week 1 dr johnny ryan ucd fundamental of management
TRANSCRIPT
WELCOME
DR JOHNNY RYANMondays 11.00-12.00 at Q108 or e-mail [email protected]
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When a multitude of young [students], keen, open-hearted, sympathetic, and observant, as young [students] are, come together and freely mix with each other, they are sure to learn one from another, even if there be no one to teach them.
- J. H. Newman, 1913.
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interesting ormemorable orsurprising
Teach you 2 things1. How to spot problems in what you hear2. Where management came from
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FOUNDATIONS OF MANAGEMENT
THOUGHT
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FOUNDATIONS OF MANAGEMENT
THOUGHT
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Skepticism
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NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES
GROWTH IN A TIME OF DEBT
Carmen M. ReinhartKenneth S. Rogoff
Working Paper 15639http://www.nber.org/papers/w15639
NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH1050 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02138January 2010
This paper was prepared for the American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings. The authorswould like to thank Olivier Jeanne and Vincent R. Reinhart for helpful comments and the NationalScience Foundation Grant No. 0849224 for financial support. The views expressed herein are thoseof the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.
NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer-reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies officialNBER publications.
© 2010 by Carmen M. Reinhart and Kenneth S. Rogoff. All rights reserved. Short sections of text,not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit,including © notice, is given to the source.
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FACTS?
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SCHMACTS!
Argument
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Leaving Cert is about
remembering facts
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University is about making
arguments
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UniversityLeaving Cert
Arguments
Facts
Facts
Reasons
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Facts.
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Learn how to use them.
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Out there in the streets, hustling, pushing dope, and robbing, I could have had the dreams from a pound of hashish and I'd never have dreamed anything so wild as that one day I would speak in coliseums and arenas... I was gone on debating. Whichever side of the selected subject was assigned to me, I'd track down and study everything I could find on it. I'd put myself in my opponent's place and decide how I'd try to win if I had the other side; and then I'd figure a way to knock down those points.
Reading
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Premises
Premises
Premises
Rea
sons
Rea
sons
Rea
sons
Rea
sons
Conclusion
“Engrossing”Cory Doctorow, BoingBoing
“Understanding the trends driving this revolution is pivotal to success. Consider this book your road map”
Marc Benioff, CEO, Salesforce
“An immensely important book”Kevin O'Sullivan, Editor of The Irish Times
“Enormously useful ... a great read” Prof Tim Wu, Columbia Law School
“The best western history of the Internet to date”Library Journal
“Captures the sweep of the Internet’s development”Prof Jonathan Zittrain, Harvard Law School
T.M.I.Toolkit.ie
Journal ol Personality and Social Psychology1965, Vol. 2, No. S, 736-740
CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE, INFORMATION SEARCH,AND INFORMATION UTILIZATION 1
SIEGFRIED STREUFERT PETER SUEDFELD
Douglass College, Rutgers—The State University University College, Rutgers—The Stale University
AND MICHAEL J. DRIVER
Purdue University
The effect of changes in information load and complexity of Ss' conceptualstructure on information search and information utilization is measured. Acomplex decision-making task is used to provide opportunity for differencesin information handling. It is found that generally information search de-creases as information load increases and that Ss scoring high on measures ofthe complexity of conceptual structure are less affected by information loadchanges than their lower scoring counterparts. It is also found that the integra-tive handling of the information attained through search follows the lines ofthe Schroder, Driver, and Streufert theory and parallels the findings ofStreufert and Schroder with integration in decision making.
In a recent volume Schroder, Driver, andStreufert (196S) have been concerned withinformation acquisition and information proc-essing by individuals and groups. These au-thors have proposed that persons scoringhigh on measures of conceptual structure(Schroder & Streufert, 1963; Streufert &Schroder, 1963) are more "information ori-ented" and should generally process moreinformation in complex decision-making situ-ations. The maximal level of informationhandling would hypothetically vary along thelines of the inverted U curve (with informa-tion handling plotted on the ordinate, andenvironmental conditions, i.e., informationload, plotted on the abscissa). Individual orgroup differences in conceptual structurewould produce a family of such inverted Ucurves. It is postulated that the general char-acteristic complexity of a person's conceptualstructure relates to the elevation and shapeof his inverted U curve.
