Women in the Western Theatre Tradition Antiquity to 1700

Timeline

Classical Period

The Greek Theatre

2000-1100 B.C.E. Bronze Age Arrival of the Greeks in Greece. Rise and Fall of the Mycenean

kingdoms. Trojan War occurs near the end of this period 1400 B.C. Cult of Dionysus, God of Wine, intoxication and sexual vitality established

in Greece 1100-800 B.C.E. Dark Age Social and political recovery, evolution of the Greek City State, Rebirth of

literacy Homer writes The Iliad and Odyssey on the exploits of the great Trojan and Greek Heroes of the Trojan War. Hesiod writes the Theogony, an epic account of the gods, their origins and exploits 7th-6th B.C.E. Cult of Dionysus reaches its greatest power. Festivals started with choruses of satyrs dancing in the street, followed by “fat” people wearing phalli. Dithyramb, hymn or song of praise to Dionysus started celebrating his life, death and resurrection. Choral leader emerges. Becomes narrator, improvising the story in song while the chorus fills in the story with traditional song and dance Women Most women, as far as can be traced, live private, domestic lives under the domination of fathers and husbands. Women in aristocratic families sometimes educated. Great mythic figures of women – goddesses, queens, princesses, priestesses – who will become the subjects of the great tragedies, recorded in the writings of Hesiod and Homer. Sappho (630-12?-570) first extant woman poet in the Greek tradition writes. Widely admired for her lyrical and love poetry. Later European women writers often compared to her favorably as continuing to write in her tradition. 536-336 B.C.E. The Classical Age – Classical Athenian Theatre 536 Great or City Dionysia Festival started 534 Competitions in tragedy and dithyramb started at Festival. Thespis credited with the actual creation of drama. Wrote prologues and interlinking

dialogue. Acts out instead of narrating action as choral leader. Three other important dramatists whose work has not survived: Choerulus, Pratinas, and Phyrinichus Women Quietness, chastity, obedience to male authority, and contentment with the simple, domestic life of motherhood and household management praised as the feminine ideal. However, rural women were likely to be active in helping to run the family farm as a family business, and urban women had increasing opportunities for leisure, culture and learning. Heterae – highly educated, and artistically accomplished courtesans become popular companions of male citizens. Phyrinichus (511-476) credited with introducing women characters into drama. Women characters played by male actors with masks. 499-479 B.C.E. The Persian wars. Final defeat of Persia by a coalition of Greek forces (479 B.C.E.) rapid expansion of the Athenian Empire (478-431 B.C.E.) 490 Battle of Marathon. Greek States unite and pool resources to beat a superior Persian force under King Xerxes. Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.E.) fights as a soldier with the united Greek armies 472 Aeschylus writes The Persians his oldest extant work. Emerges as the first dominant playwright of the Golden Age. The Oresteia (468) remains only extant trilogy. 468 Sophocles (496-406/405) beats Aeschylus for the first time. Begins to emerge as second great playwright of the Golden Age Ajax (450-440.B.C.E.) and Antigone (441 B.C.E.) among his earliest plays. 455 Euripides (485/4-407/6) begins to write plays. Begins to emerge as third great tragic playwright of the Golden Age. 431-404 B.C.E. Peloponnesian War Athens and its allies go to war against Sparta and its allies in a long drawn out conflict that exhausts the human and material resources of both sides. War ends in Athens’ humiliating defeat and the end of its Golden Age 420-406/05 Sophocles writes most of his mature work including Oedipus Rex (420s), Electra (418-410) and Oedipus at Colonnus (produced posthumously in 401) 431-408 Euripides writes most of his mature work including Medea (431), Hippolytus (428), Andromache (425), Hecabe (424), Suppliant Women

(423), Electra (c. 422-416), The Trojan Women (415), Iphigenia in Taurus (414), Ion (413), Helen (412), Phoenician Women (409), The Bacchae and Iphigenia in Aulis (406) 427-405 Aristophanes (circa 447-380), begins to write plays. Emerges as first and only extant master of Old Comedy, Plays include Lysistrata (411) and Thesmophoriazusae (411) Women Most of the great dramatic women characters of the Classical period created over this period. Many of them drawn from the mythic period of great wars and conflict, though Aristophanes uses women in fantasy and satire to critique contemporary male folly in war and statecraft. As initially realized by mature male actors in the highly privileged form of tragedy, these characters set many of the basic models for the writing of tragic women characters throughout the neo-classical period. Uncertain whether women were allowed to watch the plays in the Athenian theatre, and if references to women in audience date from Hellenistic revivals. Possible that lower class women acted in popular forms of mime, dance or musical entertainment, but no certain record of that. 336-1 B.C.E. The Hellenistic Theatre Begins with the reign of Alexander the Great, and the integration of both Sparta and Athens into the Macedonian Empire. Dominance of Athens challenged, but Greek culture and learning highly valued and spreads its influence throughout the Empire. Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle becomes influential and first important criticism on the nature of theatre and its relevance to human life and society are produced. But great age of playwriting over. Writing becomes increasingly secularized and conservative. Revivals of earlier works with a greater emphasis on developing the technical and acting arts becomes popular. Professionalism grows as numbers of festivals increase giving more opportunities for production, and state subsidization replaces individual subsidization by wealthy families or citizens. 399 Socrates (470-399) tried and condemned to death for corrupting the youth of Athens. After Socrates’ death, Plato (427-347 B.C.E.), his most influential disciple, begins his mature writing, and the greatest body of his philosophical dialogues. Views on Art and Women given in The Ion and The Republic 366 Aristotle (384-322) enters Plato’s academy and stays there until Plato’s death in 347. After serving as tutor for Alexander the Great, returns to Athens and establishes his own school in 335 B.C. Writes most of his major works, including Nicomachean Ethics and The Poetics, which deal specifically with theatre. 317 Menander (342-291), the only extant writer of New Comedy wins first prize at the Lenaian Festival with The Grouch, his only remaining play of over 100 written.

