Transport is an essential branch of commerce and is concerned with the distribution of goods and the movement of people. It has become an industry in itself and a very important economic activity. The primary function of transport is to provide manufacturing industries with raw materials and semi manufactured goods and to distribute finished products to wholesalers, retailers and final consumers. Nowdays advances in telecommunications and computer technologies have brought about new and more efficient patterns of work organization contributing to speedy and flexible international transport services.There are several means of transport and their choice will depend on a variety of considerations regarding:

· the nature of the goods which may be bulky, heavy or perishable

· the value of the goods and the cost of transport· the size and weight of the goods· the time and place of delivery· the quantity of goods to be despatched

The efficiency of a transport system is strictly connected to the technological developments in engines and vehicles as well as to the road, rail and airport infrastructures. Britain, in particular, can boast an efficient and safe network of over 3,000 km of trunk motorways, a well extended railway network operated by fast inter-city trains, a number of airports conveniently located near the major urban centres. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1993 between Shakespeare cliff, near Dover, and Sangatte, near Calais, will have a significant impact on travel between Britain and the continent of Europe. The Channel Tunnel will put an end to Britain's insularity and is going to enhance the mobility of labour, goods and services between Britain and the other European countries.

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Transport is generally classified into the following main branches:

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Road haulage has a dominant position in the movement of inland freight, accounting for about 82 per cent of tonnage carried and for nearly three-fifths of tonne-km. Railways, inland waterways, coastal shipping and pipelines are important in carrying certain types of freight, particularly bulk goods. Motor vehicle traffic in Great Britain is continuing to grow. In 1989 the road network in Britain totalled some 380,400 km of which 3,000 km were trunk motorways. New and improved roads have resulted in much shorter travelling times, particularly for long-distance journeys and those between cities, and have brought considerable benefits to industry, commerce and road haulage operators, and increased personal mobility.Railways were nationalised in 1947 and in 1962 the British Railways Board was set up to manage railway affairs and subsidiary activities. The British Railways Board controls most of the railway network in Great Britain apart from the underground railway systems in London and Glasgow, the Tyne and Wear Metro and a few stretches of private railway. The Government is studying the long-term options for British Rail, including the possibility of privatisation.The Inland waterways of Great Britain are popular for ricreation, make a valuable contribution to the environment and play an important

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part in land drainage and water supply. They are also used to a limited extent for freight carrying. The British Waterways Board is responsible for some 3,200 km of waterways in Great Britain. The majority of waterways are maintained primarily for leisure use, but about 620 km are maintained as commercial waterways for private sector traffic.(Adapted from Britain 1991)

The following diagram shows the features of transport by land:

VOCABULARY

by air groupage system per via aerea con sistema a raggruppamentoby air mail per posta aereaby canal per canaleby cargo liner con nave mercantile di lineaby charter flight con volo charterby container ship con nave porta contenitoriby E-mail per posta elettronicaby express post per posta espressoby ferry con traghettoby freightliner per treno merci di lineaby goods train per ferrovia PVby intermodal system con sistema intermodaleby passenger liner con nave di linea per passeggeriby passenger train per ferrovia GVby pipeline tramite oleodotto / metanodottoby post per postaby rail per ferroviaby road su stradaby scheduled flight con volo di linea

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by surface mail per posta ordinariaby tanker con petrolieraby tramp con nave volandiera

TRANSPORT THROUGH THE POST OFFICE

The Post Office in Britain is one of the largest industrial service organisations. It offers a wide range of services every day: counter services, conveyance of letters and parcels, telephones. the transmission of data via telex, fax or computer services, retail banking services. It is divided into four service departments: posts, telecommunications, data processing and giro banking.As regards the delivery of letters and parcels, Post Office provides a range of specialist services:1. Datapost, a door-to-door delivery service, has overnight links

throughout Britain and provides an international service to over 160 countries.

2. Datapost Sameday provides a rapid delivery within or between more than 100 cities and towns in Britain and between London and Amsterdam, Paris and Dublin.

