what must we_do

IES Campo San Alberto, D. IES Campo San Alberto, D. Philosophy; 2008-2009Philosophy; 2008-2009 11M. TorresM. Torres

What MUST we do?What MUST we do?Ethics: philosophical Ethics: philosophical

study of moral study of moral values. values.

M. TorresM. TorresIES Campo San Alberto, D. IES Campo San Alberto, D.

Philosophy; 2008-2009Philosophy; 2008-2009 22

Ethics: index.Ethics: index.• Some basic questions.Some basic questions.• Basic definitions.Basic definitions.• History of ethical perspectives:History of ethical perspectives:

– Plato and Aristotle on virtue ethics.Plato and Aristotle on virtue ethics.– Aquinas Christian version of virtue ethics: natural law and Aquinas Christian version of virtue ethics: natural law and

revelation.revelation.– Kant’s categorical imperative.Kant’s categorical imperative.– Utilitarianism and BenthamUtilitarianism and Bentham– Existentialism and J.P. Sartre.Existentialism and J.P. Sartre.

• Conclusion: Conclusion: – A philosophical and personal task, What is right and A philosophical and personal task, What is right and

wrong?wrong?– Human Rights: Minimal and universal ethics, a Human Rights: Minimal and universal ethics, a

international and personal compromise.international and personal compromise.



Morality vs. ethics: a philosophical Morality vs. ethics: a philosophical distinction.distinction.

• MoralityMorality is about personal is about personal values that guide our actions values that guide our actions and decisions. Morality is and decisions. Morality is generally under the influence generally under the influence of the culture, society and of the culture, society and religion. religion. Morality: first-order Morality: first-order set of beliefs and practices set of beliefs and practices about how to live a good lifeabout how to live a good life

• A A moral statementmoral statement (phrase) (phrase) reflects my conception of reflects my conception of what is good for me. A moral what is good for me. A moral statement is always from the statement is always from the particular point of view of my particular point of view of my society or religion.society or religion.

• EthicsEthics is the second-order, is the second-order, reflective consideration of our reflective consideration of our moral beliefs and practices. moral beliefs and practices. Ethics is the explicit, Ethics is the explicit, philosophical reflection on moral philosophical reflection on moral beliefs and practices.beliefs and practices.

• Ethics is a conscious stepping Ethics is a conscious stepping back and reflecting on morality, back and reflecting on morality, just as musicology is a conscious just as musicology is a conscious reflection on music. Ethics reflection on music. Ethics includes taking into account not includes taking into account not only my own values but the only my own values but the values of OTHERS inside my own values of OTHERS inside my own perspective.perspective.

• An An ethical statementethical statement must must respect the morality and RIGHTS respect the morality and RIGHTS of those that are around me. In of those that are around me. In general an ethical statement general an ethical statement includes the respect of the includes the respect of the Human Rights.Human Rights.

• Ethics: a second-order, conscious Ethics: a second-order, conscious reflection on the adequacy of our reflection on the adequacy of our moral beliefs.moral beliefs.



Some basic questions about Some basic questions about ethics.ethics.• How do you know what to do?How do you know what to do?• What do you think is right and wrong? Your opinion, What do you think is right and wrong? Your opinion,

where does come from?where does come from?• When you do something, which values are you When you do something, which values are you

using? Are you aware of the values you follow when using? Are you aware of the values you follow when acting?acting?

• Are you free? Or do you follow what you were told Are you free? Or do you follow what you were told by mama, your teacher… ?by mama, your teacher… ?

• When someone acts wrongly, is his or her intention When someone acts wrongly, is his or her intention important or not?important or not?

• Are ethical and morality values guiding your life? Are ethical and morality values guiding your life? Do they give sense to your life? Are aware of those Do they give sense to your life? Are aware of those values? values?