Women Women benefit from increasing urbanization and secularization of Hellenistic society. Growth in monarchies to replace the polis creates a class of royal women active in political and diplomatic life either as reigning or consort queens. Female literacy continues to rise among wealthy or aristocratic women. Records of women writing poetry, studying philosophy, practicing medicine and being active in business, politics and legal activities. However, most women were still legally or formally under the guardianship of a male relative, and only a relatively few wealthy, upper class women benefited from the changes. With few exceptions such as the Cynics, who argued that women should be treated as equals, the dominant philosophical schools of the time viewed women, as a sex, as being inferior to men, and saw no need to reform or change their status as a class. Aristotle’s theories on drama validate its worth to the later Western tradition. However, his emphasis on hierarchy and categorization, the primacy of tragedy over comedy, text over performance, rationality over the passions and senses, and women’s unsuitability, for a variety of natural, moral and social/political reasons, to serve as tragic heroes, cast a long shadow over women’s place in the Western tradition and women’s role in it. By contrast, while Plato was more hostile to theatre in general, his validation in The Ion of divinely-inspired “genius” taking precedent over rationality in special cases, concepts of Platonic love and relationships transcending the flesh, and belief expressed in the Republic that education equalizes the sexes, and that women, properly trained alongside men, can participate as fully in society, also had important influences on women’s involvement in theatre in the Western tradition. Menander’s New Comedy was also to have a long-term influence on the development of women characters, by emphasizing romantic love as a dominant theme, and introducing such “types” as shrewish wives, lecherous old fathers, malicious and kindly courtesans, clever servants and sympathetic wives mothers, daughters and lovers into the tradition.

The Roman Theatre

Rome – The Republic – 509 B.C.E. – 27 B.C.E. Rome becomes a world power based on “republican” values of discipline, economy, endurance, military precision and loyalty to family and state. 509 Expulsion of the last Etruscan king. Founding of the Republic 6th c. 1st State-sponsored religious festivals or ludi established 390-290 Rebuilding of Rome after being sacked by Gauls. Roman expansion into Italy.

364 1st theatrical performance performed at ludi 282-146 Era of overseas conquest. Defeat and destruction of Carthage, defeat of Hannibal during the First, Second and Third Punic Wars. Conquest of Hellenistic Greece. Rome dominates the western Mediterranean 240 Livius Andronicus translates and presents 1st Greek plays for the Roman stage. Comedy and Tragedy start to be offered on a regular basis at the festivals. Roman art and literature are increasingly based on Greek models 211 First clear reference to mime or fabula racinata 207 Collegium poetarum – association of writers and actors founded Plautus (254-184 B.C.E.) and Terence (195-159 B.C.E.) write comedies based on Greek originals of New comedy 100-75 Pomponius, Novius, DecimusLaberius and Publilius Syrus experiment with turning Atellan farce, with its origins in the plots and character “types’ of the satyr play and Greek farce, into a literary form 78-27 B.C.E. Era of Civil War. First triumvirate. Pompey, Crassus and Julius Caesar. Caesar defeats Pompey’s forces and becomes dictator. Casar assassinated. Second triumvirate. Marc Antony, Lepidus, Octavian. Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra at Actium 55 1st permanent theatre built 22 Ist record of pantomime (fibula saltica) being performed in Rome, though known as a form as early as the 5th century in Greece. Women As in the case of Classical Greece, the Roman Republic celebrated an austere ideal of the feminine that stressed the virtues of stoicism, chastity, obedience to male authority, and contentment with a domestic life devoted to the loving, effective management of husband, children and household. With the Conquest of Hellenistic Greece, Hellenistic influences in thought, art, culture and philosophy tended to soften and liberalize the earlier domestic ideal, especially among high-class (Patrician) women and the wealthier and more influential Plebian families. Greek heritage in both tragedy and comedy continued strongly into Roman era with some modifications and improvements. Legitimate theatre continues to be dominated by male playwrights and performers, though the feminine “types” of tragedy and New Comedy are passed on to Europe through the extant work of Plautus, Terence and Seneca.

Rome – The Empire – 27 B.C.E. – 476 A.D. 27 B.C.E. – 68 C.E. Reign of the Julio-Claudian Emperors. Restored peace and prosperity under Caesar Augustus (27 B.C.E.-14 C.E.) Birth and death of Jesus. Roman expansion into northern and western Europe. 54-68 C.E. Decline into Civil War and disruption under Nero (54-68 C.E,), Seneca, tutor of Nero forced to commit suicide in 65 C.E. Year of the Four emperors (68-69 C.E. – Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellus) Virgil (70-19 B,C,E,) writes The Aeneid, an epic based on the Trojan War, Livy (59 B.C.E. – 17 C.E.) writes a history of Rome from Aeneas through to Augustus in 142 volumes (From the Founding of the City), Ovid (43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) and Horace (65-8 B.C.E. write poetry inspired by Greek culture and learning. Horace and Longinus (1st c C.E.) also write dramatic and literary criticism. Late Republic- early Augustan flowering of culture. Seneca (5 B.C.E. – 54 C.E.) writes The Trojan Women, Medea, Oedipus, Phaedra, Thyestes, Hercules on Oeta, The Mad Hercules, The Phoenician Women and Agamemnon based on the Greek originals of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides. 70-82 AD Colosseum built in Rome. Largest amphitheatre in Empire, seating 45,000-50,000 spectators. Reflects growing interest in games, spectacles, gladiatorial contests, mock sea battles,and wild animal fights 96-180 C.E. “Golden Age” of the Roman Empire. Era of economic prosperity, trade and growth of cities in Northern Europe. Barbarians begin to threaten the frontiers 235-476 C.E. Decline of the Western Empire. Despite a period of social, economic and political revival under Diocletian and Constantine, the Empire is progressively weakened by a series of weak or short-lived emperors, civil war, severe economic decline, increasing Christian resistance to what they regard as pagan decadence, and the increasingly more frequent and damaging barbarian invasions. 4th c. C.E. Festivals and building of permanent theatres flourish and reach their greatest extent of popularity. In 240 B.C.E. only 1 day a year was given over to dramatic entertainment. By 354 it was 100 days a year. Great age of playwriting over. Only parts of well-known plays performed. Farce and mime revert from literary to performed arts. Combats, games and spectacles as well as performance-based musical and physical entertainment mime and pantomime supplant legitimate theatre as citizenship increasingly extended to include free men in the territories. 280 C.E. Diocletian divides Rome into the Eastern and Western Empire to make administration easier. While later attempts are made to reunite the Empire, the division becomes permanent in 395.