3. The Royal Mail Facsimile Service, the world's first international public facsimile transmission service sending letters and other documents electronically, provides high-speed mail links between more than 100 post offices in Britain as well as to and from some 40 other countries.

Besides these services, the Post office operates a Parcel Delivery Service. The Post Office has reorganised its parcels operations. A programme of modernisation includes the establishment of 150 local collection and delivery depots throughout Britain. Depending on the line they deal in and according to their transport requirements, most firms make use of the Parcel Delivery Service.The Post Office is introducing new technology into its counter services to reduce costs and raise productivity, while providing an improved range of services to customers. (From Britain 1991).

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Oral Test

1. What is transport?2. What is the primary function of transport?3. What factors do you consider when choosing a means of transport?4. How can transport be effected?5. How is transport by land classified?6. Why is motor vehicle traffic dominant in Britain?7. What does the British Railways Board control?8. What is the function of the inland waterways?9. What services does the Post Office provide?10. Into what departments is the Post Office divided?11. What is datapost?12. How is the Parcel Delivery Service organised?

ROAD HAULAGE

Like many other industrial countries, road haulage, in Britain, has attained a predominant position in the movement of inland freight. Road haulage is predominantly an industry of small private businesses.

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The biggest road haulage operators in Britain are NFC plc, Transport Development Group plc, TNT Express, Apollo Freight Limited Co., United Carriers International Ltd.Road haulage traffic by heavy goods vehicles accounts for about 77 per cent of the traffic in Great Britain. Much of the traffic is moved over short distances. The main commodities handled by heavy goods vehicles are crude minerals; food, drink and tobacco; building materials.

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Road safetyAlthough Great Britain has one of the highest densities of road traffic in the world, it has a good record on road safety, with one of the lowest road accident death rates in the European Community. The Government has introduced a number of measures to alleviate the environmental problems caused by lorries and to improve road safety. These include the provision of more relief roads and bypasses to keep lorries away from people; new standards for vehicle sideguards, noise and spray suppression: and more effective enforcement of regulations. Grants of up to 60 per cent are available towards the cost of construction or modernisation of privately owned rail or inland waterway facilities where significant environmental benefits can be obtained by keeping heavy goods vehicle traffic off unsuitable roads. (From Britain 1991)

Documentation

According to the transport regulations in force within the EEC, the main document for road transport is the Road Consignment Note or CRM (Convention Merchandises par Routes) and, for international transport, the International Road Consignment Note. This document is issued in sets of originals and copies for persons concerned. It is a receipt for the goods received by the road haulier and an evidence of the contract of carriage as well. It contains the name and address of the consignor and the consignee, a description of the goods, their marks, the number of packages, place of delivery, place and date of taking over, method of packing, special agreements, instructions as to payment for carriage, the signatures by the concerned parties (the consignor, the carrier, the consignee).The Delivery Note is a document accompanying the goods which the consignee signs to prove reception of the goods relieving the carrier of any responsibility.

Community Transit DocumentsGoods produced inside the EEC are free to circulate within the Common Market countries. To this end a Community Transit System has been set up which has regulated the movement of the goods inside the Community through a set of standardised documents. The system regulates also the commercial relations with associated countries with which the Community has made special trading agreements. Goods coming from these countries can circulate on condition they are provided with transit forms ( T forms ) ratified by Customs. The most common Transit documents are:

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T1 which accompanies goods produced outside the EEC in transit between member states.T2 for goods produced and exchanged inside the EEC .T-EX which is a Common Market export document. It is used for foods exported from EEC countries to extra-Community countries.EUR.1 which is not a transit document but a certificate of origin used for goods produced by countries which have negotiated preferential tariffs with the EEC. The same document is used by EEC when exporting goods to these countries.

