reserves ofcoal and lignite in India playa vital role in meeting out the National energy

demand. Coal is the feedstock and backbone of steel and power industries, besides it has agreat potential for another energy resource of future- the coal bed gas or methane (CBM).With the National development, the demand for coal and lignite is expected to increasecontinuously and rapidly in coming decades. Despite the fact, fundamental researches onIndian coal/lignite are still inadequate and require to be pursued vigourously.

To improve our understanding on nature, origin, quality (maceral composition), andgrade (rank or maturity) and other physico-chemical properties of coal for its judiciousutilization in industries, a long-term experimental, analytical and observational investigationusing conventional and the most modem petrographic techniques is highly imperative.

• By the assimilation of geochemical interpretations of organicmicroconstituents of coal, petrological investigations are effective inpredicting suitability ofcoals for various industrial and economic purposes.

• The fluorescence properties of coal macerals have been ascertained; yetchemical and physical factors causing fluorescence need clarification.

• Detailed petrographic characterization of coals is essential for selection ofcoals suitable for liquefaction, i.e. conversion into synthetic oil or syncrude andfor specific conversion processes, so that when needed in future the resourcesare well established, the process suitably designed and products alreadyascertained for immediate deployment.

• Coke petrography has significance related to coke-strength and coke­reactivity.

• Minerals in coal are poorly understood. Coal mineralogy is extremely essentialin understanding its behaviour in coal beneficiation/conversion and when coalis used for specific purposes, besides envirorunental problem.

• Systematic study ofcoalification tracks ofvarious vitrinite types (normal, sub­hydrous and perhydrous) and inertinitization track during early coalificationbesides, ascertaining the precursors of 'rank inertinites' (e.g. cellulose-richand/or lipid-rich cell walls and/or humic detritus?) is needed.

• Intensification of large-scale regional and subsurface coalification studies forpreparation ofcoalification maps in combination with geophysical research inorder to clarify problems ofplate tectonics, depth ofcrust-mantle boundary andmagmatic intrusions. The coalification maps will be highly useful forassessment of quality and grade on a regional scale for selecting coals/seamsfor specific utilization.

Petrological investigations ofcoal/lignite at the BSIP need to oriented to resolve suchspecific problems in coordination with other organizations engaged in exploration,production and utilization ofcoal resources.

12

Quaternary Vegetation and Climate

Quaternary palaeoclimatic studies at BSIP are based on analyses of multi proxypalynological records from lacustrine and marine sediments from diversified geographicalsites of the Indian subcontinent extending from Himalayas, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,Ganga Plain, Orissa, Bengal basin, Northeastern region, South Indian montane, coastal andmarine sites, and from the Antarctica Continent. Besides pollen proxy, which has been themainstay of palaeoclimate studies in the Institute, phytoliths, diatoms, dinoflagellate cystsand organic matter are also being investigated for climate and sea level interpretations. Thesestudies provide data on spatio-temporal climatic changes covering major time span of theQuaternary Period. Much attention is required to gather fine resolution palaeoclimatic datathrough the analyses of these multi proxy records to be utilized towards understandingprecisely the palaeomonsoon variability in the Indian sub-continent during the past millennia.This database will enable to simulate the model for the prediction of future course ofclimate.Key issues in short term and long-term climate changes (decadal, centennial and millennialscale calibrated with C 14, AMS, TIL, U/Th dates) need to be emphasized.

Continental RecordsSo far, the pollen proxy data is generated from Peninsular India (Madhya Pradesh,

Bihar and Maharashtra), north east India, and south Indian Montane, which constitute a verylarge and rich phytogeographical province of the country and thus need further study. Acomprehensive pollen investigation oflacustrine sediments from these regions is required inorder to reconstruct the antiquity of the tropical forests and the climatic changes during theirformation in the Quaternary Period. Palynological data would also be useful for forestmanagement especially to understand phytogeographical distribution, extinction andmigration ofplant taxa from one region to another as well as stress ofanthropogenic activitieson the natural vegetation in a definite time frame. As generation and proliferation of tropicalforests is largely governed by monsoon, the vegetation sequences derived through pollenstudies are useful to understand palaeomonsoon variability in the Indian sub-continent duringthe past millennia. This information will be of great significance in order to suggest theconcrete measures to be taken for the conservation ofnatural forest resource ofthe country.

