what is research.pdf

7/27/2019 What is Research.pdf

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Introduction

Research is critical in medicine because itleads to new discoveries and can change

peoples lives by improving health and well-

being

All research starts with an idea or question

based on personal experiences

Research shapes the world we live in by

continually questioning and testing humanknowledge and understanding

Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.

Research is critical in medicine because it leads to new discoveries and can

change peoples lives by improving overall health and well-being. All research

begins with an idea or question based on personal experiences and ends with

results that may change the way in which various ailments and disease

processes are diagnosed and treated. Research shapes the world we live in by

continually questioning and testing human knowledge and understanding.


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Introduction

There are many ways in which humansacquire knowledge and gather informationin order to solve problems

Many questions are answered andproblems solved based on inheritedcustoms, traditions and experiences

More complex questions may be

answered through a process of logicalreasoning



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What is Reasoning?

Inductive - the process of

developing generalization from

specific observations

Deductive - the process of

developing specific predictions

from general principles


Reasoning combines experience, ones intellectual faculties and formal

systems of thought. This process can be inductive or deductive. Inductive

reasoning is the process of developing generalizations from specific

observations, and deductive reasoning is the process of developing specific

predictions from general principles. Both are useful in understanding

phenomena but are limited in the ability to uncover new ideas or discoveries.


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Scientific Approach

The most sophisticated method of acquiring

knowledge that has been developed

Combines important features of induction

and deduction together with other methods

to create a system of acquiring knowledge

Generally more reliable than other methods

Approach used most often to perform

medical research


The scientific approach in research is the most sophisticated method of

acquiring knowledge that has been developed. This approach combines

important features of induction and deduction together with other methods to

create a system of acquiring knowledge that is generally more reliable than

other methods. It is used most often to perform medical research.


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What is Science?

Knowledge or a system of knowledgecovering general truths or the operationof general laws as obtained and testedthrough scientific method and concernedwith the physical world and itsphenomena

The central purpose of science is to

provide an objective, factual and usefulaccount of the world in which we live

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 1993.

Science involves the observation, identification, description, experimental

investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomenon. Science includes a

series of activities usually restricted to a class of natural phenomena and involves

methodology applied to an inquiry or study.


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Three Domains of Science

Scientific knowledge - knowledge

verified by scientific methods

Scientific research - methods used for

accumulation and verification of

knowledge

Scientific theory -systematically

organized facts to explain phenomena

Science is thought to exist in three different domains. These domains are

scientific knowledge, scientific research and scientific theory. Scientific

knowledge is knowledge verified by scientific methods. Scientific research is a

series of methods used for accumulation and verification of knowledge.

Scientific theory is systematically organized facts to explain phenomena.


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Functions of Science

There are two primary functions of science:

Development of theory

Testing of hypotheses deducted by theory

Science progresses when new facts lead to

new theories

These facts are generally proven with

research and evidence-based processes

Abramson, J. Making Sense of Data: A Self-Instruction Manual on the Interpretation of Epidemiological Data. New York, NY:

Oxford University Press, 1988.

There are two primary functions of science. These include the development of

theory and the testing of substantive hypotheses deducted from theory or data.

Science is thought to progress when new facts lead to new theories, and

these facts are generally proven with research and evidence-based processes.


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What is Research?

A systematic investigation, involving the

collection of information (data), to solve a

problem or contribute to knowledge about a

theory or practice

Relies on methods and principles that will

produce credible and verifiable results

Research helps provide scientificunderstanding and solves practical problems

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 1993.

Research is a systematic investigation, involving the collection of information

(data), to solve a problem or contribute to knowledge about a theory or

practice. It applies the scientific approach to the study of a question of interest

and relies on methods and principles that will produce credible and verifiable

results. Research helps provide scientific understanding and solves practical

problems.


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Steps in Research

Identify the question or problem

Conduct a literature review of the question

Frame a hypothesis

Develop the study design

Complete the research

Analyze the data

Generate conclusions



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Identify the Question

Good or poor research is defined by thequestion being asked

The question should be well understood, andthe problem well defined

Selecting a question should not be rushed

If the question is hurried, proceeding in anorderly fashion may be difficult and may

produce unreliable results


It is generally thought within the scientific community that the difference

between good and poor research is the distinction between asking a good or

poor question. It is very important that the question being asked is well

understood and that the problem has been well defined. Selecting a research

question should not be hurried and many hours may be devoted to selecting the

appropriate problem to be answered. If either is not clear, proceeding in an

orderly fashion may be difficult and continuing may produce unreliable

results.


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Sources for identifying the question or

problem:

Personal experiences

Literature review

Theories

Ideas from others


The four most common sources for identifying the appropriate question or problem are personal

experiences, review of previous research (literature review), review of theories, and ideas from

others. There is a wealth of ideas one can obtain by just observing everyday occurrences. In the

course of the researchers day, it is normal to experience issues that may raise questions or

present problems. Posing questions prior to initiating research such as, What if this situationwas approached in a different way? or What would be the outcome if a procedure was

performed differently? may help define and develop a research question. In order to recognize

or identify these questions, it is necessary to be aware of recurrent problems and situations that

are frustrating, bothersome or do not produce reliable or good quality outcomes. It is also

helpful to continually examine the way in which procedures are performed and how decisions

that are made affect performance and functions.