312 C.E. Constantine temporarily reunites Empire and legalizes Christianity. 380 C.E. Christianity becomes state religion to exclusion of all others. Church opposes drama strongly on moral grounds. Exerts pressure on membership not to attend or perform, though the supplying of lavish public games and spectacles remains too central to the emperors’ control of the people for them to be abolished. 404 C.E. Gladiatorial contests abolished 476 C.E. Western Empire collapses under weight of foreign invasion and internal corruption though foreign rulers continue to support theatre between civic upheavals. 523 C.E. Animal fights end 549 C.E. Last recorded theatrical performance in Rome 568 C.E. Lombard invasion. No further record of state subsidization or sponsorship of festivals or events Women Collapse of Republic again paves the way for royal, high-born and wealthy women to exert social, political and economic influence within the system either in their own right or through a consort. Growing affluence, cosmopolitanism and public culture of the Empire further erodes the old Republican ideal of austere, domestic virtue and sharpens Christian attacks on pagan decadence, sensuality, and corruption. Increasing popularity of mime, the only theatrical form where women were allowed to perform, results in first clearly documented instances of actresses in the tradition. However, the fact that they were usually lower-class women who doubled as prostitutes and attracted crowds for both purposes again attracted the disapproval of church leaders. So did the fact that the mimes themselves were low, popular forms of enetrtainment that featured bawdy, satiric portrayals of everyday life including Christian rituals. As such were, mime and mime artist alike, were, like the games, regarded as a sign of the increasing decadence of the times. Becomes foundation of longstanding hostility of the Church to public, professional, commercial theatre, and to the involvement of both sexes, and women in particular, in it.

The Medieval Period 500-1500

Women Many early Christian reformers, like Tertullian(160-220 C.E.) who anticipated the almost immediate arrival the Final Judgement and the ending of the material world and history as we knew it, were hostile towards all elements of pagan Roman culture, including its strong Hellenistic influences. If its sexual, sensual and material excesses did not lead people directly into sin, corruption and every form of vice, then its more subtle artistic, literary, and intellectual temptations at the very least distracted people from engaging fully in the pursuit of the Kingdom of God both in this life and the next. Others, however, including St. Paul, St. Augustine (354-430) and St. Jerome (340-419 argued for a synthesis of the two systems, that recognized Christianity as the perfection and completion of the best elements of antiquity as understood correctly and stripped of error by the discerning Christian soul and mind as guided by the Church. Attitudes towards women also showed the same mix of conflicting thought. At its most hostile, patristic thought stressed the “weaker nature” of women and their greater susceptibility to both leading and being led into sexual, sensual and material vice – and thus the need for them to adhere to a simple, private ascetic life under firm but caring male guidance and authority. At its most generous, patristic thinking viewed the Hellenistic recognition of women’s potential for higher thought and greater social contribution, if she was properly educated, as being one of the best elements of antiquity that could be perfected and completed by Christianity - by a woman’s willingness to transcend her frail body and nature by being completely open to the radical, life-and-self transforming experience of “grace” and the complete commitment to realizing the “Kingdom of God” on earth and beyond, with kindred souls and minds regardless of gender. 395 C.E. – 1453 C.E. The Byzantine Empire While solidly Christian by 395, Byzantine scholars took great pride in their Greek heritage, preserving, studying and sometimes still performing the classical theatre of Greece. Liturgical drama may have been imported and adapted from Western models after 1000, but as with the late Roman Empire, most of the popular entertainment consisted of mime, pantomime, dances, variety entertainments and scenes or recitations from plays. Few changes or advances in theatre over the 1000 year period, but key Graeco-Roman texts lost to the West, continue to be preserved and studied. Women While the Byzantine tradition produced no known women playwrights, it did continue to produce women mimes/dancers/actresses – one of whom who, at least, transformed her life and fortunes remarkably after her conversion to Christianity.

Theodora of Byzantine (c 500-547 C.E.) The daughter of a bear and animal keeper at the hippodrome, and a dancer/actress Theodora became an actress, mime and courtesan to the Governor of Pentapolos with whom she reputedly had a child. After becoming a Monophysite Christian and abandoning her earlier profession for the more austere life of a wool-spinner she became mistress to Justinian, the heir to the throne, then married him in 523 once the law had been changed to allow marriages between upper class men and actresses. Upon his ascension to the throne in 527, he established her as Empress and joint ruler in all but name. Known as an intelligent, strong-willed woman, she helped to negotiate between different factions of Christianity in the Empire, advised prompt, decisive action to end a revolt that could have ended Justinian’s reign, and was active in a significant public building program. She was known to be generous to the poor and to champion the causes of women and underdogs. She improved the divorce, inheritance and property rights of women. She also established homes for prostitutes, prohibited forced prostitution, and toughened the penalties against rape, before dying of cancer around the age of 50. 500-1050 C.E. – The Medieval Period – Early- Western Europe Feudal system becomes new structure for society. Industrialization and urbanization low. Pope and Catholic Church become major force in Europe, both as preservers of culture and knowledge, but as a major moral and political force. King begins to emerge as primary secular force. 529 St. Benedict sets out his Rule of Saint Benedict as a guide for men wanting to lead a monastic life in organized religious communities dedicated to a stable, contemplative life of regularity, discipline and moderation under the authority of an abbot, or head of the monastery. Quickly adapted for women as well. Convents of nuns also begin to be established across Europe. 610-733 Mohammed founds Islamic Religion. Spreads across Arabia, southern Europe, Africa and Asia as far as India. Charles Martel defeats Arabs at battle of Tours, halting spread into Western Europe. Son of Martel, Pippin, becomes the first king to be anointed by the Pope and to be granted spiritual as well as secular authority to rule. 768-814 Charlemagne’s Empire. First unification of Europe under an Emperor sanctioned by the Church and crowned by the Pope. First flowering of medieval art, literature and culture 845-900 Series of Viking, Magyar and Muslim invasions sweep away remnants of Charlemagne’s Empire.