In addition to pollen, other proxy data viz, the chemical analysis including totalorganic content, total carbonate content and C/N ratio together with carbon isotope, charcoaland sedimentological studies ofsediment cores will be taken up to generate more data in orderto substantiate the climatic inferences drawn from the pollen analysis.

Climatic scenarios emerging from analyses of multi proxy records will provide database to understand spatio-temporal variability ofmonsoon from the Indian sub-continent andits impact on major climatic events during GlaciallInterglacial periods, Last Glacialmaximum, Period of Climatic Optimum, Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice age that havebeen investigated globally.

Investigation ofdeeper lake or marine sediment profiles with AMS C-14 dates couldbe helpful in generating high resolution palaeoclimatic variability through patynology andother potential parameters like TOC, DOM, C/N ratio, elemental analysis, etc. Through

13

computerization, synthesis and corroboration of multiproxy data following aspects needattention:

• Palaeolimnological studies ofnatural lacustrine lakes ofIndia.

• Origin ofSaliTeak Forests and causes ofdeterioration.

• Modern pollen rain in Peninsular India.

• Evolution ofUpland Savannah in South Indian Montane.

• Palaeoclimatic history ofMikir Plateau, Assam, northeastern India.

• Creation ofQuaternary pollen data bank

• Ladakh region (for geomorphic, geochemical, palaeoseismic, palaeomagneticstudies)

Marine/ Coastal RecordsSemi-enclosed seas surround India with the Arabian Sea lying to her west and the Bay

of Bengal lying to the east. The coastal and shelf sediments in both the seas are importantrecorders of the climatic variability. The Arabian Sea is characterized by high surface waterproductivity, intense upwelling, a mid-depth oxygen minima zone (OMZ) and organic matterrich sediments. These are suitable for the study of palaeoproductivity, palaeomonsoon, sealevel changes and organic matter preservability. The deltas on the east coast of India areprogradational in nature, characterized by thick pile of sediments and widespread mangrovedistribution. These are extremely important not only for studying impact of sea level changeson mangroves but also for characterizing terrestrial/marine palynomorph and organic matterdistribution in deltaic microenvironments for palaeroenvironmental modelling as revealed byrecent investigations on coastal sediments. Fewer studies on marine sediments have beencarried out in the Institute and need to be focused in future especially in relation topalaeomonsoon and sea level changes. Building up of datasets on biogeographic distributionpattern of dinocysts and palynofacies variation from marine surface/core sediments (coast toslope transect, especially OMZ) is required to identify palynological proxies suitable for areasnear river mouths and coastal/shelfregion. Potential areas ofstudy (deltas, estuaries, tidal flats& creeks etc.) based on multiproxy parameters (terrestrial and marine palynomorphs, organicmatter etc.) are:

• Krishna-Godavari, Palar and Cauvery deltas and estuaries

• Saurashtra coast

• Karwar and southwest coastal region

• Tsunami generated sediments ( East Coast, Andamans, Saurashtra)

Antarctica and the Southern OceanBSIP has been an active participant in Antarctic palaeoclimate studies for the past few

years by participating in three Indian Antarctic Expeditions. Pollen analysis can provideterrestrial evidence, which can be crosschecked with oceanic micropalaeontology, oceancurrents, and climatological studies. Study of present day flora, their autecology, especiallytheir means ofdispersal, pollen - spore production of individual taxa and their sedimentationin terms ofpast climate in circum-Antarctic region is very significant.

The multiproxy data set (pollen/spores, diatoms, dinoflagellate cysts, palynodebris,clay mineralogy, palaomagnetic properties, stable isotopes etc.) would serve as benchmarks

14

for a temporal assessment of the lake ecosystems of Antarctica as well as of the climaticchanges recorded in polar lake sediments during the Late Quaternary. The data would also beintegrated with the proxy palaeoclimatic information to be generated from the ice cores andother related studies proposed to be retrieved from Antarctica. The following aspects areaimed to be addressed:

• Generation of high resolution multiproxy data (based on palynological,micropalaeontological, sediomentological, mineral magnetic and geochemicalstudies) from surface and subsurface glacio-lacustrine and coastal marinesediments in an around Schirmacher Oasis and Larsemann Hills.