Advantages and disadvantages of road transportThe main advantages of road transport are:1. it is flexible and provides a door-to-door service2. it is faster and cheaper for distances up 300 kms3. it eliminates transhipment handling4. it permits to carry return loads

The main disadvantages road transport implies are:1. it is slower than railway over long distances2. it has to cope with heavily congested roads and delivery could be

delayed3. it is subject to bad weather conditions4. it is less convenient when there are no return loads to carry

Transport service is usually associated with packing and insurance. Before being delivered to its final destination, a consignment is normally packed and covered by insurance. This adds packing and insurance charges to transport expenses which may well result considerably high. A helpfull way of holding prices down is given by the groupage system or consolidated shipment.A consolidated shipment consists of goods from different sender companies grouped together into a single shipment. This kind of shipment enables shippers to lower the costs of delivery, packing and insurance which are charged on the total number of consignments.

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Britain has an extensive network of railways which are under public ownership and under the management of the British Railways Board which is a public corporation responsible to the Minister of Transport.Passenger Services. The passenger network comprises a fast intercity network, linking the main centres of Great Britain and providing commuter services around the large conurbations, especially London and south-east England. InterCity 125 trains, travelling at a speed of 125 mph (201 km/h) are the world's fastest diesel trains and operate cross services to Wales, the Midlands, Yorkshire, Scotland.Freight traffic is mostly represented by bulk commodities such as coal, coke, iron and steel, building materials, minerals and petroleum,motor cars, cement, timber. Container traffic to the continent of Europe is largely operated and is being furtherly developed. Freighliners and special container lorries are provided to speed up container traffic. Railway transport is effected by passenger trains, goods trains, and freightliners. Freightliners are fast goods trains operating regular freight services between the major centres. As to the rates of transport they vary according to:1. the class of the train used2. the size or weight of the goods3. whether the goods are dispatched at carrier's risk or at owner's risk.

When goods are carried at carrier's risk the rates are higher and the railways are entirely responsible for safe delivery. The transport at owner's risk rates implies lower rates and no liability for the railways. These rates are usually applied when bulky goods are handled.

The main document for rail transport is the Rail Consignment Note which is issued in sets of originals and copies. It contains forwarding and destination station, name and address of the consignor and the consignee, number, nature and weight of packages, description of goods, declarations concerning payment or clearance. The original Consignment Note is not a document of title to the goods; it

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accompanies the goods and is handed to the consignee at the destination station.

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The main advantages of rail transport are:1. it is particularly suitable for heavy and bulky goods2. it is faster and cheaper that road transport over long distances3. it provides fixed routes and terminals

The main disadvantages are:1. it lacks flexibility2. it is uneconomical over short distances3. it implies transhipment problems.

INCOTERMS International Commercial Terms devised by the ICC (International Chamber of Commerce)

TERMS OF DELIVERYPoint of departureForwarding station

Point of arrivalDestination station

ex factory franco fabbricaex works (EXW) franco fabbricaex warehouse franco magazzinofree on rail (FOR) franco vagonefree on truck (FOT) franco vagonefree carrier (FCA) franco vettore

free / franco/DAF + place of delivery or destination

franco domicile franco domicilio cliente

free Chiasso station franco stazione Chiasso

delivered at frontier (DAF) reso frontiera

TERMS OF PAYMENTPoint of departureForwarding station

Point of arrivalDestination station

carriage free porto franco carriage forward porto assegnatocarriage paid to (CPT) + place of delivery

trasporto pagato fino acarriage and insurance paid to (CIP) + place of delivery

trasporto e assicurazione pagati fino a

Esempi: EXW Manchester franco fabbrica ManchesterFCA Gatwick Airport franco vettore aeroporto di GatwickFOR Milan Central Station franco vagone Milano stazione centraleDAF Dover reso frontiera di DoverCPT Brussels trasporto pagato fino a BruxellesCIP Basel trasporto e assicurazione pagati fino a Basilea

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Common clauses of delivery:ex factory, ex warehouse (ex=out of, from). The place of delivery is the factory or the warehouse. The price for the goods does not include delivery charges.free on rail (FOR), free on truck (FOT) + name of the forwarding station. The price quoted by the seller includes all the costs until the goods are delivered to a railway station or terminal.carriage free when the buyer does not pay for the carriage of the goods.carriage forward when the buyer is bound to pay for the carriage on arrival of the goods.