925 Earliest extant examples of dramatic dialogue in Medieval Europe. Brief scene between the angels and the three Marys as part of the Easter Mass 10th c Hrovsvitha of Gandersheim (935-1000 C.E.) writes six plays on Christian themes as modeled after Terence 900-1050 Beginnings of Feudalism. Armed knight on horseback appears for the first time in the 8th c and comes to dominate warfare in Europe. 1027 “Peace of God”. Christendom agrees to ban the use of the crossbow against other Christians in Europe. Women While the feudal system privileged male authority and that of ruler/warriors in particular, high-born women could inherit and bestow property and money, and often played a significant role in running the manor if their husbands were absent fighting or inspecting properties. Lower-class women played an important role in the revival and running of family farms on the feudal manor, but had fewer acceptable options than marriage, and fewer choices within or outside of it. By contrast, confronted with the prospect of having to marry a much older man she might have little in common with and possibly dying young in childbirth, or remaining unmarried because a suitable match could not be made, many well-born women either chose to embrace the monastic life instead or were directed into it by their parents. At best, life in a convent or monastery, gave an intelligent, educated women of good background a rare opportunity and use her own administrative and managerial talents to run a convent or abbey as a respected self-contained community in a larger European-wide community of similar centres. In some cases, she consciously worked on making it into a centre of learning where she could read, study and discuss ancient and contemporary texts with kindred spirits both in her own and other communities, and write and circulate her own work. The first known women playwrights in the Western tradition came out of these religious community. Hrosvitha of Gandersheim (circa 935-1000 C.E.) Saxony, Germany A canoness, poet, dramatist, historian, Hrosvitha was also the first-known woman playwright in the Western tradition. In addition to compiling three books of legends, poems, letters, plays, epic poems on the Ottonian Royal Family and the early days of Gandersheim Abbey, she also wrote six plays modeled after the work of the Roman playwright, Terence, who was still admired and read for the beauty of his Latin and literary structure. However, she intended to transform him into an apt educational or instructional tool for her community by consciously “christianizing” his themes, plots and characters into acceptable models of virtuous female (and male) Christian conduct that allow the women characters to transcend the conditions of time, life, the world and the flesh in this world and to pass triumphantly into eternal bliss in the next. Gallicanus Dulcitius

Callimachus Abraham Paphnutius (Conversion of Thais) Sapientia 1050-1300 C.E. – The Medieval Period – Middle - Western Europe Beginnings of consolidation and growth. Viking raids cease and town life, industry and trade begin to revive. Growth of sizable cities begins to weaken power of manorial feudalism. Schism between Roman and Byzantine Church begins to weaken concept of a united Christendom. Contact with Arab and Byzantine empire through trade and the crusades greatly enlarges political, intellectual and artistic horizons. Monastic life reaches its greatest popularity and influence across Europe for men and women, both. Universities begin to evolve out of schools connected to the cathedrals. 1054 The Great Schism. Serious split between Greek Church at Byzantium and Roman Church of the West. 1096-1270 At least 8 Crusades or Holy wars declared to liberate the Holy land from the Moslems. Campaigns also launched to reclaim Spain from Moslem rule. 90% of Spain reclaimed by Christian kings by 1250. Campaigns in the Holy land less successful. 1216-1221 New religious orders, the Dominican (1216) and Franciscan Friars (1221) established to work in growing cities and university towns. Tend to draw recruits from merchant and student class rather than aristocracy, and involve themselves in the commercial and intellectual lives of the cities, while taking a vow of poverty. Soon develop women’s orders as well. 1162-1242 Mongols threaten Europe under Genghis Khan. Conquer Eastern Europe up to Hungary before turning back. 1184-86 Andrea Capellanus writes a treatise “on Love” at the urging of Marie of Troyes, daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) . Seen as the basis of the “courtly love” ideal which also agrees that women should aspire for a great aspiring and transformative love beyond a marriage of social and political convenience. However suggests that the inspiration and object of that great love should be the lady herself, as the repository of all physical and spiritual beauty on earth, and that the lover’s greatest enoblement and happiness should be the eventual winning of the lady and secret consummation of their love after many trials to prove their constancy and worthiness. Seen as a summary of the codes of romantic love explored at Eleanor of Acquitaine’s court at Poitiers between 1170-74. 12th c. First universities established at Bologna and Salerno in Italy.

1050-1200 Liturgical drama at mass and Hours services spreads throughout Europe, particularly in France and Germany. Largest number of liturgical dramas centred around Easter (scenes from life, passion, death and Resurrection of Christ) and Christmas (procession of the prophets, Slaughter of the Innocents, the Nativity and the arrival of the three kings.) Some based on incidents from the Old Testament 1155 Ordo Virtutum (Hildegard of Bingen) first morality play and known musical play to be written by a woman in the Western tradition 1200-1300 Some dramas begin to be performed outside the church or cathedral, because of their elaborateness. First extant secular plays based on civic satire and folk materials date from late in the period. Women First notable instances of strong, well-educated royal women beginning to develop their cultural salons around them in their courts. The Courtly love ideal, which valorizes the romantic, secret love between the knight and “his lady” as the highest spiritual and physical manifestation of love between two people on earth encouraged as a literary, musical and philosophical movement in the courts of Eleanor of Aquitaine and her daughter Marie de Troyes. Among the nobility, the prolonged absence of men at the Crusades left many noble women the sole or primary managers of their husbands’ estates for long periods of time, and sometimes permanently, if their men were killed, seriously disabled or went missing in battle. A shortage of marriageable men to marriageable women, necessitating parents to pay a dowry for their daughters to marry, sent more women than ever into the religious life. Number of convents and abbeys expand and when the existing monasteries cannot accommodate the demand, women begin to gravitate towards the new Franciscan and Dominican orders. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) Benedictine Abbey, was born to a noble family in Germany and dedicated at the age of 8 to the religious life at the Benedictine Monastery at Disibodenberg, where she was mentored by Jutta, the abbess of the convent. In 1155 she wrote the first morality play of the Western tradition. Featuring the journey of Anima from heaven, through her temptation and fall to the material world under the influence of the Devil, and her return to divine grace through the intercession of her Virtues, Ordo Virtutum is also among the first known musical compositions to be written by a woman and performed largely by women. A respected mystic and visionary, Hildegard also founded two convents, wrote treatises on religion, botany