Streufert and Schroder (in press) have re-cently shown that the information-processingcharacteristics of decision-making groups fol-low the lines proposed by that theory. Lessis known about the various aspects of in-formation acquisition. In this context theterm "information orientation" permits dif-ferent interpretations. It could imply differ-
1 This research was in part supported by the Re-search Council, Rutgers-The State University.
ences in general "interest" in information,differences in perceptual characteristics, dif-ferent reasons for obtaining information, andso forth. In this paper we are concerned withsome of the possible questions which couldbe asked about the information orientationof persons and groups scoring high or lowon measures of conceptual structure.
We are here specifically concerned withthree processes of information search andutilization: delegated search for information,that is, requests for information from anexternal source by individuals taking part ina complex information-processing task; self-initiated information search, that is, all de-cisions made by task-oriented four-mangroups which are specifically designed togain more task relevant information; andintegrative utilization of information gainedthrough search in subsequent group decisionmaking. We compared the performance ofpersons (or homogeneous groups) differing inthe complexity of conceptual structure, andwe also considered the effect of changes inenvironmental conditions (i.e., informationload). The questions asked in this researchare: What are the effects of variation ininformation load and individual differences inconceptual structure on delegated informationsearch? What are the effects of variation ininformation load and individual differences inconceptual structure on self-initiated infor-mation search? Is integrative information
736
CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE 737
utilization similar to the general complex in-formation processing characteristics measuredby Streufert and Schroder (in press)?
METHODSubjects and Task
Male students, numbering 185, at an eastern uni-versity were tested to determine their level of com-plexity in conceptual structure. Tests utilized werethe Sentence Completion Test (Schroder & Streufert,1963), and the Impression Formation Test (Streufert& Schroder, 1963). Eighty subjects were selected onthe basis of very low (40 subjects) or very high(40 subjects) scores on these tests.2 Differences be-tween the two groups of subjects on SAT verbaland quantitative scores were small and insignificant.Structurally homogeneous four-man teams wereformed. These teams were placed in a tactical gamesituation (for a detailed description of the simula-tion procedure, see Streufert, Clardy, Driver, Kar-lins, Schroder, & Suedfeld, in press). Each team wasgiven the task of making decisions regarding theinvasion of a mythical island. Teams were toldthat they were playing against another team whichsupposedly had received instructions to defend theisland. All the functions of the enemy team wereperformed by the experimenters. Consequences ofthe subjects' decisions, as determined by the experi-menters, were fed back to the subjects. Informationregarding these consequences was slightly favorableat all times. Analysis of a rating scale filled outby the subjects in various phases of the game indi-cated that they perceived themselves in a moderatelyadvantageous position at all times.
The kind of success (not the level) experiencedby the teams was determined by the strategy playedby the supposed enemy team (the experimenters).The sequence of strategies played was the same inall cases. In this way all teams were kept approxi-mately equal in the general kind of operations em-ployed by them, their level of success, and thestrategic moves made by the supposed enemy team.
All groups of subjects were exposed to differentload conditions. During each 30-minute game pe-riod, subjects received either 2, 5, 8, 10, 12, IS, or25 independent informative statements. These state-ments would be in response to orders or requestsreceived from the teams of subjects or, if no suchorders had been received, general information re-garding other relevant "observations." The orderof the load periods was varied. From a number ofrandom sequences those were selected which wouldinsure that each load condition would appear atleast once in each position.
2 The impression formation test was scored inaccordance with the manual of Streufert andSchroder (1963). The sum of the two highest scoreson the sentence-completion test was used in arriv-ing at a value of subjects on that instrument. Se-lected subjects scored high on both tests or lowon both tests.
Each group of structurally complex persons wasmatched with a group of structurally simple per-sons in terms of the information load sequence. Tendifferent sequences were used.