TRANSPORT BY PIPELINES

A pipeline is a line of pipes (tubes) connected end to end, often underground, used for carrying liquids and gas a long distance from a central supply. The products which are commonly carried by pipeline are crude oil, natural gas, bulk commodities and crushed minerals (coal, iron ore, etc.). From a central supply point they are pipelined to industrial plants or wholesale depots for processing or retail distribution.Some 1,077 miles (1,733 km) of submarine pipeline bring oil ashore from the North Sea oilfields. The main crude oil onshore pipelines in operation in Britain are those connecting Finnart to Grangemouth and Cruden Bay to Grangemouth. Onshore pipelines also carry refined products to major marketing areas. A 423-km pipeline runs from Milford Haven to the Midlands and Manchester.The PipelineNot unlike the railways in operating technique, the modern pipeline system is an efficient, clocklike mechanism with dispatchers, district and division superintendents, trackwalkers and section crews. Great improvements have been made in the pumping and power equipment at pumping stations. Diesel power is widely employed for the powerful pumps, the performance is steady and continuous day and night, and the operation is almost automatic. Great changes have taken place in

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pipe material and in the joining of pipe. High-carbon steel was introduced and methods were developed by which pipe was welded instead of joined by the ordinary screw couplings. In the gas fields, metallurgical science similarly enabled producers to pipe natural gas for long distances. Coincident with the installation of gastight, long-distance natural-gas lines, pipeline systems were built to transport gasoline and distillates from the refineries to the main marketing centres. Thus the pipeline began to supplement the railroad in the long-distance transportation of the refined products of petroleum. Large quantities of gasoline that would otherwise require the loading, hauling, unloading and return of hundreds of tank cars are moved in a continuous flow through pipes to market terminals. (From Encyclopaedia Britannica).Oral Test

1. Name some of the biggest road haulage operators2. What kind of commodities are transported by road?3. What measures has the Government introduced to improve road safety?4. What is the Road Consignment Note?5. What is the Delivery Note?6. What are the Transit Documents inside the EEC?7. What is the T-EX form?8. What are the advantages of road transport?9. What are the disadvantages of road transport?10. What is a consolidated shipment?11. Why is a consolidated shipment convenient for shippers?12. Are British Railways privately or publicly owned?13. How are Passenger Services operated?14. What about freight traffic?15. What do you know about container traffic?16. What are freightliners?17. What factors affect railway rates of transport ?18. What is the Rail Consignment Note?19. What are the advantages of rail transport?20. What are the disadvantages of rail transport?21. What is a pipeline?22. What products are commonly carried by pipeline?23. What pipelines are operated in Britain?24. How is a pipeline system formed and operated?25. What material are pipes made of?26. Why is it more convenient to transport gasoline and distillates by pipeline?

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Sea traffic is very important in Britain. Britain's overseas trade is almost entirely carried by sea. Most British ships are cargo ships used as oil, chemical or gas carriers, dry bulk carriers and container ships. Many of the deep sea liner services from Britain are operated by container ships. There are many roll-on, roll-off services accomodating passengers and their cars and commercial vehicles between Britain and the continent of Europe and to some more distant countries. Passenger and freight ferry services are also operated to many of the offshore islands, such as the Isle of Wight, the Orkney and Shetland islands, and the islands off the west coast of Scotland.

The most common freight carriers used in transport by sea are:1. Cargo liners (=navi di linea). They are cargo ships that sail at fixed

times, follow fixed routes and quote fixed freight rates.2. Tramps (=navi da carico non di linea o volandiere). They operate

when and where they obtain a cargo. They are chartered either for a specific voyage or number of voyages (voyage charter) or for a period of time (time charter). The freight they charge is negotiable.