medicine, poetry, songs and musical pieces and corresponded widely with some of the most powerful, educated and influential men of her day. The Medieval Period – late – 1300-1500 C.E. Western Europe – Western Europe Move towards urbanization and cosmopolitanism continues. Domination of Church challenged by rise of strong secular forces, a series of divisive heresies, a damaging schism between rival Popes in France and Italy (1378-1417) Devastation of the Black Death also shakes faith in ability of religion to address sweeping physical as well as moral illness. Learning passes progressively out of the monasteries and into the universities. Trade Guilds and a strong merchant class begin to rise in the cities, and the nations of modern Europe begin to emerge with kings and princes, especially in consolidating their power 1347-1351 Black Death spreads from China to Europe, and devastates a population already weakened by famine, typhoid and anthrax (animals). Kills an estimated 75 million world-wide by its final appearance in the 18th century, and kills between 1/3 to 2/3 of the population of Europe. Many religious destroyed trying to tend the sick, weakening the monasteries and abbeys. Feudal system also shaken by massive deaths among the lower classes supporting it and agricultural production. 1337-1453 Hundred Years War Long intermittent wars of succession over right to the French throne. Edward III of England claims French throne through his mother, the only surviving direct descendent of Philip IV of France. French declare that ascent to the throne can only be made through the male line and crown Philip of Valois, a nephew of Philip IV as king instead. Superiority of longbow over the armored, mounted knight shown at Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) leading to a string of strong English victories under Edward III (1327-77), Edward, the Black Prince, Henry IV (1399-1413), and most notably Henry V (1413-1422), who marries a French princess and produces an infant son, Henry VI (1422-1461) who has a strong claim to both thrones. Pendulum swings the opposite way during the final decades of the war as the English become involved in domestic conflicts over the succession to the English throne, and the French rally under the inspiration of Joan of Arc (1412-1431), a French peasant girl who reveals herself ordered by God to crown Charles VII king and drive the French from the land. While burnt as a witch in 1431, the French regain all of France back from the English by 1453 except Calais. 1455-1485 The War of the Roses Ducal houses of the Yorks (white rose) and the Lancasters (red rose) wage civil war over the English crown. Richard II (1367-1400), the son of Edward, the Black Prince is deposed then murdered in favor of his

cousin, Henry IV. Henry VI, a weak king is in turn deposed and murdered along with his son Edward, in favor of Edward IV (1461-1483) of York. Upon York’s death, his younger brother, Richard III deposes and possibly murders his brother’s two young sons, to claim the throne. Henry Tudor (Henry VII 1485-1509) defeats and kills Richard III, and reunites the two lines through his marriage to Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV. Dies leaving his country at peace internally and internationally. 1300-1500 Liturgical drama continues in churches but more elaborate forms, like mystery cycles, become increasingly large and elaborate efforts supported by the state, guilds and civic community at large and staged beyond the Church environs. More purely secular forms associated with folk traditions (farce) and courts entertainments (interludes, tournaments, mummings, disguisings , royal entries and street pageants arise particularly after 1400 as secular institutions increase in power. 1311 Feast of Corpus Christi officially sanctioned after being established in 1264 1350 Feast celebrated throughout Christendom Great mystery cycles to celebrate the history of salvation well-established in England in particular by 1375. Full manuscripts exist for York, Chester, Wakefield and N-Town cycles, fragments of other cycles as well. 1400 The Pride of Life. Oldest extant non-musical morality play 1425 The Castle of Perseverance, one of most elaborately staged morality plays 1495 Everyman Best-known morality play of Medieval tradition. Women Many well-born women continued to gravitate towards the religious life as an alternative to marriage. However, some chose to belong to lay orders rather than taking full vows as a nun, and chose to be active in the community doing charitable work rather than living a cloistered life. There are indications that nuns both in England and on the Continent continued to write, translate, adapt and perform liturgical dramas with other girls and women in their abbeys and monasteries over the 13th- 15th centuries. While the Reformation (16th century) ended the tradition of highly-educated religious women writing religious theatre for their immediate and larger community in much of Europe, the tradition continued on for a longer period in

both Spain and in the French and Spanish colonies in the New World where the Reformation made less of an impact. Royal and aristocratic women also tended to remain very active in the political and social intrigues of the developing English and French courts and to lend their patronage to writing, music and arts at their courts. While women continued to be active in agricultural production in rural areas, with the rise of the merchant class, they also became involved in the same urban commercial activities as men, sometimes as single women or widows, but often in partnership with their husbands or other male relatives.. While the merchant guilds were dominantly male, many women belonged to craft guilds associated largely with spinning wool and silk. While the trade and merchant guilds produced most of the production and performance personnel for the mystery cycles, and the majority of these were male, there is evidence that in some places, like France, and some places in England women and girls also were involved in the productions as well. Since early professional acting companies were to be based on existing trade and merchant guild structures, it made it easier for women to be integrated into acting companies on the Continent where involvement of women in both guilds and in drama had been established by the late Medieval period. Katherine of Sutton, Abbess, Benedictine Abbey at Barking, England 1363-1376 is the first known English woman playwright. Born to a noble English family, she served as abbess at the large Benedictine nunnery of Barking in England over 1363-1376. While there, she wrote or rewrote the Easter dramatic services including The Raising of the Host from the Sepulchre, The Interment of the Cross in the Sepulchre, The Resurrection of the Lord, The Harrowing of Hell and the Three Marys. The cast included herself, the rest of the nuns, and some clerics and priests and included singing, processions, rhetoric and spectacle. Catherine of Sienna (1347-1380) Tertiary (lay affiliate) of the Dominican Order. Aware of having a religious vocation as young as 7, Catherine, the 23th child of 25 born to a cloth dyer and his wife, resists her parents’ attempts to marry her off and enters a Dominican lay order at the age of 18. Adopts Dominican habit, but remains at home and practices nursing and charity work among the poor in Siena. Between 1366-70 she has a series of mystical visions, culminating in a demand by her “voices” to become active in public life. Though originally illiterate, she teaches herself to write and composes over 300 letters to men and women in authority trying to resolve crises in the civic, moral and spiritual life of the Church rising out of the 1378-1417 schism. Major work, The Dialogue of Divine Providence is composed in the form of a ten part dialogue or conversation on religion between Good and the aspiring feminine soul of the mystic (1377-79). Moves to Rome on the urging of the then-Pope Urban VI in 1378 and dies there in 1380 at the age of 33. Canonized in 1461, becomes in 1970, the first of only two women to be declared a Doctor of the Roman Catholic Church.