• Long term monitoring of aerospora over Southern Ocean and SchirmacherOasis, EastAntarctica (using volumetric air catcher).

• Formulation ofdepositional model ofairborne palynodebris

• Moss peat development in vast Schirmacher oasis ofEastern Antarctica.

• Fine resolution palynostratigraphical and chronological studies of deep lakesediment profiles and clay varves

• Palynological & geochemical studies ofdeep Antarctic ice cores

• Micropalaeontological study of Southern Ocean sediments for high latitudeoceamc processes

PalaeoseismicityIndia offers a variety ofseismotectonic provinces, where palaeoseismic studies can be

pursued and Ladakh region is a potential site for such studies. Palaeoseismic methods haveproven its effectiveness in documenting the pre-historic earthquakes based on the analysis ofseismically induced structures from the geological sequences and their inter-relationships in ageochronological framework (l4C, AMS, TIL dates). The slip per event, their rate andrecurrence time can also be estimated. A co-coordinated study can be useful to:

1. Obtain information from Late-Quaternary geologic records on the pastearthquakes.

2. Characterize rate ofdeformation and earthquake recurrence interval.

3. Dating the sequences and deformation surfaces that can be used to date theevent and quantify rates ofdeformation.

4. Integrate geological, geodating and geophysical data to characterize potentialearthquake sources and fault systems.

11 5

Dendrochronology (Tree-ring)

Tree-ring based high-resolution climatic reconstruction in both spatial and temporalcoverage, has been found most significant for understanding the various aspects of climaticchanges during recent past. The Institute has generated a good amount of tree ring datatowards the reconstruction of climate in global perspective. So far longest climatereconstruction is the pre-monsoon (March-April-May) temperature based on ring width dataof Cedrus deodara growing in Garhwal Himalaya, which extends long back to 1226 AD. Theclimatic reconstruction shows high variability during the Little Ice Age in the high westernHimalaya. Similarly, from the eastern part of the Himalaya, July- September temperature isreconstructed which goes up to 1507 AD.

The reconstructed data shows some decadal scale fluctuations in which l760s, 1780s,l800s, l830s, l850s and l890s are cool decades with the minimum during 1801-1810 (-0.31C). Period 1978-1987 (+0.25 C) was the warmest one. Besides climate, tree rings data havealso been applied in other studies viz., in the dating ofpalaeoseismic and glacial fluctuations;and to access productivity in woods of geological past. A preliminary investigation on treegrowth learthquake relationship from Agora, Uttarkashi, a region faced severe earthquakeduring 1991 shows that growth rings in Pinus wallichiana were narrow in 1992, the yearsubsequent to the earthquake events and most of the trees exhibit in that year eccentric growthrings, i.e. narrow ring on the upslope side of the stem in comparison to wider contemporaryrings of the lean side. Presence of signature of earthquake on these trees clearly testifies thepotential oftree ring data in palaeoseismic dating ofthe Himalayan region.

Trees growing in the upper tree line viz., Pinus wallichiana in Kinnaur, HimachalPradesh and Pinus wallichiana and Betula utilis around Gangotri Glacier have been foundpromising to study the glacial fluctuations of the Himalayan region. Besides modern trees,tree ring study from petrified woods ofAraucarioxylon and Podocarpoxylon collected fromvarious Tertiary localities indicate that continued increase in aridity led to extinction ofAraucaria from the Indian sub-continent and Podocarpus became endangered taxa insouthern and north-east part ofIndia.

• Emphasis has been on going researches towards the understanding of thedetailed climatic dynamics of the Indian subcontinent in global perspective. Inthis connection, generation of network of climatically sensitive long tree ringchronologies frO!? contrasting climatic zone of north west and eastern part ofthe Himalaya; and Peninsular India have been given prime importance.