3. Container ships (=navi portacontenitori). They usually carry containers and are provided with facilities to perform roll-on, roll-off service for intermodal shipping.

4. Tankers (petroliere). They are designed to carry oil and bulk liquids.

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5. Bulk carriers (=navi da carico alla rinfusa). They are cargo ships suitable for the transport of bulk commodities such as grains, raw materials, iron ore, minerals, timber, building materials, etc.

6. Ferries (=traghetti). They are ships specially designed for the transport of passengers, goods, railway coaches, and vehicles such as coaches, cars, caravans, lorries, trailers.

Advantages and disadvantages of sea transport

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

1. A wide variety of cargo - from small consignments to heavy and bulky goods - is handled.

2. Freight rates are lower in relation to the distance which is covered.

3. Ship's loading or unloading operations are carried out by means of terminal facilities.

4. Containers are quickly transferred on/off the ship

1. Transhipment to other forms of transport.

2. Transport is subject to sea risks and may be delayed because of bad weather conditions.

3. Goods need to be packed and stowed in a suitable way.

DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH SEA TRANSPORT

The main documents used in sea transport are:The Bill of LadingThe Charter PartyThe Cargo ManifestThe Time SheetThe Statement of FactsThe Notice of Readiness

1. The Bill of Lading (B/L) is a document which states the terms and conditions under which goods are to be transported. It is used for cargo liners and not for chartered ships. The Bill of Lading fulfills the following functions1. it is a receipt for goods accepted for carriage

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2. it forms evidence of a contract of carriage between the shipper and the shipping company who undertakes to deliver the goods in the same condition as that in which they were received.

3. it is the document of title to the goods. The legal owner of the B/L is also the legal owner of the goods. A B/L is a transferable document, which means that it may be negotiated by endorsement.

A Bill of Lading contains:1. the name and address of the shipper2. the name and address of the consignee3. the name and address of the notify party4. the name and address of the shipowners or shipping company5. the name of the ship6. the port of loading7. the port of discharge8. the details of the goods in terms of marks and numbers, quality and

quantity of packages, contents, weight and volume9. freight rate and clauses concerning freight payment10. number of originals11. any remarks regarding the cargo12. signatures by the shipper and the shipowner

Bills of Lading are issued in sets of one or more originals known as negotiable Bills of Lading. They are normally issued in triplicate: one copy is held by the exporter, one is delivered to the ship's master and the third copy is airmailed together with the full set of the shipping documents to the foreign bank that takes care of the exporter's interests. At the port of destination the shipping company will release the goods against presentation of an original Bill of Lading. After paying for the goods and subject to the payment of any freight due, the foreign importer or buyer will receive a complete set of shipping documents (Commercial invoice, Certificate of origin, Consular invoice, Certificate of Insurance, Bill of Lading). They enable him to claim delivery of the goods at the port of arrival.

Different types of Bill of Lading1. A shipped B/L is issued when the consignment has been actually

loaded on board the ship named in the B/L itself. This type of B/L is called "On Board" Bill of Lading in USA.

2. A received B/L is issued for goods taken into custody by the shipping company but not yet on board. This B/L will be subsequently converted into a Shipped B/L.

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3. A Through B/L is normally used for intermodal or combined transport. In this case transport is effected partly overland and partly by sea or by air.

4. A Clean B/L indicates that the goods have been received on board in apparent good order and condition.

5. A Dirty B/L carries negative remarks on the state of the goods loaded on board the ship. Such remarks may concern broken cases, moisture, rotten or stained goods, melting drums, etc.

2. The Charter Party is a document by which a shipowner hires out a ship or part of it to a shipper or an exporter, called charterer, against a payment of a sum of money called freight. This document is used for tramps which are chartered at the Baltic Exchange in London either for a specific voyage or number of consecutive voyages or for a stated period of time (one year or more)The Charter Party contains:1. the name of the shipowner or Shipping Company2. the name of the charterer (shipper or exporter)3. the names of the ports of departure and destination4. the type of cargo to be carried5. the amount of freight6. clauses concerning the payment of freight7. clauses concerning responsibilities of both the shipowner and the

charterer.