Sor Juana Inés de le Cruz (1648-1695) Order of the Discalced Carmelites, then Order of St. Jerome, Mexico Poet, playwright, philosoper. First known woman playwright in the New World. Born in Nepantla, Mexico, she could read by age 3, and asked at age 6 or 7 if she would be able to attend university in Mexico City. After spending some time at the Court of at the Viceroys’ Palace, a centre of culture, and learning, she entered a Carmelite Order in 1667, but left them for the Order of St. Jerome where she stayed until her death. Between 1669-1690 she built up a library of 4000 books in her convent, and wrote several volumes of poems, two full-length secular dramas based on Spanish models The Trials of A Noble House (1683) and Love the Greater Labyrinth (1692), two one-act intermezzos and 14 dramatic poems. She also wrote religious theatre: three allegorical sacramental plays including The Myth of Echo and Narcissus, Joseph’s Sceptor and The Martyr, St. Hermenegildo; three preludes to the plays and a loa prasing the Immaculate Conception. She also corresponded frequently with other writers and thinkers o the day. In 1690 she criticized a 1650 sermon by a famous Jesuit and found herself under attack by Church authorities already concerned about the Reformation and the dangers of unorthodoxy. Her Reply to Sor Filotea (1691) is one of the earliest arguments defending a woman’s right to higher learning on moral and social as well as spiritual grounds. Around 1693, faced with further criticism and controversy from her religious superiors, she sells her entire library, and collection of music and mathematical instruments and donates money to the poor. Renews vows and stops writing. Between 1693-95, an epidemic strikes the convent, and while helping to nurse the sick she is stricken herself and dies at the age of 47.

The Renaissance Theatre – Italy - 14th-16th century

14th Century Trade, urbanization and rise of a wealthy new merchant class with the wealth, education and leisure to support the arts makes Florence, Italy the cradle of the Renaissance. Spreads to Europe over the next three centuries. 1315 Eccerinus. Oldest extant native tragedy 1390 Paulus. Oldest extant comedy 15th Century 1450 Invention of the printing press revolutionizes scholarship, learning and literacy. Information and ideas spread further and more rapidly. Literacy rises for both men and women in the upper classes 1453 Fall of Constantinople (Eastern Roman Empire). Scholars flee to Venice and Florence with Classical Greek and Roman manuscripts. Classical texts lost to the West since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire recovered. 15th-16th Century 1495-1597 Aldine Press in Venice collects manuscripts and publishes them. Between 1470 and 1518, the works of Horace, Vitruvius, and Aristotle rediscovered and printed. Also work of Plautus, Terence, Seneca, Aristophanes, Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus. 1487-1522 Age of Discovery begins. Diaz rounds the Cape (1487), Columbus discovers America (1492) and Magellan circumnavigates the world proving the world isn’t flat. 1473-1642 Scientific re-examination of the universe. Copernicus (1473-1543), Kepler (1571-1630) and Galileo (1564-1642) challenge the cosmic order of the planets and their movements. 1517-1563 Reformation and Counter Reformation start. Martin Luther publishes his ninety-five theses on the Church Door (1517) and formulates main tenets of Lutheranism at the Confession of Augsburg (1530). Reformation starts in England with Henry VIII breaking with Rome over his decision to divorce Katherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn instead. Thomas More executed for treason (1535). John Calvin writes Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) and establishes a theocracy in Geneva (1541). Peace of Augsburg allows German princes to choose religion of their own territory(1555).

Counter-Reformation responds with the creation of the Jesuits (1540), the Council of Trent 1545-1563) and St. Bartholemew’s Day Massacre of French Huguenots (1572). Leads to prohibition of religious plays and mystery cycles and rapid secularization of the theatre everywhere but Spain, where the Reformation has minimal impact. Latin begins to disappear as the common “high” language of Europe. 1508 The Casket launching of vernacular drama 1515 Sofonisba first important vernacular tragedy 1513-1520 The Mandrake significant vernacular comedy by Machievelli, (also author of The Prince (1513) 1540 Strong native comedy tradition established in Italy by 1540 and French plays read with increasing frequency in France and England after 1575. Plays strong role in replacing or moderating medieval practices with new humanistic models between late 14th-late 16th centuries. 1500-1650 Commedia dell’arte becomes popular throughout Europe as Italian troupes travel to France, Germany, Spain, Poland and Austria. Influences native traditions of comedy. First professional women actresses in the European tradition 1545 Serlio’s Archittetura published. 1st Renaissance work to integrate classical ideas of stage design with Renaissance technology and innovativeness. Sabbatini (1574-1654) and Torelli (1608-1678) continue innovations in stage design and scenery. 1580-1637 Teatro Olimpico (1580-1584), Teatro Farnese (1618) and San Cassanio (1637) attempt to integrate classical architecture with Renaissance innovation 1588 La Mirtilla (Isabella Andreini) first pastoral play in the vernacular to be written and published by a woman Women The closing of convents and monasteries in the wake of the Reformation destroys one of the main centres of women-dominated learning and administration established over the Middle Ages. Hastens transfer of higher learning and education

