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Introduction
Research is critical in medicine because itleads to new discoveries and can change
peoples lives by improving health and well-
being
All research starts with an idea or question
based on personal experiences
Research shapes the world we live in by
continually questioning and testing humanknowledge and understanding
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Research is critical in medicine because it leads to new discoveries and can
change peoples lives by improving overall health and well-being. All research
begins with an idea or question based on personal experiences and ends with
results that may change the way in which various ailments and disease
processes are diagnosed and treated. Research shapes the world we live in by
continually questioning and testing human knowledge and understanding.
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Introduction
There are many ways in which humansacquire knowledge and gather informationin order to solve problems
Many questions are answered andproblems solved based on inheritedcustoms, traditions and experiences
More complex questions may be
answered through a process of logicalreasoning
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
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What is Reasoning?
Inductive - the process of
developing generalization from
specific observations
Deductive - the process of
developing specific predictions
from general principles
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Reasoning combines experience, ones intellectual faculties and formal
systems of thought. This process can be inductive or deductive. Inductive
reasoning is the process of developing generalizations from specific
observations, and deductive reasoning is the process of developing specific
predictions from general principles. Both are useful in understanding
phenomena but are limited in the ability to uncover new ideas or discoveries.
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Scientific Approach
The most sophisticated method of acquiring
knowledge that has been developed
Combines important features of induction
and deduction together with other methods
to create a system of acquiring knowledge
Generally more reliable than other methods
Approach used most often to perform
medical research
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
The scientific approach in research is the most sophisticated method of
acquiring knowledge that has been developed. This approach combines
important features of induction and deduction together with other methods to
create a system of acquiring knowledge that is generally more reliable than
other methods. It is used most often to perform medical research.
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What is Science?
Knowledge or a system of knowledgecovering general truths or the operationof general laws as obtained and testedthrough scientific method and concernedwith the physical world and itsphenomena
The central purpose of science is to
provide an objective, factual and usefulaccount of the world in which we live
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 1993.
Science involves the observation, identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomenon. Science includes a
series of activities usually restricted to a class of natural phenomena and involves
methodology applied to an inquiry or study.
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Three Domains of Science
Scientific knowledge - knowledge
verified by scientific methods
Scientific research - methods used for
accumulation and verification of
knowledge
Scientific theory -systematically
organized facts to explain phenomena
Science is thought to exist in three different domains. These domains are
scientific knowledge, scientific research and scientific theory. Scientific
knowledge is knowledge verified by scientific methods. Scientific research is a
series of methods used for accumulation and verification of knowledge.
Scientific theory is systematically organized facts to explain phenomena.
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Functions of Science
There are two primary functions of science:
Development of theory
Testing of hypotheses deducted by theory
Science progresses when new facts lead to
new theories
These facts are generally proven with
research and evidence-based processes
Abramson, J. Making Sense of Data: A Self-Instruction Manual on the Interpretation of Epidemiological Data. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press, 1988.
There are two primary functions of science. These include the development of
theory and the testing of substantive hypotheses deducted from theory or data.
Science is thought to progress when new facts lead to new theories, and
these facts are generally proven with research and evidence-based processes.
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What is Research?
A systematic investigation, involving the
collection of information (data), to solve a
problem or contribute to knowledge about a
theory or practice
Relies on methods and principles that will
produce credible and verifiable results
Research helps provide scientificunderstanding and solves practical problems
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 1993.
Research is a systematic investigation, involving the collection of information
(data), to solve a problem or contribute to knowledge about a theory or
practice. It applies the scientific approach to the study of a question of interest
and relies on methods and principles that will produce credible and verifiable
results. Research helps provide scientific understanding and solves practical
problems.
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Steps in Research
Identify the question or problem
Conduct a literature review of the question
Frame a hypothesis
Develop the study design
Complete the research
Analyze the data
Generate conclusions
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
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Identify the Question
Good or poor research is defined by thequestion being asked
The question should be well understood, andthe problem well defined
Selecting a question should not be rushed
If the question is hurried, proceeding in anorderly fashion may be difficult and may
produce unreliable results
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
It is generally thought within the scientific community that the difference
between good and poor research is the distinction between asking a good or
poor question. It is very important that the question being asked is well
understood and that the problem has been well defined. Selecting a research
question should not be hurried and many hours may be devoted to selecting the
appropriate problem to be answered. If either is not clear, proceeding in an
orderly fashion may be difficult and continuing may produce unreliable
results.
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Identify the Question
Sources for identifying the question or
problem:
Personal experiences
Literature review
Theories
Ideas from others
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
The four most common sources for identifying the appropriate question or problem are personal
experiences, review of previous research (literature review), review of theories, and ideas from
others. There is a wealth of ideas one can obtain by just observing everyday occurrences. In the
course of the researchers day, it is normal to experience issues that may raise questions or
present problems. Posing questions prior to initiating research such as, What if this situationwas approached in a different way? or What would be the outcome if a procedure was
performed differently? may help define and develop a research question. In order to recognize
or identify these questions, it is necessary to be aware of recurrent problems and situations that
are frustrating, bothersome or do not produce reliable or good quality outcomes. It is also
helpful to continually examine the way in which procedures are performed and how decisions
that are made affect performance and functions.