A voyage Charter Party also specifies lay days and demurrage. Lay days are the number of days allowed by the shipping company for loading or unloading operations. Lay Days may be running days including Sundays and holidays or working days excluding those days on which no operations are effected owing to weather conditions or dockers' strike. Demurrage is an extra amount of money the Charterer has to pay when the time required for the operations exceeds the number of days allowed.Should the charterer be able to load or unload a ship before the lay days expire, then he is entitled to a compensation called dispatch money. The amount of dispatch money is specified in the Charter Party.

3. The Cargo Manifest is an official list of the items loaded on board a ship or aircraft. It lists the Bs/L numbers and their relative consignments in terms of value, origin and destination. This document is drawn up for Customs purposes.

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4. The Time Sheet is a sheet of paper on which are recorded working hours and breaks regarding loading or unloading operations.5. The Statement of Facts is a detailed report regarding the actual development of any loading and/or unloading operations effected by a ship at a given port. Any work interruptions due to bad weather or labour's strike are recorded.6. The Notice of Readiness is a document by which the ship's master officially notifies the shipper or the receiver that the ship is ready to start loading or unloading operations at a stated starting time according to conditions agreed in the Charter Party.

Common clauses concerning sea transport

PORT OF LOADING PORT OF DISCHARGE

Free Alongside Ship (FAS) + named port of shipment (Franco sottobordo)The seller delivers the goods on the quay alongside the ship. He bears the expenses for transportation to the docks, port charges and documentation.The buyer pays sea carriage (Freight) and bears expenses to transport goods up to his premises. He also arranges for goods insurance.Free on Board (FOB) + named port of shipment (Franco a bordo)The seller bears the expenses for placing the goods on board the ship.The buyer pays sea carriage (Freight) and bears expenses to transport goods up to his premises. He also arranges for goods insurance.

Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF) + named port of destination (Costo, assicurazione e nolo)The price quoted by the seller covers the cost of the goods, insurance and sea conveyance. Liabilities and transit risks are to be born by the seller.The buyer bears the expenses for conveying goods to his warehouse.

Cost and Freight (C&F) + named port of destination (Costo e nolo)The price quoted by the seller covers the cost of the goods and the freight charges to be paid to the Shipping Company.The buyer bears liabilities and transit risks and his expenses are connected with insurance and conveyance of goods to his warehouse.

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Common phrases concerning sea transport

by s/s "Wales" a mezzo del piroscafo "Wales"by m/v "Britannia" con la motonave "Britannia"receiving cargo from...to... che caricherà dal... al...on board the s/s "France" a bordo della nave "France"sailing from... on... in partenza da... il...bound to diretto/a adue to call at... prevista fare scalo a...due to sail on... prevista partire il..., in partenza il...due (to arrive) on... in arrivo il...without call senza scalodue at the port of... on... in arrivo al porto di... il...freight to be paid at destination nolo da pagarsi a destinazionefreight prepaid nolo prepagatoshipped on board the s/s "Leith" caricato a bordo della nave "Leith"

There are two common ways of carrying goods by air. They are:by scheduled flights (passenger aircraft or cargo planes flying at regular times and on fixed routes).by chartered flights (cargo planes hired for specific flights and providing non scheduled services).A less expensive and slower way to send goods by air is through the Air Groupage System. According to this system several different small consignments are grouped together waiting for the plane to complete the load before effecting delivery. Groupage is done to get lower delivery rates.