to the growing network of universities which remain largely male-only institutions until the late 19th century. Decline of feudal system also tends to undermine the relative responsibility, independence and freedom that the lady of the estate or manor had, especially in the absence of her lord, Positively, actresses make their first appearance as professional working women in the Western European theatre, in the form of the Commedia dell’arte, and spread their influence throughout the continent. Young women of good family also benefit from the rediscovery of the Humanism, and like their brothers, are expected to know two or more “modern languages” (Spanish or French for example.), Greek and Roman as ancient languages, and the poetry of Ovid and Virgil. They also receive some training in painting, music and dance. However, where men are expected to use that training as preparation for public life, women were more encouraged to see it as a way of attracting a husband, and withdrawing into the more private sphere once married. Courtly love tradition encourages women to be regarded as a passive object of influence and veneration rather than an active agent in public. Women were expected to be chaste, pleasing and ornamental in a marriage largely arranged to advance the families’ social and political ends. Much of her social currency relies on her ability to create a salon that would attract artists and literati to her husband’s court or household, as much as for his advancement as for her own pleasure. While women were expected to content with the platonic companionship of the salon, men were free to pursue sexual escapades outside the marriage, and the penalties for rape , even of noble girls, were surprisingly low (fine or 6 months imprisonment) in comparison to some earlier eras which prescribed the death penalty. Isabella Andreini (1562-1604) was an actress, scholar and writer. Born Isabella Canali, she may have originally been trained to become a high-level courtesan, but instead, married at age 16, Francesco Andreini (age 30) and joined him in the well-respected Flaminio Scala commedia dell’arte company. At a time when actresses were often regarded as prostitutes, she remained famous not only for her enormous charm, energy, beauty and wit on stage as the young inamorata, “Isabella” but her virtuous conduct as a wife and mother off the stage. She also maintained an engaging correspondence over the years with the leading minds of the age, and found time to compose songs, a book of over 300 sonnets, a large body of letters, and an original full-length draft of her pastoral drama La Mirtilla (1588) which was also successfully published. While it drew strongly from earlier models of the pastoral – most notably Tasso’s Aminta which was also staged by Gelosi – it was distinct in giving the women characters a higher profile in the drama featuring scenes of female friendship and the women using wit, intelligence and resourcefulness in dealing with their lovers, including a world-be rapist. The prelude also stresses the importance of finding a balance in love between classical humanism and its celebration of the physical, sensuous and passionate – and the need for Christian restraint, order and transcendence. Isabella is named a member of the Accademia degli Intenti in 1601. Unfortunately, she dies of complications following the miscarriage of her 8th child at the age of 42.

The Renaissance Theatre – France - 14th-17th century

14th and 15th Century 1337-1453 100 Years War With England 1493 France publishes first illustrated edition of Terence’s plays 1494 France begins to establish connections with Italy culturally and politically. Influence of Renaissance begins to enter French culture 1500-1625 Renaissance Theatre (Frances I – Henri IV, regency of Louis XIII) As in England, medieval forms of drama – farces, outdoor religious extravaganzas – continue to make an impact until the mid-16th century. At the same time Francis I (1515-1547), like Henry Tudor, begins to invite Italian artists and scholars to his court and classical influence starts to have an effect on both school and court drama. Court masques, festivals, royal entries, pageants and extravaganzas increase. Italian influence expands under Henri II (1547-1559) and his widow, Catherine de Medici, who remains a strong power at court with her Italian advisors, under the reigns of her three sons. 1534 Jesuits founded to combat the Reformation. View education as the key to influencing future leaders of church and state. Retain a monopoly over education in France, Austria and southern Germany through its schools, seminaries and universities before being repressed in 1773. Jesuits, and eventually other order begin to use drama around 1551 as a pedagogical tool to teach rhetoric, religion, literature and debate as well as effective public carriage and delivery. Plays and productions become increasingly secular, sophisticated and prestigious, reaching their height in the 17th century 1550-1610 Accelerating religious tensions between the dominant Catholic faction and the French Protestants (Huguenots) climax in St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, a civil war, and the assassination of two kings, Henri III in 1589 and Henri IV in 1610 before compromises guaranteeing religious tolerance for Protestants while protecting Catholic rights, settle unrest. Leads to ban on religious plays and rapid secularization of drama, and impedes development of public and court drama until the final decades of the 16th century.

1501-1570s Roman plays studied at schools and universities. French authors begin to write Latin plays in the classical fashion for their students. Studies eventually cover critical works of Horace and Aristotle, plays of Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Seneca, Plautus and Terence as well as recent Italian plays translated into French. Leads to group of seven French writers, nicknamed the Pleiade, writing plays in French based on classical models and according to new neo-classical precepts between 1550s- 1570s. Writing mostly for the court and school theatre, they produce the first French Neo-classical comedy and tragedy in 1552 and first treatise on neo-classical ideal in 1572. Women The combination of growing urbanization, civic unrest and uneven financial conditions contributes to the rising female poverty and prostitution. Authorities attempt to regulate and control it if they can not eliminate it. But growing urbanizaton also gives lower and lower middle class women, even more kinds of trades, businesses, and domestic industries to participate in, mostly in the context of family businesses shared with fathers, brothers and spouses. Protestantism also encourages a greater degree of individual responsibility for moral, ethical and theological decisions outside the clergy. However, in its emphasis on women finding their main happiness – moral, sexual, spiritual and economic – under the authority of a good husband, and the creation of a family, the Reformation, with its destruction of the monastic life, leaves many high-born women, who either could not or did not want to marry, without the traditional option of joining a community of women to pursue a life of intellectual, philosophical and charitable pursuits without domestic distraction. (Though a number of Protestant sects re-established religious communities for women in the 18th and 19th century) Nor did the universities – the new venues of higher learning and source of the main critics, writers and playwrights of the new neo-classical stage – accommodate women. More than ever, the growing Royal courts of Europe, with their growing salons, artistic and cultural aspirations, and amateur court pageants, entertainments and masques become the main site of wealthy, high-born women’s intellectual, literary and artistic pursuits. Margaret of Navarre (1442-1549) Patron of humanists and reformers, writer of plays, stories, letters, theological reform. Sharing the same classical education as her brother, who was to become Francis I, Marguerite was first married to Charles of Alencon, then upon his death in 1625 to Henri II of Navarre, with whom she had a daughter who would eventually convert to Protestantism and become the mother of Henri

IV. Became the most influential woman in France, when her brother, Frances I ascended the throne. In addition to creating a notable salon where she encouraged and supported the work of such writers Rabelais, Marot and playwright de Ronsard, she also mediated between the Catholic and Huguenot parties, urging significant reforms within her own Catholic tradition while advising moderation in dealing with the minority Protestants. She was also known for her generosity to the poor. An author in her own right, she composed many plays, poems and short stories. Her main collection of 70 short stories The Heptameron, based on the same idea as Canterbury Tales and the Decameron, was published in 1558 and translated into English. Rise of the permanent professional troupes and theatres in Paris and the provinces 1402-1548 Confrerie de la Passion founded to produce religious drama. Given monopoly over all public theatre production in Paris. Group builds first permanent public theatre in Europe since Roman times, the Hotel de Bourgogne (1548). Changes fare to farces, secular works in medieval mode and Renaissance-style work. 1570s Confrerie rents theatre to visiting troupes, but latter have to pay for the privilege of performing in Paris because of the monopoly, which is not revoked until 1670. Professional troupes start developing and touring in the provinces where the monopoly doesn’t exist 1571-88 Commedia dell-arte troupes tour sporadically, returning in greater force after 1599. French troupes both compete against and try to emulate the Commedia 1595-1625 Professional theatre starts to develop again after the civil war. First professional playwright, Alexandre Hardy (1572-1632) writes over 300 plays in a wide variety of styles. Most of work written for Valleran de la Comte’s The King’s Players (1598-1612) which are the most important troupe in Paris at the time, though they continue having to tour because of the monopoly. Women Given the traditional clerical disapproval of the public, professional theatre as being inconsistent with Christian practice, women were neither educated to nor encouraged to write for the theatre. Nor are they encouraged to act in it. Nonetheless, the weakening of Catholic authority through the Reformation, the strong influence of the Commedia which did use women players, and the use of women in Medieval plays did open the door to women becoming actors in mixed-gender actor companies by at least 1607. While it can be assumed that they also did improvised scenarios as did the