• Particularly, the long tree-ring records from tropical forest sites would be ofgreat relevance for the analyses ofmonsoon climatic variability in longer timescale. This long data would be useful in understanding the monsoon variabilityand its long-term teleconnection with other climatic events viz., Eurasian snowcover and ENSO etc

• In the Tree-ring studies carried out so far, only ring-width has been taken intoconsideration, other tree ring parameters, such as density, isotope, cell size,vessel area etc. also have equal or sometimes, more importance in decipheringand reconstructing past climatic, environmental, ecological andgeomorphological studies. These parameters need to be taken up in future.

16

Palaeoethnobotany

Palaeoethnobotany (often called archaeobotany) is one of the areas of multidisciplinary

research being pursued at BSIP, which contributes directly to the relationship of plants andprimitive people during the dark ages of pre- and proto-historic past,and the environment ofancient cultural settlement sites; apart from reconstruction of vegetational history andpalaeoclimate through palynological study of Quaternary researches. The investigationsinclude plant remains recovered through archaeological excavations of early humansettlements.

Systematic approaches to archaeobotany began in the early phase of 1980s at BSIP incollaboration with field-archaeologists and participation in excavations and in datageneration. Against the earlier sketchy picture, a major breakthrough has been made at theInstitute, particularly in the studies of archaeological plant remains in northern India. So far,our studies have revealed useful plants from a number of sites exploited in their environmentby pre- and proto-historic people and about ancient agricultural systems. The work fromNeolithic site Lahuradeva (UP) has traced the antiquity ofrice cultivation from 6/7 millenniumBe in Ganga plain.

The discipline has a bright future India given the shear size and rich cultural heritage ofthe country, its diversity in terms of natural environment and subsistence strategies. However,it still needs to make a rapid thrust to catch-up with the progress in the regions ofWest andEast Asia. In Near Eastern and European countries, proliferation of workers in the 1970s andonwards has brought to light vast datasets. Likewise, in SouthAsia at Mehrgarh in Kachi plainsof West Pakistan, Indian subcontinent, cultivation of wheat, and barley has documentation ofearly Neolithic agro-pastoralism around 7/8 millennium Be. We have still to resolve thebroader understanding of human and plant relationship in the Dark Ages. Botanical aspect inarcheology is no longer peripheral but paramount to many unresolved questions of humanpast.

• There is need for environmental and ethnobotanical conservation of forests,especially in the tropical regions so that hundreds ofecotypes ofearly economicplants are not lost, also of ancient cultural sites for the know-how of pastenvironment.

• Focus on a large number of potentially important sites in highly preferredsituations in different ecological zones.

• There is need of interpretational problem oriented approach to viewdomestication and beginning ofagriculture from an evolutionary point ofview,so that continuous process from the stage ofgathering can be traced out, on theonset ofHolocene.

17

Aerobiology

Aerobiological studies have gained significant importance in the recent years because of its

application in the diagnosis and treatment of allergic disorders such as allergic rhinitis,bronchial asthma, atopic dermatitis, urticaria, etc. In general allergic rhinitis, also called 'Hay­fever', vary from 6 to 12% in USA, Canada, Finland, New Zealand and Australia. Preliminarystatistics available from India suggest that nearly 10% of the population suffers with thissyndrome.

Aerobiology is related with air pollution, biodeterioration, human and animaldiseases, forestry and gene ecology, palynology, meteorology, agriculture, etc. Presently,aerobiological studies have its own national network at many centers in the country such asKolkata, Bangalore, Gwalior, Chennai, Hyderabad, Imphal, Gorakhpur, Pune, Lucknow,Aurangabad, Delhi, Jaipur, etc.

Aerobiotic studies at BSIP have a long history including survey ofatmospheric pollengrains, and analysis of aeromycoflora. Detailed aerobiological data was generated for threeconsecutive years (1983-86) and over a period of four years (1994-98) employing threeinternationally recognized samplers, viz. Burkard, Rotorod, and Andersen. The standardrecord ofaerospora ofLucknow assembled so far are useful as a 'Ready-reckoner' for periodicbiopollutant predictions required for the treatment ofvarious allergic disorders caused by air­borne pollen grains and fungal spores. Future priorities are:

• Preparation ofannual pollen-spores calendars using standard pollen samplers

• Identification ofclinically significant pollen types

• Establishment ofdata retrieval centers and computer based forecasting systems

• Characterization and standardization of different pollen allergens for theirallergenic components

• Forecasting system using mass media, such as Newspaper, Television, Radio,electronic media, etc.