The cargo which is particularly suitable for air transport comprises:1. goods of high value (jewellery, precious stones)2. perishable goods (flowers, fruit and vegetables)3. fashion goods

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4. scientific instruments5. emergency goods (medicines, spare parts)6. mail

The main advantage of air shipment is the speed of delivery, but the disadvantages are very expensive freight rates and limitations in weight and size of parcels.The documents used in air transport are the Air Waybill and the Air Charter Party.The Air Waybill stands for both a receipt and a contract of carriage between the air carrier and the shipper. It is not a document of title to the goods; as such, it is not a negotiable document and cannot be used to transfer the ownership of the goods from one person to another. An Air Waybill is commonly made out in three copies: one copy for the carrier, one for the shipper and one for the consignee. Other copies may be prepared for Customs authorities and administrative purposes.

Intermodal transport is a combined form of transport effected by different carriers with a number of intermediate transfer points before reaching destination. The presence of containers in transport has enormously improved the general organization of this service. Containers are used either in transport effected overland or in air and sea transport. Container traffic in fact has revolutionised conventional transport methods. Instead of packing goods into small cases and then onto ships, they are packed into containers at the factory. Containers are then carried by trailers or freightliners to the dock container terminal where, by means of huge cranes, they are located in a container ship. Such practice has had an impact on modern distribution technology bringing about carriers' operating improvements (container lorries, freightliners, container ships), new port equipment and facilities, more standardized informational requirements and new patterns of preparing and transmitting shipping documents.

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The main advantages are: 1. reduced handling costs2. a major speed in loading and unloading goods on and off lorries3. a major safety and protection form damage, loss and pilferage.4. lower insurance rates are quoted5. fewer crew members are employedThe best possibilities afforded by container service are found in intermodal transport, that is a combined form of transport effected by different carriers either overland or by sea or air. A very common example of intermodal transport is referred to a container lorry which is driven on (roll-on) and off (roll-off) a ship offering roll-on roll-off facilities.Tilbury (London) is a leading international container port showing the largest concentration of imported and exported goods in containers. From this operative base both container trucks and freightliners carry containers to their inland destinations. Many shipping companies operate container traffic in and out Tilbury to every continent of the world.

Oral Test

1. What countries does Britain's sea transport service connect?2. What kind of freight ships are used in sea transport?3. What is a cargo liner?4. What is a tramp?5. What is a container ship?6. What is a bulk carrier7. What is a ferry?8. What are the advantages of sea transport?9. What are the disadvantages of sea transport?10.What documents are used in sea transport?11.What is a Bill of Lading?12.What does a Bill of Lading contain?13.Is a Bill of Lading a negotiable document?14.What does a set of shipping documents comprise?15.What is a shipped B/L?16.What is a received B/L?17.What is a through B/L?18.What is clean B/L?19.What is a dirty B/L?20.What is the Charter Party?21.What does the Charter Party contain?22.What are Lay Days?23.What is demurrage?24.What is dispatch money?25.What is the Cargo Manifest?26.What is the Time Sheet27.What is the Statement of Facts?28.What is the Notice of Readiness?29.What expenses do both the seller and the buyer according to the FAS clause?30.What does the FOB clause imply for both the seller and the buyer?31.Can you explain the CIF clause?

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32.What is a scheduled flight?33.What is a charter flight?34.What is the air groupage system?35.What is the Air Waybill?36.What is the intermodal transport?37.How have containers affected transport?38.What are the main advanyages of using containers?

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Reading passages

CONTAINER SERVICEContainerization offers many benefits. Cargo is better protected from damage and pilferage and so insurance rates can be lower. Handling times and costs are greatly decreased; indeed, in many instances containers can move from their origin to their destination without being opened en route. From the ship operator's point of view the major gain is the far greater utilization of his primary asset: his ships. With cargo-handling rates in port increased by a factor of 10 or more (from about 500 tons per day for conventional ships to 5,000 for container ships) container ships can spend far more time at sea earning money and less time in port, where all they accrue are costs.To support container services a variety of telecommunications and computer systems are crucial. Since the ships are large, fast and spend little time in port, their cargo manifest is seldom complete when they are ready to leave. Thus manifests are best transmitted by telecommunications from computer to computer rather than being sent by air mail to destination ports. Even more important, it is necessary to keep track of the multitude of containers. Who owns each one? What type of container is it?