Performing a literature review is another method of developing a question. Reviewing published

literature may provoke an idea or question by suggesting what areas of a topic should be

explored further. Questions may also result from inconsistencies found or by the lack of

published data.

Continually evaluating developed theories and considering questions raised by others may also

be a good source for developing questions or ideas. As situations and common practices change

over time, previously proven theories may no longer produce valid outcomes. Listening to and

observing problems that others have experienced may raise a question. These questions can be

researched in order to produce answers and improve practices.


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Criteria for evaluating the question:

Significance

Practicality

Feasibility

Interest to researcher


Not all questions posed may be researchable although they may be thought

provoking. Generally questions that are philosophically based cannot be

measured. Questions that are researchable involve variables that can be defined,

measured and quantified. In some instances it may be necessary to reword the

question if this occurs.

It is important to determine the questions feasibility to ensure the

appropriateness of the study. Some factors that should be considered include, the

duration or length of time the study will last, the time involved to enroll each

subject, availability of subjects, cooperation of others, facilities and equipment,

money, experience of the researcher and ethical concerns. If any of these factors

pose a problem then it may be necessary to rethink the question.

Another important factor is the interest level of the question or topic to the

researcher. Without the researchers dedication to the topic, the study may not be

successful or worthwhile. Additionally, when developing the question, the topic

should promote an opportunity for growth and acquired knowledge.


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Form the statement

Declarative

Interrogative

Define the terms in the statement


After the question has been examined and clarified, it is necessary to convert it

to a definitive statement. A good statement will serve as a guide to developing

the study design. The two common types of statements used are declarative

(states the problem as a declaration) or interrogative (states the problem as a

question). Forming the statement helps to define the terms of the study. Once

the question or problem is stated and finalized, it is necessary to understand

how the question has been examined in the past.


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Literature Review

Determine what published data

suggests about the question or

problem

Clarify the value of the question

Clarify what is already known

Provide sources for reference


When developing a research protocol the investigator must determine what the

published data suggest about the question or problem being studied. This will

help clarify the value of the question, what is already known or proven about

the topic and which sources that may be used for reference.


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Primary Sources:

Journal articles, books, abstracts

Written by the person(s) who conductedthe research

Secondary Sources:

Review articles that summarize research

Written by someone other than primaryinvestigator

Literature Review


There are several primary sources that may be used for a literature review.

These include journal articles, books and abstracts written by the person(s)

who conducted the research. Secondary sources that may be used include

review articles that summarize previous research. Most source material will

originate from authors or researchers other than those conducting the initial

research.


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Frame a Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a statement that describes

the results the researcher expects

It examines relationships or differences

The null hypothesis is a statement that

expects no relationships or differences to

exist

A study should be designed to test thehypothesis or null hypothesis


The general purpose of a hypothesis is to guide scientific inquiries and often

follows directly with the question being asked or theory being tested. It

provides direction to the research design and assists in the collection, analysis

and interpretation of data. A hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation

of a relationship between two or more variables and describes the results the

researcher expects to obtain. A null hypothesis is a statement that expects that

no relationships or differences to exist. Research studies should be designed to

test the hypothesis or null hypothesis.


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Frame a Hypothesis

The nature of the hypothesis willdetermine:

Sample group for study

Measuring instruments

Study design

Procedures

Statistical techniques


The nature of the hypothesis will determine the sample group for study,

measuring instruments, study design, procedures, and statistical techniques

used for data analysis.


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Develop the Study Design

A study design is the researchers overall plan

to obtain the answer(s) to the question being

asked and the hypothesis being tested

It spells out strategies to develop information

that is accurate, objective and meaningful

It explains methods that will be used to collect

and analyze data

It includes time frame to conduct study


The study design is the researchers overall plan to obtain the answer(s) to the

hypothesis being tested. It spells out strategies for developing information that

is accurate, objective, and meaningful, and explains the methods that will be

used to collect and analyze data. This should also include the time frame

necessary or allowed to conduct the study.


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Questions that may assist in development:Will there be an intervention or treatment?

What type of comparisons will be made?

What procedures will be used to control

variables?

When and how many times will data be collected

from research subjects?In what setting will the study take place?


There are several questions that should be asked to assist with study

development. These include:

Will there be an intervention or treatment?

What type of comparisons will be made?

What procedures will be used to control variables?

When and how many times are data collected from research subjects?

What setting will the study take place?

Answers to these and similar questions will allow all pertinent information to be

included and collected as part of the study. It will also help to eliminate the

possibility of omitting valuable resources or other essentials needed to produce

a reliable outcome.


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Characteristics of good study design:

Appropriateness of question

Lack of study bias

Precision of study

Power of study


Appropriateness of the research question, lack of study bias, precision of the

study and power of the study to change practices are characteristics of a well-

designed study.