Commedia, French actresses were to become among the first women in Europe to interpret complex, sustained written roles for women in the contemporary professional theatre. 1625-1682 The Neo-Classical Theatre (Louis XIII, Louis XIV) France enters period of stabilization and rapid growth into a major European power. Under Cardinal Richelieu (1586-1661), and his successor as chief of Sate, Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661), a strong effort is made to make France a European leader in culture as well as politics, and to centralize power in the French Court. Triumph of the neo-classical ideal in French playwriting and ‘italianate’ staging and machinery in production, particularly of opera. Major playwrights – Jean Racine, Moliere, Pierere Corneille – and first major opera composer – Jean-Baptiste Lully – all active. Professional actors and troupes flourish, often appearing before the king and court as well as touring in the provinces and playing in Paris. Crown actively encourages and subsidizes the theatre, but also tightly controls its aesthetics and activities through such state institutions as the French Academy, the Academy of Music and Dance, and the Comedie Francaise. 1625 Founding of permanent company at the Bourgogne. Descendents of the Valleran troupe, the King’s Players Specialize in tragedy 1629-73 Marais troupe returns to Paris and settles into the Marais Theatre in 1634. Subsidized by Richelieu because of their advocacy of the “new drama”. Also includes members of the Valleran troupe. 1629 French Academy founded with small group of men wanting to discuss literature. Under Richelieu’s urging, they become a more formal academy along the Italian lines in 1636 and are given a royal charter in 1637. Membership restricted to top 40 literary figures of their age: main task to codify French language and style. 1658-73 Moliere’s troupe permitted to settle in Paris. Dominates French comedy until his death in 1673. Works with both Racine and Lully on different projects in and outside of court. Moliere troupe combined in 1673 with the Marais Troupe under the order of the king. 1660-97 Fiorillo Commedia dell’arte troupe, active in Paris since 1660 are forced to return to Italy in 1697 for supposedly making fun of the exaggerated piety of Louis XIV’s second wife, Mme. de Maintenon

1664-77 Racine writes and produces 9 tragedies, mostly done by the Bourgogne troupe, who specialize in tragedy. Main tragic playwright of his age. 1672 Lully establishes the Opera, also known as the Royal Academy of Music and Dance, and obtains a monopoly over music performance in Paris. 1680 Comedie Francaise, the world’s 1st national theatre established by combining the existing Marais-Moliere and Bourgogne troupes into one, and giving them a monopoly over all spoken drama in French (with the exception of opera and commedia) 1682-1715 Decline of the French Neo-Classical Theatre Period of stagnation. King becomes increasingly conservative and puritanical, and inclined to put money and energy into completing the Palace at Versailles. Move of court to Versailles isolates king and court from cultural life on Paris. Tolerance for new ideas or flexibility deteriorates with draining financial coffers, expensive political setbacks abroad, renewed persecution of the Huguenots and tighter regulation of the nobility after the La Fronde Rebellion of 1648-1652. Age of theatrical debate, experimentalism and progress ends as France fights to hold on to its past glory and power by adhering to “the rules” Women While women did not belong to the French Academy, or write plays for the professional stage, their status as performing artists in the companies and as the main interpreters of complex female roles in the new Neo-Classical tragedy and comedy of the day – plays which were in turn highly regarded in Europe - was consolidated over this period. Quite aside from the role that opera played in giving women singer/actors high status, the greatest playwrights of the age, wrote their best roles for women in their companies. Racine wrote many of his tragic roles for such actresses as Mlle du Parc (1633-68) and Mlle. De Champmeslé (1642-98), considered the greatest tragic actress of her time. Similarly, many of Moliere’s roles for women were realized by his first his mistress and fellow company member, Madeleine Béjart (1618-72), then by his wife, Armande Béjart (1642-1700), who also assumed management of the company upon Moliere’s death. While women actors, like their male counterparts, continued to face hostility form the church and were officially banned from receiving the sacraments or receiving Christian burial while they were active in their profession, the influence of churchmen, like Mazarin and Richelieu who encouraged theatre for state purposes, and the Royal approval and subsidization of actors in licensed companies did much to improve the status of actors between 1629-1660 and establish acting as a legitimate profession for both sexes. In 1641, Louis XII issued a decree stating his desire that “the actors’ profession … not be considered worthy of blame nor prejudicial to their reputation in

society”. Establishment of the Comedie Francaise as a national, state-funded and subsidized company also did much to raise the status of acting and actors in Europe. Spain, the third major European country, along with France and England to experience a Golden Age of the Theatre between 1580-1680 had a similar attitude as France’s to the use of women actors. Professional female performers can be traced back to the 15th century, and as also influenced by the Commedia, there were at least some women in acting companies by the mid 16th century. Nonetheless, many women’s roles were played by boys or men until 1587 when women were officially licensed to perform on stage. While the Catholic Church continued to try to either ban or restrict women’s involvement in the theatre over the 16th century they do not seem to have been successful in the face of tacit Royal and Court approval, It would appear that the plays of both major playwrights of the 17th Century Spanish Theatre, Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and Calderon (1600-81) were written to be performed by professional actresses. Only in England, which experienced a Golden Age of Theatre its own between 1558-1642 did women neither write nor perform for the professional theatre, though they most likely attended as audience, and participated in amateur court masques, pageants and celebrations.