Where is it? What does it carry, and from where to where? What is its condition? Does it need repairs? Who owes whom how much for its use or maintenance? Where should it go next when it is empty? Is the supply of empties in a region adequate or inadequate? Where can empties be obtained? Small computerized shipping services can be operated without computers, but the large pools of containers necessary for efficient major operations would become hopelessly confused without computerized control.The container-ships themselves are increasingly mechanized. Typically the engine room in the newer ones goes unmanned on the night shift, because the instrumentation and control systems on the bridge are adequate for most operations. Crews have dwindled in size (although they remain above the minimum levels set by the U.S. Coast Guard), and because of the small amount of time the ships spend in port crews crews get long vacations and are given quarters more reminiscent of cruise ships than of traditional freighters. Matching the decrease in port time has been a decrease in the number of berths needed at a port. To be sure, considerable space must be available to marshal and

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store containers, but this space often is provided at new terminals on the outskirts of port cities. The inner-city waterfront previously devoted to shipping thereby becomes available for redevelopment as commercial, residential and recreational areas.Since all ocean transportation requires some associated

overland movement, containerization has also had in impact on trucks and railroads. Railroads in particular can take advantage of the large flows of cargo arriving on container ships by introducing efficient unit trains that move the containers to major inland destinations.(adapted from Scientific American, September 1982)

CONTAINERISATION

The introduction of the container has been a very important development in international freight transport. The theory behind containerisation is that by packing goods into a large metal container at the consignor's depot and transporting it by the most convenient method directly to its destination, handling, time and cost of transport are considerably reduced. These advantages are applicable to the movement of goods by road, rail and air, but it is in the shipping industry that containers have made the most obvious changes.The conventional method of handling ships' cargo was to load a quantity of items on wooden pallets and transfer the pallets by crane in or out of the ship's hold. Much time and labour was involved in loading and unloading the pallets, as well as in checking and storing

an assortment of cases, crates, cartons and bales.Nowdays modern berths are purpose-built for standard sized containers, and heavy, containerised cargo is loaded and unloaded by cranes. Lighter kinds of "bulk cargo" such as loose grain or seeds, are discharged by suction elevators working on the principle of a vacuum cleaner.The use of containers cuts the handling charge at ports. The faster turn-round and the generally higher operating speed of modern container ships enables each one to carry, on average, as much cargo during a year as six to ten conventional ships.Whilst containerisation results in considerable benefits, it does require a large investment of capital in the containers themselves and in handling equipment. (Source: Commerce and Business by Derek Thomas)

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Vocabulary

carrier trasportatore, vettorecarriage trasporto, costo del trasporto effettuato via terrato carry portare, trasportareto haul portare, trasportareconveyance trasporto, mezzo/veicoloto convey trasportaredelivery resa, consegnato deliver consegnareto forward spedireto despatch spedireto transfer trasferiretransfer trasferimentosurface mail posta ordinariaair mail posta aereapaperwork lavoro d'ufficiofreight carico, merce/merci, trasporto, nolotransit trasportotransit risks rischi del trasportoto bear transit risks sostenere i rischi del trasportomultimodal multimodalesender (mail) mittente (posta)addressee (mail) destinatario (posta)consigner, consignor (goods) mittente (merce)consignee, receiver (goods) ricevente (merce)road haulier autotrasportatorehaulage trasportohaulage contractor autotrasportatoretruck driver, trucker camionistaforwarding agent agente spedizionierecustoms officer funzionario doganaleContract of carriage contratto di trasportoRoad Consignment Note lettera di vettura stradaleCMR (Convention Marchandises par Routes) lettera di vettura internazionaleTIR carnet (Transport International Routier) carnet del trasporto internazionale su stradaCommercial Invoice fattura commercialeCertificate of origin certificato d'origineDelivery Note bolla di consegnaAdvice of despatch Avviso di spedizioneestimate preventivo