Performing a literature review is another method of developing a question. Reviewing published
literature may provoke an idea or question by suggesting what areas of a topic should be
explored further. Questions may also result from inconsistencies found or by the lack of
published data.
Continually evaluating developed theories and considering questions raised by others may also
be a good source for developing questions or ideas. As situations and common practices change
over time, previously proven theories may no longer produce valid outcomes. Listening to and
observing problems that others have experienced may raise a question. These questions can be
researched in order to produce answers and improve practices.
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Identify the Question
Criteria for evaluating the question:
Significance
Practicality
Feasibility
Interest to researcher
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Not all questions posed may be researchable although they may be thought
provoking. Generally questions that are philosophically based cannot be
measured. Questions that are researchable involve variables that can be defined,
measured and quantified. In some instances it may be necessary to reword the
question if this occurs.
It is important to determine the questions feasibility to ensure the
appropriateness of the study. Some factors that should be considered include, the
duration or length of time the study will last, the time involved to enroll each
subject, availability of subjects, cooperation of others, facilities and equipment,
money, experience of the researcher and ethical concerns. If any of these factors
pose a problem then it may be necessary to rethink the question.
Another important factor is the interest level of the question or topic to the
researcher. Without the researchers dedication to the topic, the study may not be
successful or worthwhile. Additionally, when developing the question, the topic
should promote an opportunity for growth and acquired knowledge.
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Identify the Question
Form the statement
Declarative
Interrogative
Define the terms in the statement
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
After the question has been examined and clarified, it is necessary to convert it
to a definitive statement. A good statement will serve as a guide to developing
the study design. The two common types of statements used are declarative
(states the problem as a declaration) or interrogative (states the problem as a
question). Forming the statement helps to define the terms of the study. Once
the question or problem is stated and finalized, it is necessary to understand
how the question has been examined in the past.
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Literature Review
Determine what published data
suggests about the question or
problem
Clarify the value of the question
Clarify what is already known
Provide sources for reference
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
When developing a research protocol the investigator must determine what the
published data suggest about the question or problem being studied. This will
help clarify the value of the question, what is already known or proven about
the topic and which sources that may be used for reference.
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Primary Sources:
Journal articles, books, abstracts
Written by the person(s) who conductedthe research
Secondary Sources:
Review articles that summarize research
Written by someone other than primaryinvestigator
Literature Review
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
There are several primary sources that may be used for a literature review.
These include journal articles, books and abstracts written by the person(s)
who conducted the research. Secondary sources that may be used include
review articles that summarize previous research. Most source material will
originate from authors or researchers other than those conducting the initial
research.
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Frame a Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a statement that describes
the results the researcher expects
It examines relationships or differences
The null hypothesis is a statement that
expects no relationships or differences to
exist
A study should be designed to test thehypothesis or null hypothesis
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
The general purpose of a hypothesis is to guide scientific inquiries and often
follows directly with the question being asked or theory being tested. It
provides direction to the research design and assists in the collection, analysis
and interpretation of data. A hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation
of a relationship between two or more variables and describes the results the
researcher expects to obtain. A null hypothesis is a statement that expects that
no relationships or differences to exist. Research studies should be designed to
test the hypothesis or null hypothesis.
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Frame a Hypothesis
The nature of the hypothesis willdetermine:
Sample group for study
Measuring instruments
Study design
Procedures
Statistical techniques
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
The nature of the hypothesis will determine the sample group for study,
measuring instruments, study design, procedures, and statistical techniques
used for data analysis.
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Develop the Study Design
A study design is the researchers overall plan
to obtain the answer(s) to the question being
asked and the hypothesis being tested
It spells out strategies to develop information
that is accurate, objective and meaningful
It explains methods that will be used to collect
and analyze data
It includes time frame to conduct study
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
The study design is the researchers overall plan to obtain the answer(s) to the
hypothesis being tested. It spells out strategies for developing information that
is accurate, objective, and meaningful, and explains the methods that will be
used to collect and analyze data. This should also include the time frame
necessary or allowed to conduct the study.
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Develop the Study Design
Questions that may assist in development:Will there be an intervention or treatment?
What type of comparisons will be made?
What procedures will be used to control
variables?
When and how many times will data be collected
from research subjects?In what setting will the study take place?
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
There are several questions that should be asked to assist with study
development. These include:
Will there be an intervention or treatment?
What type of comparisons will be made?
What procedures will be used to control variables?
When and how many times are data collected from research subjects?
What setting will the study take place?
Answers to these and similar questions will allow all pertinent information to be
included and collected as part of the study. It will also help to eliminate the
possibility of omitting valuable resources or other essentials needed to produce
a reliable outcome.
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Develop the Study Design
Characteristics of good study design:
Appropriateness of question
Lack of study bias
Precision of study
Power of study
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Appropriateness of the research question, lack of study bias, precision of the
study and power of the study to change practices are characteristics of a well-
designed study.
