Paper 1 assessment – SAQs (8 marks)Markba

nd Level descriptor Notes

0The answer does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

This means that your answer is not good. You have missed the point of the question or done nothing.

1 - 3

There is an attempt to answer the question, but knowledge and understanding is limited, often inaccurate, or of marginal relevance to the question.

4 - 6

The question is partially answered. Knowledge and understanding is accurate but limited. Either the command term is not effectively addressed or the response is not sufficiently explicit in answering the question.

7 -8

The question is answered in a focused and effective manner and meets the demands of the command term. The response is supported by appropriate and accurate knowledge and understanding of research.

These marks translate into the following levels:

Bear in mind that you’re looking for an overall average of 70% for a level 7, 60% for a level 6 and 50% for a level 5. Getting a level 7 in any one question doesn’t count for much – you

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Mark Level1 12 23 34 55 6

6+ 7

must ensure consistency in your performance. Your target is always to get as many marks as possible.

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CLOA structured notesHow to use these notes:

- Each of the learning outcomes for this level of analysis is set out before you. You already have these, but it means each page at least starts off making sense.

- The command term is briefly explained, sometimes more helpfully than at others. This is intended to help you to understand the sort of content that should be in your answer, if this is the question that appears in the exam. Remember that the command term can be changed for any equivalent or lower command term, so the wording of the learning outcome isn’t a guarantee of what will be in any exam.

- The indicative content is merely a suggestion from me regarding what could go into an answer that addresses the particular learning outcome (as worded below). This isn’t a prescription, and it’s not to say that there aren’t other ways of answering the question. What is included is what makes sense to me and, hopefully, is clear enough to point you in one of the many right directions.

- The line of argument is something that is relevant only for AO3 level questions. In answering these questions you will be marked on the structure and organisation of your answer and so you need to write it with a clear line of argument running through. This will give cohesion and flow to your answer.

- The space after my typing is intended for you to add your own notes to mine. This is because what I’ve put down are only brief sketches of what might go into an answer, and as we cover additional material in class you may want to note that down so that you create a more comprehensive set of notes that the ones that I’ve given you here.

- I’ve put the assessment criteria on the inside front and back covers, and the command terms and their definitions at the back as a sort of glossary. These should be used when thinking about how best to answer a question.

- Guard this with your life!- This remains a work in progress. There will be some studies in here

that we end up not using, and some that we will need to put in. Every year things change a little bit; that’s OK, just don’t be too precious about crossing things out – it shows that you’re interacting with the resource.

Cognitive level of analysis (CLOA)

C1 Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis

C2 Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research

C3 Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis

C4 Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis

C5 Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

C6 Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for example, memory, perception, language, decision-making) with reference to research studies

C7 Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

C8 Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

C9 With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable

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C10 Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

C11 To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?

C12 Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process

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C1/2: Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.‘Outline’ = 8 mark answer

Mental representations guide behaviour (schema theory)- Loftus & Palmer (1974)- Carmichael (1932)- Don’t use Bartlett!Cognitive processes can be investigated scientifically- Any experiment within the CLOA (experiment = scientific method);

use one- Glanzer & Cunitz (1968)- Peterson & Peterson (1959)- Diemand-Yauman (2011)Culture affects cognitive processes- Gutchess (2006)- Ji (2000): different autobiographical memory details

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C3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis‘Discuss’ means balanced!How/why particular research methods are used…

Experiments – good way to test hypotheses and identify causative relationships. Cognitive psychology offers lots of theories that can turn into predictions of behavioural outcomes under certain conditions; experiments will test these predictions. E.g. any MSM or LoPT studies where the theory predicts the outcome.Interviews – cognitive processes are not accessible to the observer, and so to understand them we have to ask people how they think. Ji (2000) used interview-type methods to collect her data; Gutchess (2009) interviewed her participants (describing scenes, she found Asian ppts described the background more than the Americans, who focused on the object of the pictures).

Line of argument: cognitive processes are not directly observable or accessible and so cognitive psychologists need a way of finding out how people are processing information. Theories predict behaviours that can then be tested, and people can describe the processes they’re aware of, meaning that by using these methods cognitive processing can be better understood.

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C4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysisEthical considerations related to research @ CLOA

Generic or specific- Informed consent- Deception- Right to withdraw- Protection from harm

o Physicalo Psychological

- Debrief- Privacy – what you let the researchers know about (a right)- Confidentiality – what researchers must keep secret/anonymous (a

responsibility)Remember that ethical considerations aren’t necessarily problems, but issues that need to be thought about in relation to any research that is conducted.

Possible studies with relevant consideration:- Gutchess (2006), Brody/Kennedy – privacy re: discovering problems

psychological harm?- HM – confidentiality: we only learned his name (Henri Mollaison) when

he died.Line of argument – all aspects of research involve considering how participants are to be treated. Once these issues have been satisfactorily dealt with the study has the potential to be useful. If there are any ethical problems then the integrity of the research is compromised and its value diminished.

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C5: Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies‘Evaluate’ requires that you include strengths, limitations and a judgement of the theory.

Define schemas/schema theoryBartlett (1932)Carmichael (1932)Anderson & Pichert (1978)Loftus & Palmer (1974)Line of argument – schema theory seems to predict and explain our interactions with the world very well: very few studies suggest that it’s wrong. However, the theory cannot give a mechanism by which schemas guide our behaviour, or even how we acquire them, and thus it lacks weight.

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C6: Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process (for example, memory, perception, language, decision-making) with reference to research studies‘Evaluate’ requires that you include strengths, limitations and a judgement of the model/theory.