• International multidisciplinary research programmes

• Education at college/university level.

18

Molecular Palaeontology

Molecular biology provides an insight into the history of life. This branch ofscience dealing

with fossil organic molecules is known as Palaeobiochemistry or Molecular Palaeontology.Plant and animal fossils contain decay resistant bio-macromolecules. The most abundant bio­macromolecules in extant plants are lignins, which are the main contributors to lignites andcoals. Resistant bio-macromolecules are known to occur in fossil and living algal cell walls,seed coats, periderm, spores and pollen. Study of macromolecules in fossil material providesan opportunity to investigate their origin, evolution and diversity through time.

Geochemical fossils are biological markers that can convey information about the type oforganisms contributing to the organic matter incorporated in solid fossil fuels (coals) andsedimentary rocks. They are useful in characterization and correlation offossils found in coal,oil shale, source rock or crude oils. Information about microbial activity or chemicalrearrangements at the time ofdeposition and subsequent chemical reactions during diageneticand catagenetic stages can also be retrieved.

Study of collagenes (a protein found both in primitive as well in modem animals)preserved in mineralized skeletons and bones, helps in understanding the evolutionary tree.Biomarkers for plants (especially lower plants) and animal groups in Precambrian sedimentscan be identified. The amino acid contents ofthe sediments provide extra tool for Quaternarystratigraphy (amino stratigraphy).

The studies may be used to:

• develop molecular evolutionary clock i.e. the point of divergence of differentplant and animal groups.

• evolution ofearly protists

• understand preservational parameters, taphonomy and diagenetic changes.

• identify biomarkers characteristic ofdifferent plant and animal groups.

• furnish information regarding maturation palaeoenvironment, origin andgenesis ofsource material into fossil fuels.

19

Geochronometry and Isotope Studies

The chronology of climatic events is vital for modeling the climatic parameters. The proxy

climatic records retrieved from a variety of archives cover a wide span of time ranging fromdecadal to millennial scale. Radiocarbon dating is an important geochemical tool thatprovides dating ofclimatic events for the last forty thousand years.

• BSIP has served as a national facility for dating a large number of samplescovering lake and marine sediments, terrestrial deposits, and archaeologicalartifacts. Attempts will be made to correlate between marine and terrestrialrecords based on radiocarbon dates and other proxy records.

• Corals can provide high-resolution climate record for the past few hundredsyears. Indian coasts harbour various species of corals, which have greatpotentials to provide past climatic information, though it is largely unexplored.Efforts will be made to collect coral samples and analyse for isotopes and tracemetals. This will help to understand the causes for short-term monsoonvariability. Long coral cores from the Lakshadweep and Andaman islands willfill this gap. The Andaman area is known to be seismically active withevidences of neo-tectonic activities in geologic records. Coral growth issusceptible to environmental degradation, and thus their study may help inreconstructing the seismic activities.

• There are many lakes in India, which have been studied for pollen with wellconstrained rediocarbon dates. Additional parameters, such as CIN ratio and d13C of organic matter and d 180 of biogenic carbonates will be analysed for abetter understanding ofthe past climate variability.

• Isotope dendrochronology is an emerging area where BSIP can carve a niche asit has a long tradition of dendrochronological work. Isotopic analysis (O,C,H)oftree ring shall provide complementary information to growth ring studies forhigh-resolution climatic inferences.

• In view of the ever increasing requirement of the Quaternary Palaeoclimategroups of the country, upgradation of the radiocarbon dating facility isenvisaged by augmenting the benzene extraction system and liquidscintillation counter, setting up of a Graphite Target preparation unit for AMSdating and isotopic analysis unit in collaboration with appropriate institutions.

20

Geochemistry and Clay Mineralogy

Geochemistry is considered to be a very good tool by which one can better constrain as well

as understand the process ofpreservation ofplant material in different forms, their occurrenceor absence in a particular stratum, geochemical conditions prevailing at the time ofdeposition, biochemical reactions responsible for the preservation and so on.

The development of Geochemical Laboratory in the institute has significance not only tosupport the on going research activities but also to open up new avenues of research as well,such as:

• Source Rock Characterization- in relation to fossil fuel, ore deposits andfarmland formation.