Basic definitions: ethics and Basic definitions: ethics and morality.morality.• A A moralmoral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned

from a story or event.from a story or event.• MoralityMorality refers to the concept of human matters of right and refers to the concept of human matters of right and

wrong —"good and evil" — used within three contexts: wrong —"good and evil" — used within three contexts: – systems of principles and judgments —moral values —shared systems of principles and judgments —moral values —shared

within a cultural, religious, secular or philosophical community; within a cultural, religious, secular or philosophical community; and and

– codes of behavior or conduct morality. codes of behavior or conduct morality. – individual conscience; Personal morality defines and distinguishes individual conscience; Personal morality defines and distinguishes

among right and wrong intentions, motivations or actions, as among right and wrong intentions, motivations or actions, as these have been learned, engendered, or otherwise developed these have been learned, engendered, or otherwise developed within each individual.within each individual.

• EthicsEthics (from Greek ἠθικός (from Greek ἠθικός ēthikosēthikos, ἤθος , ἤθος ēthosēthos "custom, "custom, habit"), a major branch of philosophy, is the study of values habit"), a major branch of philosophy, is the study of values and customs of a person or group. It covers the analysis and and customs of a person or group. It covers the analysis and employment of concepts such as right and wrong, good and employment of concepts such as right and wrong, good and evil, and responsibility. It is divided into three primary areas: evil, and responsibility. It is divided into three primary areas: – meta-ethicsmeta-ethics (the study of the concept of ethics), (the study of the concept of ethics), – normative ethicsnormative ethics (the study of how to determine ethical values), (the study of how to determine ethical values),

and and – applied ethicsapplied ethics (the study of the use of ethical values). (the study of the use of ethical values).



Plato and Aristotle: “Be a good Plato and Aristotle: “Be a good person” Virtue Ethicsperson” Virtue Ethics

..Plato (428-347)Plato (428-347)• ““Good people do not Good people do not

need laws to tell them need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while to act responsibly, while bad people will find a bad people will find a way around the laws”. way around the laws”.

• ““If a man neglects If a man neglects education, he walks education, he walks lame to the end of his lame to the end of his life”. life”.

• ““Knowledge becomes Knowledge becomes evil if the aim be not evil if the aim be not virtuous”. virtuous”.

• ““The most virtuous are The most virtuous are those who content those who content themselves with being themselves with being virtuous without virtuous without seeking to appear so”. seeking to appear so”.

Aristotle (384-322) Aristotle (384-322) • ““Happiness depends Happiness depends

upon ourselves” upon ourselves” • ““Dignity consists not in Dignity consists not in

possessing honors, but possessing honors, but in the consciousness in the consciousness that we deserve them”.that we deserve them”.

• ““Men acquire a Men acquire a particular quality by particular quality by constantly acting a constantly acting a particular way... you particular way... you become just by become just by performing just performing just actions, temperate by actions, temperate by performing temperate performing temperate actions, brave by actions, brave by performing brave performing brave actions”. actions”.



Aquinas natural law and Aquinas natural law and revelation.revelation.Do what the Bible tells youDo what the Bible tells you• ““Because of the diverse conditions of Because of the diverse conditions of

humans, it happens that some acts are humans, it happens that some acts are virtuous to some people, as appropriate and virtuous to some people, as appropriate and suitable to them, while the same acts are suitable to them, while the same acts are immoral for others, as inappropriate to them” immoral for others, as inappropriate to them” . .

• ““Better to illuminate than merely to shine, to Better to illuminate than merely to shine, to deliver to others contemplated truths than deliver to others contemplated truths than merely to contemplate”. merely to contemplate”.

• ““Human salvation demands the divine Human salvation demands the divine disclosure of truths surpassing reason”. disclosure of truths surpassing reason”.

• ““If, then, you are looking for the way by If, then, you are looking for the way by which you should go, take Christ, because He which you should go, take Christ, because He Himself is the way”. Himself is the way”.



Kant’s categorical Kant’s categorical imperative.imperative.Do the right thing: The Ethics of Do the right thing: The Ethics of DutyDuty

• ““A categorical imperative would be one which A categorical imperative would be one which represented an action as objectively necessary in represented an action as objectively necessary in itself, without reference to any other purpose.”itself, without reference to any other purpose.”