Data Collection
Delegated information search. After the end ofeach 30-minute playing period, 56 of the subjects(who were members of seven structurally simpleand seven structurally complex teams) were givena number of tests and rating sheets to fill out.Among these was the following item:
The information you are receiving is prepared foryou in the same way it would be prepared forreal commanders by a staff of intelligence officers.These persons have been instructed to informyou only of important occurrences. You may feelthat these men do not give you sufficient infor-mation or do not give you adequate detail. Onthe other hand, you may feel that the informa-tion you are receiving is too detailed and you arepresented with some unimportant information.You may instruct these intelligence officers to in-crease or decrease the amount of information theypresent to you. We would like you to decide thismatter for yourself. Please do not consult theother commanders on this issue at any time. Wewill adjust the information flow according to themajority opinion in your group. Please check yourpreference in comparison to the immediately pre-ceding game period:I would prefer to:
receive much more informationreceive a little more informationreceive about the same amount of informationreceive a little less informationreceive much less information
In the analysis, the above choices were assignedscores 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1, respectively. (In actuality,information load was predetermined and was notadjusted in accordance with requests by subjects.)
Self-initiated information search. In contrast tothe above measure, which was gained from eachindividual subject, this measure as well as the meas-ure of information utilization was gained from thegroup as a whole. Self-initiated information searchis an expression of the number of information searchor reconnaissance orders given by the teams of sub-jects to their own troops during a particular 30-minute period.
Integrative information utilization. Here we areconcerned with the use made of the informationgained through self-initiated search. A score of 1was assigned to each future decision which wasa consequence of a particular information searchmove (cf. Streufert & Schroder, in press). The totalscore for any playing period is then the numberof future decisions which are consequentially relatedto information search (reconnaissance) decisionsmade by a team during that particular period.
CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE 739
Self-Initiated Information SearchAn analysis of variance technique (Type I
Analysis; Lindquist, 19S3) was used to testfor significance. The interaction effect (F= 2.52, p < .05) and the main effect for loads(F = 7.26, p < .01) are significant. The maineffect for structure (F = 2.06) is not signifi-cant. Mean scores for self-initiated informa-tion search are plotted in Figure 2. As inthe analysis of delegated information search,we find that increases in information loadresult in decreasing information search. How-ever, a look at the graphic representation inFigure 2 seems to suggest that the decreasein information search is a near-linear functionof information load rather than confined toonly superoptimal information loads (as itwas for delegated information search). If oneconsiders an averaged curve (over struc-tures), then self-initiated information searchresponses appear to drop from approximatelytwo such decisions per period for highly sub-optimal information loads to one decision inhighly superoptimal information loads. Inother words, some self-initiated informationsearch continues to occur.
However, if the subjects had been inter-
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Structurally Complex Pers
2 5 8 10 12 15 25Number of Messages Received by Ss per 1/2 Hojr Period
INFORMATION LOAD
FIG. 2. Average number of self-initiated informa-tion search decisions under changing load conditionsfor groups of subjects differing in the complexity ofconceptual structure.
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Groups Consisting ofStructurally Complex Persons
2 5 8 10 12 15 25Number of Messages Received by Ss per 1/2 Hour Period
INFORMATION LOAD
FIG. 3. Integrative utilization of previously soughtinformation under changing load conditions forgroups of subjects differing in the complexity ofconceptual structure.
ested in receiving considerably more informa-tion (as their responses on the delegated in-formation search measure would suggest),they should have made considerably moreactive information search decisions than theyactually did. The fact that they did notlends some support to the suggestion that thecontinued high delegated information searchis not necessarily due to actual interest inadditional information.