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Complete Research
There are several different researchmethods available for data collection
It is important to choose one that will mostaccurately reflect the question being asked
Research different methods and choose themost appropriate
Perform research following the study
design that was developed and collectappropriate data
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
There are several methods available for data collection that allows for
completion of a research study. It is important to choose a method that will
most accurately reflect the question being asked. It may be necessary to
research different methods and choose the most appropriate one for the study
being performed. It is also necessary to perform research following the study
design that was developed and to collect all appropriate data.
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Complete the Research
Research methods include:
Interviews and questionnaires
Scales and standardized self-report
measures
Observational methods
Biophysiologic measures
Records and available data sources
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Commonly used research methods to collect data include interviews and
questionnaires, scales and standardized self-report measures, observational
methods, biophysiologic measures and previously documented records and
available data sources. To complete a research study the developed study
design should be followed. Methods and protocols should not be changed once
a study is started.
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Analyze the Data
Upon completion of the study, data shouldbe analyzed and measured for quality
Instruments used should result in measuresthat are relevant, accurate, unbiased,sensitive, one-dimensional and efficient
Measures that are physical or physiologichave a higher likelihood of success thanother types
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Upon completion of the study, the data collected should be analyzed and
measured for quality. An ideal measuring instrument is one that results in
measures that are relevant, accurate, unbiased, sensitive, one-dimensional and
efficient. Measures that are physical or physiologic have a higher likelihood of
success than other types.
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Data Analysis
Quality measurements should test for:
Reliability
Validity
Efficiency
Sensitivity
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
There are several techniques that have been developed to evaluate the quality
of the measurements used. These measurements should test for reliability,
validity, efficiency and sensitivity. Analysis of the data may be performed
quantitatively or qualitatively.
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Quantitative Data Analysis
Statistical measurements are techniques thatrender quantitative data meaningful and
intelligible
Enables researchers to reduce, summarize,
organize, evaluate, interpret and
communicate numerical information
It may be necessary to seek the assistance of
someone familiar or trained in the area ofstatistics to perform analysis
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Statistical measurements are techniques that render quantitative data
meaningful and intelligible. These techniques enable researchers to reduce,
summarize, organize, evaluate, interpret and communicate numerical
information collected during a research study. In order to perform these
measures appropriately and correctly, it may be necessary to seek the
assistance of someone familiar or trained in the area of statistics.
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Statistics are classified as:
Descriptiveused to describe and
synthesize data
(Averages and Percentages)
Inferentialused to make inferences or
draw conclusions about a population
Quantitative Data Analysis
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Quantitative statistics are generally classified as descriptive (used to describe
and synthesize data [averages and percentages]) or inferential (used to make
inferences or draw conclusions about a population).
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Types of statistical analysis:
Frequency distributions
Central tendency (mode, median, mean)
Sampling distributions
Paired t-tests
ANOVA (Analysis ofVariance)
Quantitative Data Analysis
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Examples of descriptive measures of statistical analysis include frequency
distributions and central tendency (mode, median, mean). Inferential measures
include sampling distributions, paired T-tests and ANOVA (Analysis Of
Variance) analysis.
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Is used to impose some order on the body of
information collected
Allows for general conclusions to be reached and
communicated in an understandable format
Is generally described as having soft endpoints
There are no uniformly accepted rules but rather
generally accepted methods
Qualitative Data Analysis
Polit DF and Hungler BP. Nursing Research Principles and Methods (Fourth Edition), 1991
Qualitative analysis is used to impose some order on the body of information
collected. It allows for general conclusions to be reached and communicated in
an understandable format. Often this analysis is described as holistic and is
usually concerned with humans and their environment and complexities. This
method is sometimes described as having soft endpoints, which may include
quality of life changes, ability to adapt to different environments and
environmental influences on individuals. There are no uniformly accepted rules
for this type of analysis. However, there are several commonly used and accepted
methods.
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Generate Conclusions
Similar to the early phases of research,
this may be difficult and time-consuming
Involves organizing the data in order to
interpret and communicate
There are no specific techniques or
methods but rather only simple guidelines
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
This last stage of research involves generating the conclusions. Similar to the
beginning phase, this may be difficult and time-consuming. It involves
organizing the gathered and analyzed data in an orderly fashion in order to
interpret and communicate the results of the study. There are no specific
techniques or methods but rather only simple guidelines that may be followed.
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Generate Conclusions
Aspects of interpreting results include:
Accuracy
Meaning
Importance
Extent of generalization
Implications
Polit, D.Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1991.
Aspects that should be considered when interpreting the results include the
accuracy, meaning and importance of the findings, the extent to which the
results can be generalized and the implications that the results will have on
currently accepted practices and theories. Good quality research should be
developed into abstract or manuscript form and submitted to the appropriate
peer reviewed journal for acceptance and publication. This is the most effective
way to communicate important findings that should be adopted into daily
practice.
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Conclusions
Developing, conducting and
communicating a research protocol is a
sophisticated and time-consuming process
It is important to understand the steps in
developing a research protocol in order to
perform an appropriate study and obtain
reliable results
Developing, conducting and communicating a research protocol is a
sophisticated and time-consuming process. It is important to understand the
steps in developing a research protocol in order to perform an appropriate
study and obtain reliable results.