• ““Always recognize that human individuals are Always recognize that human individuals are ends, and do not use them as means to your ends, and do not use them as means to your end.”end.”

• ““So act that your principle of action might safely So act that your principle of action might safely be made a law for the whole world.”be made a law for the whole world.”

• ““It is not necessary that whilst I live I live happily; It is not necessary that whilst I live I live happily; but it is necessary that so long as I live I should but it is necessary that so long as I live I should live honourably.”live honourably.”



Bentham and utilitarianism. Bentham and utilitarianism. Utilitarianism: Make the world a better place.Utilitarianism: Make the world a better place.• ““It is the greatest good to the greatest number of It is the greatest good to the greatest number of

people which is the measure of right and wrong”. people which is the measure of right and wrong”. • ““It is vain to talk of the interest of the community, It is vain to talk of the interest of the community,

without understanding what is the interest of the without understanding what is the interest of the individual”. individual”.

• ““The greatest happiness of the greatest number The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and legislation”. is the foundation of morals and legislation”.

• ““Every law is an infraction of liberty”.Every law is an infraction of liberty”.



Determinism Determinism • Determinism is the view that an individual's Determinism is the view that an individual's

behavior is shaped or controlled by internal behavior is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an or external forces rather than an individual's will to do something.individual's will to do something.

• ““Life is like a game of cards. The hand you Life is like a game of cards. The hand you are dealt is determinism; the way you play are dealt is determinism; the way you play it is free will.” Jawaharlal Nehru quotes it is free will.” Jawaharlal Nehru quotes (Indian Prime Minister; 1889-1964) (Indian Prime Minister; 1889-1964)



Existentialism and J.P. Existentialism and J.P. Sartre. Sartre. • ExistentialismExistentialism is a philosophical movement in which is a philosophical movement in which

individual human beings are understood as having individual human beings are understood as having full responsibility for creating the meanings of their full responsibility for creating the meanings of their own lives. own lives.

• J.P. Sartre (1905 – 1980):J.P. Sartre (1905 – 1980):– Sartre accepts the premise that something in the "Facticity" Sartre accepts the premise that something in the "Facticity"

(i.e., the properties of an object or person as traditionally (i.e., the properties of an object or person as traditionally conceived and experienced) of an individual is valuable conceived and experienced) of an individual is valuable because the individual consciousness because the individual consciousness chooseschooses to value it. to value it. Sartre denies that there are any objective standards on which Sartre denies that there are any objective standards on which to base values. to base values.

– The individual consciousness is responsible for all the choices The individual consciousness is responsible for all the choices it makes, regardless of the consequences. Condemned to be it makes, regardless of the consequences. Condemned to be free because man's actions and choices are his and his alone, free because man's actions and choices are his and his alone, he is he is condemnedcondemned to be responsible for his free choices. to be responsible for his free choices.



Ethics: a personal and Ethics: a personal and philosophical task.philosophical task.

• After all these different ethical approaches: After all these different ethical approaches: what do you think: what it is right and wrong? what do you think: what it is right and wrong? From where comes what you think is right and From where comes what you think is right and wrong? wrong?

• In our days an ethical compromise is asked to In our days an ethical compromise is asked to each citizen, you included:each citizen, you included:– To vote in a democracyTo vote in a democracy– To behave equally with any other human beingTo behave equally with any other human being– To denounce any behavior against the laws and To denounce any behavior against the laws and

civil rights. civil rights.



Human rights: universal and minimal Human rights: universal and minimal ethics.ethics.

• Human Rights: 1948 and UN.Human Rights: 1948 and UN.– State and Nations compromise.State and Nations compromise.– Personal day by day compromise.Personal day by day compromise.– Universal ethical agreement.Universal ethical agreement.– Minimal ethical agreement.Minimal ethical agreement.– Intention, goal not medium.Intention, goal not medium.– International agreement to educate International agreement to educate

human beings within a ethical living.human beings within a ethical living.

what must we_do

Education