It is interesting to note that the interactioneffect for structures and loads in self-initiatedinformation search is significant, although themain effect for structures is not significant.It appears that structurally simple personsare considerably more sensitive to changes ininformation load than are structurally com-plex persons. This result can be explained interms of current theoretical work concernedwith conceptual structures and information-processing characteristics. In an analysis ofthe response characteristics of structurallysimple and complex persons, Schroder et al.(196S) and Streufert and Schroder (in press)have shown that structurally simple persons(or groups consisting of such persons) re-spond more directly to immediate environ-mental information. Conversely, structurallycomplex persons (or groups) respond in amore integrated strategic fashion. These find-ings, according to Streufert and Schroder,
738 S. STREUFERT, P. SUEDFELD, AND M. J. DRIVER
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„ 2 5 8 10 12 15 25| Number of Messages Received by Ss per 1/2 Hour Period
INFORMATION LOAD
Fio. 1. Average amount of information requestedthrough delegated search under changing load con-ditions for subjects differing in the complexity ofconceptual structure.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONDelegated Information Search
Measurement of self-initiated informationsearch and integrative information utilizationis based on data which permit parametricanalysis, so that analysis of variance tech-niques could be used. The data concernedwith delegated information search, however,are derived from ratings, and permit onlynonparametric analysis. Statements of sig-nificance are based on the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test (for tests of differ-ences between loads) and the Mann-WhitneyU tests (for tests of difference betweenstructures).
Disregarding differences in structure, a sig-nificant drop in delegated information searchwas obtained between Load Conditions 12and IS, and Load Conditions IS and 25(p < .05 and < .01, respectively). Theseresults are clearly indicated in the slopes ofinformation search curves in Figure 1. It ap-pears that an increase in information load,from what Streufert and Schroder (in press)have shown to be suboptimal to optimal loadconditions for complex information process-ing, does not alter information search charac-
teristics to a large degree. However, as in-formation load increases toward superoptimallevels (cf. Streufert & Schroder, in press),delegated information search beings to drop.Yet it should be noted that even at highlysuperoptimal information loads (i.e., 25 mes-sages per 30-minute period), the subjects arestill asking for increased information levels.Observation of subjects' behavior under dif-ferent load conditions suggests that theywould prefer environments with load condi-tions producing optimal complexity of per-formance as found by Streufert and Schroder(in press). The apparent inconsistency inthe behavior of the subjects (requestingadditional information at superoptimal loadlevels) might be due to at least two possiblecauses: Subjects may feel that some signifi-cant information is not reported, or, an ex-traneous factor, such as a possible effect ofsocial desirability of engaging in informationsearch may be operating. Testing for a dif-ference between those subjects requesting"much more information" and those request-ing the "same amount of information" or "alittle less information" under high load condi-tions using scales of social desirability andresponse set may be of value.
Differences in delegated information searchfor subjects differing in the complexity ofconceptual structure were found under Infor-mation Load Conditions 15 and 25 (p < .05and <.01, respectively). In line with thetheory of Schroder et al. (1965) this findingcould be explained as a consequence of lack-ing sensitivity of persons scoring low onconceptual structure measures to changes inenvironmental conditions. Another possibleexplanation might be a greater effect of socialdesirability on low scorers. If informationsearch is socially desirable, and if measuresof conceptual structure in this populationcorrelate with social desirability (correla-tions in other populations have varied from— .41 to +.01), then one may expect lesssensitivity to superoptimal load from lowscorers, whose response would be in part de-termined by social desirability, than one mayexpect from high scorers. In other words,high scorers would be more sensitive to in-formation changes, per se.
397 words,total
100+ clickable distractions
Dopamine Loop
Terrifying torrents and long dark tunnels areused to create the excitement of the
thrilling train ride at the park.
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Find the ‘t’
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TEASER
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cra8sman
idiosyncra;c process
one-‐off product
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WHAT WE EXPECT
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Citation
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If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.Isaac Newton
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sapien
Superior eye sight and coordination
sapien neanderthalensis
Very big brain
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CREDIT WHERE CREDIT IS DUE
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1. Read/watch what we ask you 2. Be skeptical 3. Argue 4. Cite who you source from 5. Attend and participate
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If you need to talk to me:Any Monday 11.00-12.00, at Q108
If you need to talk to Carolin:Any Tuesday 12.00-13.00 [email protected]
Learning reflections
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