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Complete Research

There are several different researchmethods available for data collection

It is important to choose one that will mostaccurately reflect the question being asked

Research different methods and choose themost appropriate

Perform research following the study

design that was developed and collectappropriate data


There are several methods available for data collection that allows for

completion of a research study. It is important to choose a method that will

most accurately reflect the question being asked. It may be necessary to

research different methods and choose the most appropriate one for the study

being performed. It is also necessary to perform research following the study

design that was developed and to collect all appropriate data.


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Complete the Research

Research methods include:

Interviews and questionnaires

Scales and standardized self-report

measures

Observational methods

Biophysiologic measures

Records and available data sources


Commonly used research methods to collect data include interviews and

questionnaires, scales and standardized self-report measures, observational

methods, biophysiologic measures and previously documented records and

available data sources. To complete a research study the developed study

design should be followed. Methods and protocols should not be changed once

a study is started.


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Analyze the Data

Upon completion of the study, data shouldbe analyzed and measured for quality

Instruments used should result in measuresthat are relevant, accurate, unbiased,sensitive, one-dimensional and efficient

Measures that are physical or physiologichave a higher likelihood of success thanother types


Upon completion of the study, the data collected should be analyzed and

measured for quality. An ideal measuring instrument is one that results in

measures that are relevant, accurate, unbiased, sensitive, one-dimensional and

efficient. Measures that are physical or physiologic have a higher likelihood of

success than other types.


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Data Analysis

Quality measurements should test for:

Reliability

Validity

Efficiency

Sensitivity


There are several techniques that have been developed to evaluate the quality

of the measurements used. These measurements should test for reliability,

validity, efficiency and sensitivity. Analysis of the data may be performed

quantitatively or qualitatively.


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Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistical measurements are techniques thatrender quantitative data meaningful and

intelligible

Enables researchers to reduce, summarize,

organize, evaluate, interpret and

communicate numerical information

It may be necessary to seek the assistance of

someone familiar or trained in the area ofstatistics to perform analysis


Statistical measurements are techniques that render quantitative data

meaningful and intelligible. These techniques enable researchers to reduce,

summarize, organize, evaluate, interpret and communicate numerical

information collected during a research study. In order to perform these

measures appropriately and correctly, it may be necessary to seek the

assistance of someone familiar or trained in the area of statistics.


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Statistics are classified as:

Descriptiveused to describe and

synthesize data

(Averages and Percentages)

Inferentialused to make inferences or

draw conclusions about a population



Quantitative statistics are generally classified as descriptive (used to describe

and synthesize data [averages and percentages]) or inferential (used to make

inferences or draw conclusions about a population).


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Types of statistical analysis:

Frequency distributions

Central tendency (mode, median, mean)

Sampling distributions

Paired t-tests

ANOVA (Analysis ofVariance)



Examples of descriptive measures of statistical analysis include frequency

distributions and central tendency (mode, median, mean). Inferential measures

include sampling distributions, paired T-tests and ANOVA (Analysis Of

Variance) analysis.


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Is used to impose some order on the body of

information collected

Allows for general conclusions to be reached and

communicated in an understandable format

Is generally described as having soft endpoints

There are no uniformly accepted rules but rather

generally accepted methods

Qualitative Data Analysis

Polit DF and Hungler BP. Nursing Research Principles and Methods (Fourth Edition), 1991

Qualitative analysis is used to impose some order on the body of information

collected. It allows for general conclusions to be reached and communicated in

an understandable format. Often this analysis is described as holistic and is

usually concerned with humans and their environment and complexities. This

method is sometimes described as having soft endpoints, which may include

quality of life changes, ability to adapt to different environments and

environmental influences on individuals. There are no uniformly accepted rules

for this type of analysis. However, there are several commonly used and accepted

methods.


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Generate Conclusions

Similar to the early phases of research,

this may be difficult and time-consuming

Involves organizing the data in order to

interpret and communicate

There are no specific techniques or

methods but rather only simple guidelines


This last stage of research involves generating the conclusions. Similar to the

beginning phase, this may be difficult and time-consuming. It involves

organizing the gathered and analyzed data in an orderly fashion in order to

interpret and communicate the results of the study. There are no specific

techniques or methods but rather only simple guidelines that may be followed.


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Generate Conclusions

Aspects of interpreting results include:

Accuracy

Meaning

Importance

Extent of generalization

Implications


Aspects that should be considered when interpreting the results include the

accuracy, meaning and importance of the findings, the extent to which the

results can be generalized and the implications that the results will have on

currently accepted practices and theories. Good quality research should be

developed into abstract or manuscript form and submitted to the appropriate

peer reviewed journal for acceptance and publication. This is the most effective

way to communicate important findings that should be adopted into daily

practice.


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Conclusions

Developing, conducting and

communicating a research protocol is a

sophisticated and time-consuming process

It is important to understand the steps in

developing a research protocol in order to

perform an appropriate study and obtain

reliable results

Developing, conducting and communicating a research protocol is a

sophisticated and time-consuming process. It is important to understand the

steps in developing a research protocol in order to perform an appropriate

study and obtain reliable results.

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