• Chemostratigraphic Studies- to resolve boundary problems and enhancestratigraphic resolution.

• Weathering and erosion studies- in relation to elemental redistribution indifferent spheres of the earth, degradation of fossil fuel and affect on ourmonuments and items ofcultural interest.

• Petrogenetic studies- major and trace elements including rare earthsmodelling very useful to understand the origin ofa particular rock.

• Stable and Radiogenic Isotope studies- in relation to absolute age ofthe rocksand other deposits and also the depositionaVformational environment.

• Water studies- in relation to domestic, industrial and pollution studies as wellas watershed managements.

• Dust studies- in relation to aerobiology and aerochemistry.

Study ofclay minerals can be an asset in the palaeoclimate research. The rationale forusing clays as palaeoenvironmental indicators lies in the assumption that climaticfluctuations lead to the formation of characteristic clay mineral assemblages. The lacustrinesediments especially those, which have deposited in the closed basins often, provide excellentevidence for the Late Cenozoic environmental changes

The clays may be proved as palaeoenvironmental indicators assuming that they areneoformed and transfonned in soil and weathering profiles within the catchment and that theclay mineral assemblage is controlled by the parent material as well as by the climate. Usingthis model, the sedimentary clays reflect the environment within the surrounding basin.Generally, the clay deposits exist in two different geological entities, firstly as weatheredproducts of major lithological units in tropical climate, and secondly as detrital or residualsedimentary deposits.

Climate and tectonic upliftment play an important role in clay fonnation. Temperatureand rainfall are the two important climatic factors that mostly control the clay formation.Tectonic uplift affects clay mineral assemblage in a number of ways. Clay mineralogicalstudies will be used to complement other lines ofpalaeoenvironmental evidence. Since claysare ubiquitous and relatively easy to analyse, their use in palaeoenvironmental reconstructionholds considerable attraction.

21

Auxiliary Units

Museum

The Museum of BSIP acts as nodal Centre for the dissemination of palaeobotanical

knowledge. Elaborate schemes to strengthen further the ongoing programmes concerningpopularization are envisaged. The task will be achieved through a series of activities, whichwill include up gradation, addition ofa new hall to the existing structure, bringing out bookletsand preparation ofCDs. More panels and fiberglass models depicting the nature oflife throughgeological ages will be added. These additions will throw more light on academic as well asapplied aspects of study of fossils. New hall will be furnished with the information aboutcurrent activities of the Institute. Booklets highlighting the activities will be published andwith a view to establish a virtual museum, CDs will be prepared.

Exhibitions, screening of educational films and lectures on topical interest will beprovided to the educational Institutions. Fossil specimens will be gifted to theschools/colleges for dissemination ofknowledge and popularization ofPalaeobotany.

HerbariumFor accurate assessment of the composition of fossil flora from the Tertiary and

Quaternary periods, information from the present day vegetation helps to interpret theirpalaeobotanical and palaeogeographical requirements. Fossils occur as fruits, leaves, wood,cuticle, pollen and spores and generally possess diagnostic characters, with the help of whichthey are identified. A comparative study with modem equivalents helps to infer the botanicalaffinity.

The main objective ofthe Herbarium is to develop a repository ofreference material ofextant plants and their preparations useful for comparative study of fossil specimens. In orderto cope with the emerging fields ofenquiry it is essential to develop necessary information onfloristic diversity, ethnobotany, taxonomy, morphology and molecular systematics of modemplants. The Herbarium of the Institute, being a repository of various plant materials such asplant specimens, polleniferous materials, pollen slides, wood blocks, wood slides, fruit andseeds etc. functions as complementary to research in various botanical, palaeobotanical andarchaeobotanical fields. In view ofrecent developments and demands, a need to electronicallypreserve such materials as computer fed data has arisen. The wealth of information availablein herbarium can be used for this purpose. Thus, up gradation and automation of Herbariumusing softwares is envisaged for establishment of online informative database of living andfossil plants with the aim to develop a Palaeo-Bioinformatics Centre.