Multi-store model of memory (MSM)- Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)- Glanzer & Cunitz (1967)- Raugh & Atkinson (1975)Evaluation: explains some phenomena but struggles against elaborative rehearsal (LoPT) and FBMs. HM had discrete memory stores, supporting to a degree, but it’s too simplistic to be satisfactory.Levels of Processing Theory (LoPT)- Craik & Lockhart (1972)- Mandler (1967)- Craik & Tulving (1975)- Diemand-Yauman (2011)Evaluation: accounts for implicit learning well, but is poorly defined, doesn’t explain very clearly and struggles with FBMs.Line of argument – both the MSM and LoPT have research evidence that support them and weaknesses that the other can account for more successfully. Memory seems to be far more complex than either model/theory can deal with on its own, but even combined there are enough gaps that mean a more expansive and coherent model should be sought.

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C7: Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process‘Explain’ for just eight marks.

Gais & Born (2004) – ACh and cortisol: how different levels affect encoding and consolidation of memory.

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C8: Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process‘Discuss’ means balanced/considered.

Memory is shaped by our culture.[Gutchess (2006/9) – be careful to link her discoveries re: perception to cultural influences on memory; this isn’t difficult but must be done.]Han (1998) – asked 4-6 year-olds about everyday events and their last birthday: Chinese talked about many details, US about few; US children made three times as many self-references.Mullen (1994) – US children have earlier autobiographical memories than Chinese because of their upbringing.Ji (2000) – Chinese students remembered more of their publicly-observable behaviours than US, because Chinese needed to note others’ behaviours so that they could fit in rather than standing out and getting hammered down.Line of argument: we remember those things that we pay attention to (Cherry?!), and we pay attention to those things that our culture ‘trains’ us to attend to. If our attention is on context as much as object then we will remember the world differently from those who focus much more on the object. Culture affects memory.

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C9: With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable?‘To what extent’ requires that you demonstrate the degree to which a cognitive process is reliable and highlight some of the problems that limit its reliability.

[Loftus and Palmer (1974)]Bartlett (1932)Rattner (1983) – 8500 convictions based on flawed EWT..!Anderson & Pichert (1978)Baddeley & Godden (1975)Geiselman & Fisher (1985) – cognitive interviewFisher et al (1990) – enhanced cognitive interview in real settingLine of argument: Too many people are convicted each year on the basis of EWT because people believe that memories are accurate. Research has clearly shown that memory is too reconstructive by nature and therefore too prone to distortion to trust when people’s lives are at stake. EWT can be made more reliable using the evidenced-based cognitive interview, but while memory helps us get through life we shouldn’t use it as the sole basis to take the life of another.

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C10: Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processesBalanced/considered…

You must remember that this question is asking why psychologists use technology to answer the questions they have about cognitive processes. Focus on why brain imaging technologies are used more than when they have been used.

Examples that might help: [Broca – historical example of what we used to do]

Fink (PET)Gutchess (fMRI)Maguire (MRI)Sharot (fMRI)Brody/Kennedy…

Try to mention studies that use different technologies.

Line of argument: brain imaging technologies allow us to investigate aspects of behaviour hitherto unavailable to us (i.e. that we couldn’t previously access!), particularly on living people. We can understand how cognition, the brain and behaviour are linked in new and helpful ways.

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C11: To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?Do they interact? How much?

Schachter & Singer (1962) – two-factor theory of emotion (TFT)Dutton & Aron (1974) – love on a bridge!LeDoux (1999) – biological explanation of TFTFolkman (1985) – cognitive appraisal theory

Line of argument: Emotions are the combination of a physiological reaction and the label that we give it. The cognitive aspect to emotion is an intrinsic part of the emotional response that we have to stimuli: the interaction is absolute and inseparable; if there is no physiological response then there is nothing to interpret as an emotion, and if there’s no cognitive processing there is no discernible point to the reaction.

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C12: Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process‘Evaluate’ means that a judgement must be formed by the end of your response.

FBMs- Brown & Kulik (1977): proposed FBMs as being qualitatively different

from other memories and as using a different biological pathway when being encoded.

- Stetson (2007): concluded that the amygdala is involved in processing memories of emotionally-charged experiences.

- Sharot (2006): different pattern of brain activity (including the amygdala) for those remembering 9/11 IFF participants were within two miles of the Twin Towers; suggests a different mechanism but only for very particular circumstances.

- Neisser & Harsch (1992): found that participants’ memories of the Challenger disaster were no more reliable than other autobiographical memories, despite greater confidence and vividness associated with the memories.

Line of argument: emotional experiences involve the amygdala in the encoding process, allowing for more information to be processed and thus more detail to be recalled. However, there is no evidence to suggest that FBMs are any more accurate than other autobiographical memories and so while emotions add to the detail they do nothing for the accuracy of memory.

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IB Command terms

Command terms associated with assessment objective 1: Knowledge and comprehensionDefine

Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.Describe

Give a detailed account.Outline

Give a brief account or summary.State

Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.

Command terms associated with assessment objective 2: Application and analysisAnalyse

Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.Apply

Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a given problem or issue.

DistinguishMake clear the differences between two or more concepts or items.

ExplainGive a detailed account including reasons or causes.

Command terms associated with assessment objective 3: Synthesis and evaluationCompare

Give an account of the similarities between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.

Compare and contrastGive an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.

ContrastGive an account of the differences between two (or more) items or situations referring to both (all) of them throughout.

DiscussOffer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.

EvaluateMake an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.

ExamineConsider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue.

To what extentConsider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept. Opinions and conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence and sound argument.

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