22

Electron Microscopy

Application of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) in the field of biology has been

effectively explained for investigating the detailed morphology and other features. The use ofSEM helped to understand the structural diversity, interpretation and relationship betweendifferent taxa, and also constructing the evolutionary models and other aspects. The followingaspects are emphasized:

Dispersed organic matter- SEM can be efficiently used to explore surfacemorphology/topography of palaeobotanical specimens in different modes of fossilization,namely, impression (leaves, seeds fruits, etc.), compression (stem, leaves etc.), petrifaction(stem, root, seed, fruit, etc.), and carbonised (wood, seed, fruits, etc.). Microfossils (pollen,spores, fragmentary cuticles and wood trachieds, nanno-fossils/ diatoms/dinoflagellate cysts/acritarchs/microforams, etc.) recovered from sedimentary rocks are also investigated in muchgreater morphological details.

Taxonomy- It has been possible to investigate at very high resolutions (magnifications)distinctive patterns and characteristic features of the epidermis, e.g., types of stomata andtrichomes, glands and their distribution. These are useful not only in the identification ofextinct and extant forms but also in recognizing small fragments of plants (fossils) fortaxonomy. The study is also useful to identify the epicuticular wax pattern in different species,which is important for taxonomy.

Microbial degradation- For taphonomy the preservation of cuticle/organic matter canalso be studied under SEM. The microbial degradation ofcuticle and other plant fragments isa specific phenomenon. The conversion of structured mass to unstructured one is due tovarious kinds of bacterial attack in reducing environment and the phytopathogeniccapabilities to act with various minerals available in the sediments. It is possible toinvestigate the differential composition by using back-scattered detector. The study with SE,BSE and X-ray analysis ofdifferent stages ofmineralization provides complete data.

Micro-analysis- EDX allows elemental analysis of micro volumes of biological samplesand adds a new dimension to the study ofmorphology. In the plant tissues it is used to locatethe chemical elements of interest in particular location, e.g. presence ofsilica or crystal in thecell wall. Through the study ofbiomineralized tissue (biodegraded) and formation of pyriteframboids the composition ofminerals can be analysed.

Environmental SEM- The conventional SEM (CSEM) has superior resolution, depth offield and micro analytical capabilities and also has some limitations. The environmental SEM(ESEM) has certain benefits over the CSEM. It can image wet, dirty, oily, out gassingsamples, and can acquire electron images from hot sample, incandescence and delicatesamples can be seen directly without coating and without sample preparation. Wet samplesneed not be dried before viewing in the ESEM. This is specially important for specimens thatmust remain hydrated in the order to retain their structure (bacteria, algae, fungi, trichomes,glands, etc.).

23

Computer Applications

Recent advances in the field of computer (hardware/software) are to utilized to its optimum

by the Scientific/Administrative/Technical staffofthe Institute:

• Data generation! interpretation (using latest software packages) in research.

• Exchange of scientific data amongst scientists, within and outside Instituteusing LANIWAN

• To develop and upkeep the records and making internal/externalcommunications as well as notifications (Administrative section).

• To make data base of the records/ inventories of Library, Museum andHerbarium..

• To bring Institute publications on the Net, and to bring published material onDigital Media.

• To help in complete office automation.

GPS and GISGPS and GIS are tools to visualize the outcomes ofinterlinked processes ofincreasing

complexity. For any geological work, positioning is immensely essential and GPS is the besttool for this, whereas GIS can take multiple infonnation layers that can be manipulated, toevaluate relationships among the desired elements. GIS enables to analyze and model theinter-relationships between individual data layers, work more quickly and accurately. It alsoworks as a decision support system.

It is visualized that GPS and GIS are the infrastructure need helpful in carrying out thefollowing objectives:

• Resource evaluation

• Hazard mapping both natural and anthropogenic

• Investigation ofdiseases related to material release (rock, water, soil, etc.)

• Geochemical anomaly mapping for mineral resources.

• Geological structure modelling.

24

EPILOGUE

"For what is it after all, that pious men

worship in a stone which they place in a

temple, but an idea, or ideal, a great truth, a

hope or a wish for a higher existence, whether

in this world or in the next?"Birbal Sahni (April 03, 1949)

Let us put together our efforts in fulfilling the vision of the Founder and

achieve our mission.

25

-_I

Published by The Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow