war and warfare in late antiquity - …docshare04.docshare.tips/files/18466/184668528.pdf · war...

copy 2013 Koninklijke Brill NV ISBN 978-90-04-25257-8

WAR AND WARFAREIN LATE ANTIQUITY

EDITED BY

ALEXANDER SARANTISand

NEIL CHRISTIE

LEIDENenspbullenspBOSTON2013


CONTENTS

VOLUME 81

Acknowledgementsensp ixList of Contributorsensp xiForewordensp xvii Alexander Sarantis and Neil Christie

Waging War in Late Antiquityensp 1 Alexander Sarantis

Bibliographic Essays

War in Late Antiquity Secondary Works Literary Sources and Material Evidenceensp 101 Conor Whately

Military Equipment and Weaponry A Bibliographic Essayensp 153 Alexander Sarantis

Tactics A Bibliographic Essayensp 177 Alexander Sarantis

Organisation and Life in the Late Roman Military A Bibliographic Essayensp 209

Conor Whately

Strategy Diplomacy and Frontiers A Bibliographic Essayensp 239 Conor Whately

Fortifĳications in the West A Bibliographic Essayensp 255 Alexander Sarantis with Neil Christie

Fortifĳications in Africa A Bibliography Essayensp 297 Alexander Sarantis

vi contents


Fortifĳications in the East A Bibliographic Essayensp 317 Alexander Sarantis

VOLUME 82Strategy and Intelligence

Information and War Some Comments on Defensive Strategy and Information in the Middle Byzantine Period (ca AD 660ndash1025)ensp 373 John Haldon

Fortifications and Siege Warfare

Fortifĳications and the Late Roman East From Urban Walls to Long Wallsensp 397 James Crow

Siege Warfare and Counter-Siege Tactics in Late Antiquity (ca 250ndash640)ensp 433 Michael Whitby

Weaponry and Equipment

Late Roman Military Equipment Cultureensp 463 J C N Coulston

Barbarian Military Equipment and its Evolution in the Late Roman and Great Migration Periods (3rdndash5th c AD)ensp 493

Michel Kazanski

Recreating the Late Roman Armyensp 523 John Conyard

contents vii


Literary Sources and Topography

Reporting Battles and Understanding Campaigns in Procopius and Agathias Classicising Historiansrsquo Use of Archived Documents as Sourcesensp 571

Ian Colvin

Procopius on the Struggle for Dara in 530 and Rome in 537ndash38 Reconciling Texts and Landscapesensp 599 Christopher Lillington-Martin

Ammianus Marcellinus and the Nisibene Handover of AD 363ensp 631 Susannah Belcher

The West

Imperial Campaigns between Diocletian and Honorius AD 284ndash423 the Rhine Frontier and the Western Provincesensp 655 Hugh Elton

The Archaeology of War and the 5th c lsquoInvasionsrsquoensp 683 Michael Kulikowski

Controlling the Pyrenees a Macaquersquos Burial from Late Antique Iulia Libica (Lliacutevia La Cerdanya Spain)ensp 703 Oriol Olesti Jordi Guagraverdia Marta Maragall Oriol Mercadal Jordi Galbany and Jordi Nadal

The Balkans

The Archaeology of War Homeland Security in the South-West Balkans (3rdndash6th c AD)ensp 735 John Wilkes

Military Encounters and Diplomatic Afffairs in the North Balkans during the Reigns of Anastasius and Justinianensp 759 Alexander Sarantis

viii contents


Horsemen in Forts or Peasants in Villages Remarks on the Archaeology of Warfare in the 6th to 7th c Balkansensp 809 Florin Curta

The East

Military Infrastructure in the Roman Provinces North and South of the Armenian Taurus in Late Antiquityensp 853 James Howard-Johnston

El-Lejjūn Logistics and Localisation on Romersquos Eastern Frontier in the 6th c ADensp 893 Conor Whately

Civil War

Wars within the Frontiers Archaeologies of Rebellion Revolt and Civil Warensp 927 Neil Christie

The Justinianic Reconquest of Italy Imperial Campaigns and Local Responsesensp 969 Maria Kouroumali

Abstracts in Frenchensp 1001

Indexensp 1009

Series Informationensp 1085

A Sarantis N Christie (edd) War and Warfare in Late Antiquity Current Perspectives(Late Antique Archaeology 81ndash82 ndash 2010ndash11) (Leiden 2013) pp 809ndash850

HORSEMEN IN FORTS OR PEASANTS IN VILLAGES REMARKS ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF WARFARE IN THE 6TH TO 7TH C BALKANS

Florin Curta

Abstract

Conspicuously absent from 6th to early 7th c fortifĳied sites in the Balkans are stirrups and other elements of equipment signalling the presence of cavalry troops Hoards of iron implements containing stirrups have been wrongly dated to Late Antiquity they are in fact of a much later date (9thndash11th c AD) Those hoards which can be dated to the 6th c with some degree of certainty lack agricultural tools associated with large-scale culti-vation of fĳields As most such hoards found in Early Byzantine hill-forts typi-cally include tools for the garden-type cultivation of small plots of land they show that no agricultural occupations could be practised inside or outside 6th c forts which could satisfy the needs of the existing population Those were therefore forts not fortifĳied villages

lsquoNow every year a force of cavalry (στρατιῶται ἔφιπποι) from the other cit-ies of Dalmatia used to collect at and be dispatched from Salona to the number of a thousand and they would keep guard on the river Danube on account of the Avarsrsquo After defeating the Dalmatian cavalry force on their own territory the Avars

held the survivors captive and dressed themselves up in their clothes just as the others had worn them and then mounting the horses and taking in their hands the standards and the rest of the insignia which the others had brought with them they all started offf in military array and made for Salona And since they had learnt by enquiry also the time at which the garrison was wont to return from the Danube (which was the Great and Holy Sat-urday) they themselves arrived on that same day When they got near the bulk of the army was placed in concealment but up to a thousand of them those who to play the trick had acquired the horses and uniforms of the Dalmatians rode out in front Those in the city [of Salona] recognising their insignia and dress and also the day for upon this day it was customary for them to return opened the gates and received them with delight But they as soon as they were inside seized the gates and signalising their exploit to the army gave it the cue to run in and enter with them And so they put to the sword all in the city and thereafter made themselves masters of all the country of Dalmatia and settled down in it (Const Porph DAI 3018ndash58 trans in Moravcsik and Jenkins (1967) 141 and 143)


810 florin curta


Thus did Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus explain in the mid-10th c the fall of Salona an event of the early 7th c There are many reasons for not taking this story literally the tale has long been recognised as a re-hashing of that in chapter 29 of the De administrando imperio (itself based on information obtained probably from local sources in Split) with Avars replacing Slavs1 Moreover ever since J B Bury scholars have regarded the story in chapter 30 as a later addition perhaps even following the death of Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus2 The numismatic evi-dence shows that the destruction of Salona could not have possibly taken place as described by Constantine Porphyrogenitus since in the early 630s Salona had still not been deserted3 At no point during its long history did the Roman province of Dalmatia expand as far to the north or north-east as the Danube Despite claims to the contrary no evidence exists so far of an Avar settlement in Dalmatia4 One might suppose therefore that the episode of the Avar conquest of Salona in the De administrando imperio is a strategy its author adopted to explain both the reduction of the Roman population of Dalmatia to the lsquotownships on the coastrsquo and the subse-quent conquest of the interior by Croats5

But not everything in this episode is made up An independent cavalry corps recruited from among inhabitants of Dalmatia was known since the 3rd c and there are good grounds to believe that some remnants of that survived into the early 7th c Some are ready to take Constantine Por-phyrogenitusrsquo testimony at face value and argue that the lsquoforce of cavalryrsquo recruited in the early 600s from the cities of Dalmatia and dispatched to Salona was an urban militia6 Others maintain that that force was indeed the reinforcements which in the early 580s were expected to relieve Sirmium from the Avar siege7 Either way the point about Emperor

1enspNovaković (1972) 5ndash52 Jakšić (1984) 322 Const Porph DAI 2933 calls the Slavs Avars (Σλὰβοι οι καὶ ῎Αβαροι καλούμενοι) For a re-assessment of the testimony of Constantine Porphyrogenitus as a source for the history of late antique and early medieval Dalmatia see Rajković (1997) and Goldstein (2005)

2enspBury (1906) 523enspMarović (1984) and (2006)4enspAdvocates of an Avar presence in Dalmatia were both historians (Klaić (1990) 13ndash14)

and archaeologists (Kovačević (1966)) For far more skeptical treatments of sources see Pohl (1988) 282 and (1995) Rapanić (2001)

5enspConst Porph DAI 3058ndash60 For the story of the Croat conquest of Dalmatia see Fine (2000) and Margetić (2001) 41ndash113 121ndash48 and 155ndash70

6enspFerluga (1978) 737enspPillon (2005) 55ndash56 citing Menander the Guardsman There is however no mention

of cavalry units from Dalmatia in any of the surviving fragments from Menanderrsquos workmdashsee Blockley (1985)

horsemen in forts or peasants in villages 811


Constantinersquos story of how the Avars conquered Salona was that the mili-tary equipment of the Dalmatian horsemen was radically diffferent from that of the Avars it was only by disguising themselves as Dalmatian horse-men that barbarians could enter the city The unexpected loss of Dalmatia to the barbarians was brought about by Avar travestiers

However the impression one gets from examining sources chronologi-cally closer to the events narrated in the De administrando imperio is that the military travesty actually worked in the opposite direction When the author of a late 6th or early 7th c military treatise known as the Strate-gikon made recommendations as to the organisation and equipment of Roman cavalry troops he left no doubt as to the source of inspiration for his advice

The horses especially those of the offfĳicers and the other special troops in particular those in the front ranks of the battle line should have protective pieces of iron armor about their heads and breast plates of iron or felt or else breast and neck coverings such as the Avars use (κατὰ τὸ σχῆμα τῶν ᾿Αβάρων) The saddles should have large and thick cloths the bridle should be of good quality attached to the saddles should be two iron stirrups a lasso with thong hobble a saddle bag large enough to hold three or four daysrsquo rations for the soldier when needed There should be four tassels on the back strap one on top of the head and one under the chin The menrsquos clothing espe-cially their tunics whether made of linen goatrsquos hair or rough wool should be broad and full cut according to the Avar pattern (κατὰ τὸ σχῆμα τῶν ᾿Αβάρων) so they can be fastened to cover the knees while riding and give a neat appearance8 (Strategikon 1235ndash49 trans Dennis (1984) 13)

Even though stirrups are not specifĳically attributed to the Avars they are mentioned here in a passage marked twice and with the same words by reference to Avar practices This is in fact a chapter of the Strategikon in which its author insists that Roman cavalrymen employ a number of devices all said to be of Avar origin cavalry lances lsquowith leather thongs in the middle of the shaft and with pennonsrsquo round neck pieces lsquowith linen fringes outside and wool insidersquo horse armor long and broad tunics and tents lsquowhich combine practicality with good appearancersquo9 In this context the mention of pairs of stirrups to be attached to saddles must also be interpreted as a hint to Avar practices After all cavalry lances horse armour and tents are also attributed to the Avars in the chapter

8enspStirrups are also mentioned without any reference to the Avars in Strategikon 2922ndash28

9enspStrategikon 1210ndash22 See also Szaacutedeczky-Kardoss (1986) 208ndash209

Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
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Ćirkovići
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812 florin curta


dedicated to lsquoScythians that is Avars Turks and others whose way of life resembles that of the Hunnish peoplersquo from which stirrups are nonethe-less absent10

Primarily on the basis of the Strategikon scholars have by now accepted the idea that ldquocontacts with nomadic groups who inhabited or passed through steppe regions north of the Danube and Black Sea made it pos-sible for central Asian or even more easterly military equipment and practices to be transferred to the Balkansrdquo such is the case of the stir-rup which was adopted by Roman cavalrymen in the late 6th c from the Avars ldquowho ultimately brought it from the eastern steppes and Chinardquo11 Others however refuse to give the Avars any credit for the introduction of the stirrup to Europe and instead maintain that the earliest Avar stirrups were either imports from or imitations of specimens originating in the empire12 The lsquostirrup controversyrsquo has generated a considerable amount of literature which had very little if any impact on studies dedicated to the Late Roman or Early Byzantine army13 There is to date no special study dedicated to the archaeology of the Avar influence on Roman mili-tary equipment and tactics14

Nor has any attempt been made to assess the testimony of the Strate-gikon in the light of the archaeological evidence pertaining to the Early Byzantine period15 Were Roman troops in the 6th c Balkans equipped and armed as recommended by the author of the Strategikon Were Avar attacks on the Balkan provinces of the empire repelled by means of cav-alry troops or was defence based more on the network of hill-forts that had been built during the long reign of Emperor Justinian Were such fortifĳied settlements a military response to a particular form of warfare which was prevalent in the 6th c or did they serve as refuge for the rural population in their environs Can weapons and agricultural implement

10enspStrategikon 1121ndash3 See Bachrach (1984) 2511ensp Haldon (2002) 66 The case for an Avar influence on Roman or Early Byzantine mili-

tary equipment was made by Szaacutedeczky-Kardoss (1981) For Avar innovations in military equipment see Hofer (1996) and Nagy (2005)

12enspWhite (1962) 22 Freeden (1991) 624 For a critique of such views see Schulze- Doumlrrlamm (2006)

13enspFor an excellent survey of the lsquostirrup controversyrsquo see DeVries (1998) 95ndash103 Neither Kolias (1988) nor Haldon (2002) seem at all interested in the works of Lynn White and Bernard Bachrach

14enspBy contrast Early Byzantine influence on Avar culture has recently been the object of several studies most prominently Garam (2001)

15enspFor the archaeology of Early Byzantium see Rautman (1990) Sodini (1993) Zanini (1994)

Ćirkovići
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Ćirkovići
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fĳinds especially those from hoard assemblages excavated on Early Byz-antine hill-fort sites help determine whether their primary function was military or civilian

In this essay I argue that answers to those questions although implicit in the abundant literature on the archaeology of the 6th and early-7th c Balkans constitute a compelling basis for rejecting the current interpre-tation of the military infrastructure of the region during the last century of Roman rule My discussion of the partial conclusions drawn from the analysis of Avar-age stirrups and hoards of iron implements and weapons found on Early Byzantine hilltop sites is intended as a reminder that one cannot simply use the archaeological evidence as an illustration of what is already known from written sources

Stirrups

No stirrups have so far been found that could be dated with any degree of certainty before the Avar conquest in the late 560s of the Carpathian Basin16 The earliest stirrups that could safely be attributed to the Avar age are apple-shaped cast specimens with elongated suspension loops and flat treads slightly curved inwards such as that found in a sacrifĳicial pit in Baja (fĳig 11)

Equally early are the stirrups with circular bow and eyelet-like sus-pension loop Apple-shaped stirrups with elongated suspension loops do not appear after ca AD 630 but those with circular bow and eyelet-like suspension loops remained in use throughout the 7th c and can be even found in assemblages dated to the early 8th c17 Two stirrups with elongated suspension loops have been found in association with Byzantine gold coins struck for Justin II (at Szentendre) and Maurice

16enspAmbroz (1973) 91 Baacutelint (1993) 210 The year 568 is traditionally viewed as the begin-ning of the Avar age primarily because that is when according to the written sources the Avars defeated the Gepids and forced the Lombards to migrate to Italy However there is so far no solid argument against dating the earliest Avar-age assemblages to before 568 see Stadler (2005) 128 lsquoEarly Avarrsquo is a technical term referring to the fĳirst stage of the chrono-logical model of Avar archaeology which was established by Ilona Kovrig (1963) on the basis of her analysis of the Alattyaacuten cemetery and recently refĳined by Peter Stadler on the basis of calibrated radiocarbon and dendrochronological dates see Stadler (2008) 47ndash59

17enspGaram (1992) 160 For stirrups with elongated attachment loops as the earliest Avar-age stirrups see Nagy (1901) 314 Kovrig (1955) 163 Garam (1990) 253 Daim (2003) 468 Aibabin (1974) called this the lsquoPereshchepyne typersquo of stirrup According to Iotov (2004) 140 142 such stirrups belong to his class IA

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814 florin curta


Fig 1emspEarly Avar apple-shaped cast stirrups with elongated suspen-sion loop 1mdashBaja sacrifĳicial pit 2mdashunknown location in northeastern Bulgaria 3mdashPernik Early Byzantine hill-fort 4mdashNevolino grave 122 5mdashStrezhevo hoard of iron implements (After Hampel (1905) Iotov

(2004) Goldina and Vodolago (1990) and Janakievski (1980))



(at Nyiacuteregyhaacuteza-Kertgazdasaacuteg)18 Neither one of these could be dated to the 6th c but such a date could nonetheless be advanced for other simi-lar specimens found both within and outside the area of the Carpathian Basin which was controlled ca 600 by the Avars19 Several apple-shaped stirrups with elongated attachment loops found in Hungary (Mikebuda Bicske and Szeged-Oumlthalom) were richly decorated with a damascened ornament which is most typical for artefacts found in assemblages fĳirmly dated to ca 63020

Elsewhere in eastern Europe the evidence for pre-7th c stirrups is equally ambiguous (fĳig 2)

Three stirrups with circular bow and eyelet-like suspension loop have been found in two separate burial chambers of the Klin Iar cemetery near Kislovodsk in the northern Caucasus region Because the two burial chambers also produced solidi struck for emperors Maurice and Heraclius respectively the stirrups are regarded as among the earliest if not the earliest specimens of their kind in the entire Caucasus region21 Another stirrup of an unknown type was associated with a drachma struck in 545 for the Sassanian King Khusro I in a burial assemblage of a large cem-etery excavated in the 1980s in Verkhniaia Saia at the foot of the Ural Mountains22 An apple-shaped specimen with elongated attachment loop

18enspHampel (1905) 343ndash45 Csallaacuteny (1958) 49ndash50 and 66ndash68 The coin found together with the Szentendre stirrup was a tremissis struck for Justin II in Constantinople between 565 and 578 while that found together with the Nyiacuteregyhaacuteza stirrup was a light (23 carat-) solidus struck for Emperor Maurice in Constantinople between 584 and 602 See Somogyi (1997) 67 and 87

19enspCurta (2008a) 306ndash307 20enspHeinrich-Tamaacuteska (2005) 29 and 24 fĳigs 3ndash421ensp Haumlrke and Belinskii (2000) 201ndash202 Two stirrups have been found beside a male

skeleton in burial chamber 341 together with pressed silver belt mounts Two solidi struck for Maurice (582ndash602) one freshly minted the other worn were found with the neighbor-ing skeleton Stirrups and solidi are therefore not necessarily contemporary A fragmentary stirrup (most likely another specimen with eyelet-like suspension loop) came from burial chamber 363 together with two skeletons a male and a female A pendant made of a solidus struck for Heraclius of 634ndash41 was found next to the skull of the female skeleton Again the association of stirrup and coin is not warranted I am grateful to Heinrich Haumlrke for the details of his unpublished excavations in Klin Iar including the complete illustra-tion of the grave goods found in burial chambers 341 360 and 363

22enspGrave 19 Goldina and Vodolago (1990) 29ndash30 Another stirrup was found in grave 45 of that same cemetery together with a Soghdian imitation of a Sassanian drachma of Varakhran V (421ndash39) see Goldina and Vodolago (1990) 31 Such imitations are known as lsquoBukharkhudatrsquo coins because they were struck in Bukhara but they are notoriously dif-fĳicult to date no agreement exists on their exact chronology and historical circumstances surrounding their production The coin from grave 45 could have just as well been minted in the 6th as in the 7th c

816 florin curta


Fig 2emspDistribution of late 6th to 7th c stirrups in south-eastern Europe The cluster in the Carpathian Basin is of Early Avar apple-shaped cast stirrups with elongated suspension loop and flat tread slightly bent inwards Smallest

circle thereafter up to 2 3 and 7 specimens respectively (Data after Stadler (2005) with additions)



is known from a burial assemblage from Burakovo in Tatarstan found with a double-edged sword and belt mounts with open-work decoration known as lsquoMartynovka mountsrsquo dated to the second half of the 6th or to the early 7th c23 Several stirrups with circular bow and eyelet-like suspen-sion loop from the Ural region and the steppe lands north of the Black Sea were also found in association with such typically 6th c artefacts as belt mounts with open work decoration foil mounts with pressed ornament or shoe buckles with rectangular plates24 Grave 122 in Nevolino produced an apple-shaped stirrup with elongated suspension loop (fĳig 14) unfor-tunately there were no coins and no chronologically sensitive artefacts among the grave goods from that burial assemblage25 A comparable stir-rup was in the fĳill of a robbed inhumation grave from the Birsk cemetery in Bashkortostan the grave produced a Khwarazmian coin struck between 750 and 760mdashwhich must be regarded as a stern warning against hastily assuming early dates for all stirrups with elongated attachment loops26

Nonetheless where available the archaeological evidence points unmis-takably to a 7th c date Such is the case of the stirrup of an unknown type found together with a solidus struck between 661 and 663 for Emperor Constans II in a barrow of the Romanovskaia cemetery on the Lower Don River27 Likewise for the apple-shaped stirrup from the rich burial assemblage from Malo Pereshchepyne in Left-Bank Ukraine which was attributed to Kubrat the Bulgar ruler allied with Emperor Heraclius

23enspIzmailov (1990) 64 and 70 fĳig 2 For Martynovka mounts see Somogyi (1987) Baacutelint (1992) Gavritukhin and Oblomskii (1996) 25ndash28 Such mounts were produced by means of two-piece moulds such as that found in a workshop in Caričin Grad Bavant (1990) 221ndash23

24enspBelt mounts with open work decoration Goldina and Vodolago (1990) 30 (grave 28 in Verkhniaia Saia) and 51 (grave 95 in Nevolino) Foil mounts with pressed ornament Semenov (1988) 97ndash99 and 100 fĳig 23 4 (grave 17 in Novohryhorivka) Shoe buckles with rectangular plate Goldina and Vodolago (1990) 124 pl 2743 and 146 pl 4911 (grave 140 in Brody) Rashev (2000) 24 (Portove barrow 12 grave 5) For 6th and 7th c assemblages in the steppe lands north of the Black Sea see also Curta (2008b)

25enspGrave 122 Goldina and Vodolago (1990) 53 and 146 pl 4910 The grave also produced a bridle bit an iron buckle and a handmade bowl On the other hand grave 122 was situ-ated in the middle of the cemetery a position strongly suggesting a date earlier than that of graves found on the fringes which could be dated to the late 7th 8th or even 9th c

26enspGrave 382 Mazhitov (1990) 261 264ndash65 and 263 fĳig 216 The Khwarazmian coin was perforated an even stronger indication of a late date Among other grave goods from that burial assemblage there was also a so-called pseudo-buckle The chronology of such belt mounts cannot be pushed beyond AD 700 see Garam (2000) and Gavritukhin (2001) The association between stirrup and pseudo-buckle is also attested in grave 202 in Nevolino for which see Goldina and Vodolago (1990) 59 and 146 pl 4912

27enspSemenov (1988) 109

818 florin curta


against the Avars The last coins from that assemblage were 18 light (20 carat) solidi struck for Constans II between 642 and 64628 Most other stirrups from the steppes north of the Black Sea should date to the later 7th c if not after 70029

Given the insistence with which the author of the Strategikon recom-mended imitating Avar practices as well as the abundance of stirrups found in the region adjacent to the northern frontier of the empire the number of specimens from the Balkans that could be dated to the late 6th or early 7th c is surprisingly small (fĳig 3)

Leaving aside misidentifĳied artefacts and mounting devices occasion-ally found on Early Byzantine sites there are so far just two early stir-rups known from the Balkans30 One is an isolated fĳind from Pernik more likely from the Early Byzantine than from the early medieval occupation phase on that site (fĳig 13)31 the other unprovenanced is said to be from north-eastern Bulgaria (fĳig 12)32 No stirrup with circular bow and eyelet-like suspension like that from Pergamon has so far been found on any 6th or early 7th c site in the Balkans33 Why are there not more stirrup fĳinds from Early Byzantine hill-forts in the Balkans The presence of cavalry troops in the region is clearly documented for the period during which some of the earliest apple-shaped stirrups with elongated attachment

28enspAibabin (1974) 32 and 33 fĳig 3 Werner (1984) pl 715 The Malo Pereshchepyne stir-rup was made of silver not bronze For the coins see Sokolova (1995) All light solidi struck for Constans II were perforated and 9 of them had precious stones set on the obverse For Kubrat and Malo Pereshchepyne see Werner (1985) Werner (1992b) Lrsquovova (2000) For a chronological mise-au-point of the problem see Gavritukhin (2006)

29enspNovopokrovka Kukharenko (1952) 36ndash37 and 39 Hlodosy Smilenko (1965) Zach-epilovki Smilenko (1968) Iasinovo Aibabin (1985) 191ndash96 and 192 fĳig 12 Voznesenka Grinchenko (1950) pls 11ndash4 and 69 and Ambroz (1982) The stirrup found in grave 204 of the large cemetery excavated in Shokshino (north-western Mordovia) may also be of 7th c although no other grave goods are known from that assemblage See Cirkin (1972) 163 and 162 fĳig 221 Seventh century stirrups are also known from cemeteries excavated in the present-day Kaliningrad oblastrsquo of Russia not far from the Baltic Sea shore see Kleemann (1956) 115 and pl 31a

30enspMisidentifĳied artefacts Herrmann (1992) 175 I owe a debt of gratitude to Kristina Rauh for clarifying the identifĳication of the iron artefact from Rupkite as defĳinitely not a stirrup See Werner (1984b) for mounting devices whose function was probably not unlike that of the stirrups Early Byzantine corpsmen attached to the front and back of their sad-dles in order to transport the wounded on horseback (Strategikon 2922ndash28) None of the other stirrups mentioned in Bugarski (2007) 258 can be dated to the 6th or 7th c

31ensp Changova (1992) 181 and fĳig 1681 Iotov (2004) pl 7175432enspIotov (2004) pl 7175333enspGaitzsch (2005) 121 and pl 56V29



Fig 3emspDistribution of 6th and 7th c stirrups in Eastern Europe

820 florin curta


loops were deposited in Early Avar burials34 Moreover the presence of at least some horses on Early Byzantine sites is betrayed by occasional fĳinds of bridle bits such as those from Caričin Grad and Pazarište (Ras)35 But were there any troops stationed in the forts scattered across the Balkans which employed the equipment of Avar inspiration recommended by the author of the Strategikon

Besides lsquoAvarrsquo three-edged arrow heads and battle axes there is some evidence of armour and composite bows36 Missing however are lance-heads such as those found together with Early Avar stirrups It has recently been noted that in Hungary Early Avar stirrups appear more often with lance-heads than with any other kind of weapon37 Lance-heads appear

34enspCavalry troops accompanying Tatimer to Constantinople in 593 Theoph Sim 6713 During the attack on the 600 Sclavenes returning from a raid in the region of Zaldapa Aquis and Scopi (594) the barbarians were throwing javelins at the horses of the Roman cavalrymen Theoph Sim 717 Those were clearly cavalrymen but were they members of the local garrisons or troops from the fĳield armies moved into the region In the case of the 593 episode the answer is very simple Tatimer had been sent by Priscus (the general in command of the fĳield army operating north of the Danube) to Emperor Maurice in Con-stantinope with the prisoners captured after the attack on Ardagastusrsquo territory Tatimer was ambushed by Sclavenes and escaped only when infantry troops stationed in the area intervened an indication that there were no cavalry troops available Similarly the epi-sode of 594 involved the advanced guard of the fĳield army under Peter (Emperor Mauricersquos brother) The Romans who dismounted and approached the wagon circle were soldiers in the fĳield army not members of local garrisons There is no indication that the Armenian troops mentioned by Sebeos (History 15 in Thomson (1999) 31) were about to move per-manently to the Balkans There is no mention of cavalrymen in Sebeos but assuming that troops included cavalry units then it is signifĳicant that horsemen needed to be brought from outside Therefore the idea that the cavalry troops occasionally mentioned in rela-tion to military events in the Balkans ldquoare likely to have been drawn from those units stationed in the Balkansrdquo has absolutely no support in the existing evidence

35enspBavant (1990) 242 fĳig 171 and pl 43288ndash90 Popović (1999) 73 and 112 fĳig 597 36enspThree-edged arrow heads Stoichev (2005) Dimitrov et al (1965) 56 fĳig 25 Her-

rmann (1992) 175 Uenze (1992) pl 3124ndash25 Janković (1981) 179 fĳig 72a Gabričević (1986) 89 fĳig 223 6 Mano-Zisi (1958) 326 fĳig 36 and Bavant (1990) pl 40 237ndash42 Jeremić and Milinković (1995) 223 fĳigs 28g Milinković (1995) 235 fĳig 10 d Sretenović (1984) 233 fĳig 2161 Popović (1999) 112 fĳig 594 Mikulcić (2002) 126 fĳig 151ndash3 156 fĳig 4712ndash13 and 290 fĳig 1857 Milinković (2006) 249 fĳig 4 Battle axes Uenze (1992) pl 2123 Bavant (1990) pl 38216ndash18 Jeremić (1995) 206 fĳig 23b Sretenović (1984) 233 fĳig 2166 For lamellar armour see Bugarski (2005) Bone or antler reinforcement plates for composite bows are known both from frontier forts and from sites in the interior however not all of them are securely dated to the late 6th or early 7th c see Petković (1995) 102 and pl 383 Čermanović-Kuzmanović (2004) 241 Ivanišević and Špehar (2005) 147ndash48 and 148 fĳig 91 Uenze (1992) pl 434 Milinković (2006) 249 fĳig 4 For the reconstruction of the composite bow on the basis of the archaeological record of early Avar-age burial assemblages see Faacutebiaacuten and Ricz (1991) Ricz and Faacutebiaacuten (1993) For the archaeological evidence of Avar lamellar armour see Csallaacuteny (1958ndash1959) (1969ndash71) and (1982)

37enspCurta (2008a) 310ndash11 Almost half of all burial assemblages with lances excavated in Hungary and the neighbouring regions are of the Early Avar age see Szentpeacuteteri (1993) 216



singly in Early Avar graves but there are also instances of two or three per burial assemblage often of diffferent types The strong correlation between stirrups and lance-heads suggests that stirrups were employed primarily by lancers Stirrups on the other hand were particularly important when the amount of body armour increased and when wielding multiple weap-ons especially when switching from bow to lance in action they made the rider more top-heavy and susceptible to lose his balance38 In other words stirrups were the hallmark of a class of lsquoprofessionalrsquo mounted war-riors who could affford armour for themselves and for their war horses a multitude of high-quality weapons and a special training for a highly versatile form of warfare Early Avar lances had narrow short and solid blades of high-quality steel designed to pierce armour39 These may well have been the κοντάρια to which the author of the Strategikon refers in relation to the Avars and which modern commentators translate as either lsquothrowing spearsrsquo or lsquostabbing lancesrsquo40 Some argue that much like apple-shaped stirrups with elongated attachment loops such lance-heads were of Byzantine manufacture41 If so their absence from the archaeological record of the 6th to early 7th c Roman provinces in the Balkans is remark-able None of the lance- or spearheads found on Early Byzantine hill-fort sites in the region bears any resemblance to the weapons accompanying Avar warriors to their graves42

Equally diffferent from Avar weapons are the swords from Sadovec Caričin Grad and Balajnac43 Excavations of several Early Byzantine sites produced shield bosses or handles which are otherwise absent from Early Avar burial assemblages with stirrups44 Judging from the existing evidence the garrisons of 6th to 7th c Balkan hill-top sites were more likely to have fought as infantry than as cavalry troops Those were sol-diers equipped with spears swords battle axes and shields some may

38enspCurta (2008a) 312 For switching from bow to lance see Strategikon 112ndash16 for switching from lances to bows a particularly Avar speciality see Strategikon 11224ndash27

39enspCsiky (2007) 310ndash11 and 309 fĳig 2 (type I1)40enspStrategikon 1217 (κοντάρια καβαλλαρικά) and 11224 and 26 See also Nagy (2005) 13741ensp Freeden (1991) 62442enspFor lance- and spear-heads on Early Byzantine hill-fort sites see Gabričević (1986) 89

fĳig 225 7 (Rtkovo) Deroko and Radojčić (1950) 138 fĳig 41 and Bavant (1990) pl 40246 247 (Caričin Grad) Jeremić and Milinković (1995) 223 fĳig 28 c-f and 224 fĳig 30 c-e (Bregovina) Marušić (1962) pl 41 2 (Nezakcij) Lazaridis (1965) 327ndash34 (Nea Anchialos) Romiopoulou (1973ndash74) 697 (Kitros) Agallopoulou (1975) 239 (Ladochori)

43enspUenze (1992) pl 433 5ndash8 Deroko and Radojčić (1949) 137 fĳig 39 Jeremić (1995) 193ndash94 For Avar swords see Simon (1991)

44enspMilošević (1987) fĳig 24 Jeremić and Milinković (1995) 224 fĳig 30 Bavant (1990) pl 41255 Mikulčić (2002) 468 fĳig 3851 Majewski et al (1974) 179 and 181 fĳig 5a

822 florin curta


have used composite bows but again they were not mounted archers While horses may have indeed existed in some forts there is no sign of the permanent presence of horsemen with equipment of Avar inspira-tion If any Roman cavalrymen battled the mounted Avar warriors in the Balkans they must have been highly mobile troops coming from outside the region They most certainly were not from units stationed on a longer term in any of the forts excavated so far in the Balkans

Hoards

In spite of the incontrovertible testimony of the Strategikon there is very little evidence for the use of stirrups in the late 6th or early 7th c Balkans Nonetheless some scholars have recently claimed that not only were stir-rups used during the Early Byzantine period but they were also produced in the Balkans45 Their main support for this is the presence of an apple-shaped specimen with elongated suspension loop among the 15 stirrups found in the Strezhevo hoard (fĳigs 15 4)46

Given that apple-shaped stirrups with elongated suspension loops are typical for Early Avar assemblages in Hungary and the surrounding regions the conclusion was drawn that the hoard itself must be dated to the same period A 6th c date was also advanced for some of the arte-facts with which the stirrups were associated in the hoard assemblage especially two L-shaped keys and a processional cross Analogies for the keys were found among artefacts from a number of Early Byzantine sites in Serbia (Caričin Grad Jelica Gornij Streoc Bregovina and Gamzi-grad) even though none of them was found in an archaeological con-text securely dated to the 6th or early 7th c In fact L-shaped keys with twisted handles very similar to one of the two Strezhevo keys come from Early Medieval hoard assemblages in Bulgaria and Moravia47 some found

45enspBugarski (2007) 262 46enspJanakievski (1980) The hoard was found during salvage excavations carried out in

1979 next to the basilica with mosaic pavement within the Early Byzantine fort at Kale 47enspChelopech (Bulgaria) Mutafchiev (1914) 266 fĳig 2436 Dălgopol (Bulgaria) Zlatarski

(1960) 103ndash109 and fĳig 8 Žabokreky (Slovakia) Bartoškovaacute (1986) 61ndash62 and 63 fĳig 2024 Stareacute Zaacutemky (Moravia Czech Republic) Staňa (1961) 112 fĳig 297 Gajary (Slovakia) Bar-toškovaacute (1986) 15 fĳig 532 Mikulčice (Moravia Czech Republic) Bartoškovaacute (1986) 29 fĳig 10A48 Moravskyacute Jan (Slovakia) Muumlller (1996) 370 fĳig 5323 In Bulgaria L-shaped keys are also known from late 9th to 10th c burial (Oborochishte) and settlement assemblages (house 32 in Garvan) see Văzharova (1976) 333 and 335 fĳig 2113 Văzharova (1986) 109 and 107 fĳig 992



Fig 4emspHoard of iron implements found in Strezhevo (Macedonia) selected artefacts L-shaped key sickle bridle bit processional cross and stirrups

(After Janakievski (1980))

824 florin curta


together with precisely-dated artefacts such as Late Avar strap-ends and belt mounts (which cannot be earlier than ca 750) or Byzantine coins struck for Emperor John Tzimiskes (969ndash76)48 Conversely keys known from assemblages securely dated to the 6th c are of a completely difffer-ent kind and bear no resemblance to those from the Strezhevo hoard49 Similarly the best analogy for the iron processional cross from Strezhevo is the 10th or early 11th c specimen at Sredishte (Bulgaria) and not the crosses from Caričin Grad Sadovec or Gamzigrad all of which were sus-pension and not processional crosses50 A late most likely 10th c date for the Strezhevo stirrup is also strongly supported by the chronology of the 14 stirrups of Iotovrsquos class 5A none datable before ca 90051

Tenth and 11th c stirrups are known from two other hoard assemblages found on Early Byzantine hill-fort sites in the Balkans One of them was found behind the eastern gate of the Early Byzantine fort in Troianov most near Kladovo on the right bank of the Danube in Serbia together with a bronze censer The latter bears no resemblance to any of the 6th c censers known from the Balkans and despite claims to the contrary can-not be dated before the 10th c52 The Troianov most hoard must therefore be associated with the later medieval (10th to 12th c) occupation of the site53 Similarly the hoard found within the Early Byzantine fort in Dol-ishte not far from Varna in Bulgaria is of a much later date containing among other implements a stirrup with elliptic bow of Iotovrsquos class 8A which can only be dated after ca 900 if not 100054

48enspCoins of John Tzimiskes Chelopech (Mutafchiev (1914) 264) Late Avar strap ends and belt mounts Moravskyacute Jan (Bartoškovaacute (1986) 35 fĳig 12 3 5ndash6 and 8ndash10 Muumlller (1996) 370 fĳig 5327) The strap ends and belt mounts from Moravskyacute Jan are specimens of Zaacutebojniacutekrsquos classes 90 113 229 and 251 respectively Such belt fĳittings are most typical for the Late Avar III phase (ca 750-ca 780) See Zaacutebojniacutek (1991) 241 Stadler (2008) 59

49enspSee for example keys from a small hoard of casts found in Drobeta Turnu-Severin Bejan (1976) This hoard must dated to the (late) 6th c as afffĳirmed by the presence within this of cast fĳibulae with bent stemmdashsee Curta (2001) 245

50enspBugarski (2007) 260 For the processional cross from Sredishte see Iotov (2004) 83 and 81 fĳig 39546 For iron processional crosses in Bulgaria all dated after ca 900 see Totev (2002) and (2005)

51ensp Iotov (2004) 147 and 151ndash52 and (2007)52enspFor the hoard see Garašanin and Vašić (1987) 94 101 fĳig 12 and 102 fĳig 13ndash14 For

the dating of the stirrup see Iotov (2004) 152 Bugarski (2007) 258 wrongly insists on a 7th c date For fĳinds of 6th c censers in the Balkans see Rendić-Miočević (1952) 202 fĳig 1 Čorović-Ljubinković (1954) and (1956) Atanasov (2004) pl 6

53enspFor the medieval occupation in Troianov most see Marjanović-Vujović (1987) and Milenković (1997)

54enspKouzov (2000) For the chronology of stirrups with elliptic bow see Iotov (2004) 158



These are stern reminders that not all assemblages found on sites oth-erwise known to have been occupied during the 6th and 7th c should automatically be attributed to the Early Byzantine phase of occupation More than 20 hoards have so far been found on Early Byzantine fortifĳied sites in the Balkans (see Table 1 fĳig 5)

Some of them have been used as an illustration not only of a late antique occupation of those sites but also of their lsquoruralisationrsquo given the presence of agricultural tools among items found with such assemblages55 In at least two cases the hoards themselves have been dated to the 6th or

55enspMost typical for this approach is Popović (1990) and (1994ndash95) For the ruralisation of Balkan urban centers in the Balkans between the 5th and the 7th c see Popović (1982)

Fig 5emspDistribution of hoards of iron implements and weapons found on Early Byzantine hill-fort sites in the Balkans

826 florin curta


7th c because of being found on Early Byzantine sites56 Single or hoard fĳinds of agricultural implements have then been used to determine the function of such sites in spite of their fortifĳication they were supposedly not military but civilian settlements57 That besides agricultural tools some hoards have also produced weapons does not seem to have been an impediment for such an interpretation nor was the existence of a medi-eval occupation phase at many of these hoard sites58

A very diffferent interpretation however may be advanced on the basis of a seriation of hoards of iron implements (including those with stirrups) by correspondence analysis With this technique which has been intro-duced to archaeology only during the last 20 years or so the relationships between hoards those between artefact categories and those between artefact categories and hoards may be analysed together and represented in the same scattergram or series of scattergrams produced by the plotting of pairs of orthogonal axes In addition to 21 hoards found on Early Byzan-tine sites the analysis has also taken into consideration 11 other hoards of a certainly medieval date59 The scattergram displaying the relationships between hoards shows a cluster in the fĳirst and another in the third and fourth quadrants (fĳig 6)

Judging from the scattergram displaying the relationships between artefact categories (fĳig 7) a few outliers (Preslav 2 Stambolovo and Mon-tana 2) include such typically medieval tools as bill-knives of Henningrsquos class G5 sickles of Henningrsquos class H4 scythes of Henningrsquos class I5 and so-called lsquoogribkirsquo60

56enspAntonova (1973) 139 Milinković (2001) 102 57enspHenning (1986) 107 Werner (1992) 415 The most recent advocate of this idea is

Kirilov (2007) 58enspFor Troianov most see above n 53 For Pernik Shumen Odărci Montana Razgrad

and Gamzigrad see Changova (1992) Antonova (1975) and (1985) Doncheva-Petkova (1986) Kurnatowska and Mamzer (2007) Stanilov and Aleksandrov (1983) Georgieva (1961) Bikić (1997) A medieval possibly 10th or 11th c occupation of the site at Jelica is betrayed by potsherds of Combed Ware found within the basilica A See Milinković (2001) 71ndash74 80 and 102

59enspFor the 21 hoards found on Early Byzantine sites see Table 1 For the other later hoards see Bobcheva (1972) Mutafchiev (1914) Zlatarski (1960) Dzhingov (1966) 52ndash53 Vitlianov (1978) Pleterski (1987) Stanchev (1985) Barački (1960) The defĳinition of tool types follows Henning (1987) 43 that of axes the classifĳication of Bartoškovaacute (1986) 6 fĳig 1 and that of lance-heads and stirrups the classifĳication of Iotov (2004) 79ndash83 and 140ndash58 For correspondence analysis see Shennan (1990) 283ndash86 Boslashlviken et al (1982) For an exemplary application to the analysis of burial assemblages see Nielsen (1988)

60enspShort scythes with shortened lsquohalf handlesrsquo (Henningrsquos class I 5) were found in rela-tively large numbers on 9th c sites in Bulgaria and north of the Lower Danube see Curta (1997) 220ndash21 Sickles of Henningrsquos class H4 are considerably later than others perhaps fĳirst



One hoard in the fĳirst quadrant (Stara Zagora 1) stands out as the only assemblage combining such items as a copper-alloy kettle two bronze candlesticks and several bronze vessels including four 2nd to 3rd c authepsae61 That the Stara Zagora 1 hoard must be of a later date emerges from the examination of the candlesticks and of 6 bells all of liturgical use One bell has an inscription mentioning a certain presbyter named Sergios another bears the monogram of Emperor Justin IImdashthe latest

appearing in the 10th c Similarly bill-knives of Henningrsquos class G5 were in use in the 900s one was found among the grave goods of a 10th c burial in OborochishtemdashHenning (1987) 90 96 lsquoOgribkirsquo are commonly interpreted as tools for scraping the kneading trough but there is no solid argument for that interpretation

61enspCholakov and Ilieva (2005) 54ndash56 and 57 pl 11ndash4

Fig 6emspCorrespondence analysis plot of 32 hoards of iron implements and weapons ASENmdashAsenovgrad BALAmdashBalajnac BOZHUmdashBozhurovo CAREmdashCarevec CARGmdashCaričin Grad CHELOmdashChelopech DALGmdashDălgopol DOLImdashDolishte GAMZImdashGamzigrad JELImdashJelica MONT1mdashMontana 1 MONT2mdashMontana 2 ODARmdashOdărci OLYMPmdashOlympia PERNmdashPernik PRES1mdashPreslav 1 PRES2mdashPreslav 2 RAZGmdashRazgrad SEBENmdashSebenje SHUMmdashShumen SLIVmdashSliven STAMmdashStambolovo STARA1mdashStara Zagora 1 STARA2mdashStara Zagora 2 STR-EZHmdashStrezhevo TINJmdashTinje TROI1mdashTroianov most 1 TROI2mdashTroianov most

2 VOIVmdashVoivoda VRSA1mdashVršac 1 VRSA2mdashVršac 2 ZHEGmdashZheglica

828 florin curta


Fig 7emspCorrespondence analysis plot of the artefact categories found in 32 hoards of iron implements and weapons ANVmdashanvil AXEFANmdashbattle axe fan-shaped AXEIIAamdashbattle axe Bartoškovaacutersquos class IIAa AXEIIIAbmdashbattle axe Bartoškovaacutersquos class IIIAb AXEIIIBmdashbattle axe Bartoškovaacutersquos class IIIB BELLmdashcattle bell BELTBmdashbelt buckle BILLG1amdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G1a BILLG1bmdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G1b BILLG2bmdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G2b BILLG4amdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G4a BILLG5mdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G5 BITmdashbridle bit BRONZEmdashbronze vessels BUCKmdashbucket handles CANDLEmdashcandlestick CENSmdashcenser CHAINmdashplow chain CHISmdashchisel COMBmdashcurrycomb COULmdashcoulter Henningrsquos class E 1 HAMMmdashhammer HOEK3mdashdrag hoe Henningrsquos class K3 KETTLEmdashkettle KEY1mdashkey L-shaped KEY2mdashkey anchor-shaped LAMPmdashlamp LANCEmdashlance head Iotovrsquos class 1B MATTK4mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K4 MATTK5mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K8 MATTK8mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K 8 MATTK10mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K10 MATTK15mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K15 OGRIBmdashtool (ldquoogribkardquo) PICKL1mdashpickaxe Henningrsquos class L1 PICKL2mdashpickaxe Henningrsquos class L 2 PLAN1mdashplane curved PLAN2mdashplane straight PLOWA1mdashploughshare Hen-ningrsquos class A1 PLOWB3mdashploughshare Henningrsquos class B3 PLOWC1mdashplough-share Henningrsquos class C1 SCISmdashscissors SCRAPP2mdashscraping tool Henningrsquos class P2 SCRAPP3mdashscraping tool Henningrsquos class P3 SCYTHI2mdashscythe Hen-ningrsquos class I2 SCYTHI5mdashscythe Henningrsquos class I5 SOCKmdashsocketed share SPADEmdashspade Henningrsquos class F1 SPIKmdashspike STIRR8Amdashstirrup Iotovrsquos class

8A TONGSmdashtongs WHETSmdashwhetstone WIMBmdashwimble



chronological indication within the entire assemblage62 A 6th c date may also be advanced for the Olympia hoard which besides iron tools and bronze vessels included 22252 copper coins mostly minimi but also coins struck for Justinian and Justin II63

Can the same date be therefore assigned to other hoards from the clus-ter in the fĳirst quadrant The Zheglica hoard includes a measuring cup with Greek inscription which is believed to be of a 6th or early 7th c date although no convincing analogies are so far known64 The Caričin Grad hoard was found within a smithy built within the portico of a street exca-vated in the south-western section of the Upper City the smithy has been dated to the last phase of occupation at Caričin Grad ca AD 60065 Simi-larly the Odărci hoard is said to have been buried during the last phase of occupation on the site which is coin-dated to the 610s66 To be sure many of the items included in hoards from the cluster in the fĳirst quadrant are known only from 5th or 6th c assemblages For example ploughshares of Henningrsquos class B3 are attested on 6th c monastic sites and hill-forts67 One such ploughshare as well as a scythe of Henningrsquos class I2 was recov-ered on the site of the villa rustica in Obelia near Sofĳia (Bulgaria) which was abandoned shortly before 45068 A sickle of Henningrsquos class H1 was found in a house of the Early Byzantine fort in Pazarište (Ras) together with a half-follis struck for Justin II in Thessalonica in 5697069 All known mattocks of Henningrsquos class K4 have been found in assemblages or on sites dated to Late Antiquity mattocks of classes K4 and K8 as well as bill-knives of Henningrsquos class G1a were among the items discovered in a large (still unpublished) hoard from Voivoda which also produced a copper-alloy kettle bronze lamps and a clasp-helmet of the Baldenheim class70

The seriation by correspondence analysis has isolated in the fĳirst quadrant a group of hoards which appear to be of an early most likely

62enspCholakov and Ilieva (2005) 58 A good analogy for the Stara Zagora candlesticks are two silver candlesticks from Sadovec with control stamps from the reign of JustinianmdashIurukova (1992) 287

63enspVoumllling (1995) 425ndash41 All coins have since been lost64enspGerasimov (1946) 20465enspPopović (1990) 29566enspCholakova (2005) 14967enspHenning (1987) 59ndash60 The distribution of B3 ploughshares is restricted to the terri-

tory of the 5th and 6th c Roman provinces in the northern Balkans For fĳinds from monas-tic sites see Dzhambov (1956) 188 fĳig 29 For hill-fort fĳinds see Velkov (1935) fĳig 5

68enspStancheva (1970) 535ndash3869enspPopović (1999) 95ndash96 and 115 fĳig 611370enspHenning (1987) 154 For the helmet see Vagalinski (1998)

830 florin curta


6th c date They typically include several agricultural tools of distinct types such as pick-axes mattocks drag hoes bill-knives sickles and scythes in combination with lance-heads of Iotovrsquos class 1B and battle-axes either fan-shaped or of Bartoškovaacutersquos class IIAa A ploughshare of Henningrsquos class B3 may also appear occasionally in such an assemblage However the overwhelming presence of gardening tools such as mattocks of Henningrsquos classes K4 K 5 and K8 and pick-axes strongly suggests that the agricul-ture practised in the 6th c Balkans was restricted to areas sufffĳiciently small to be cultivated with little or no use of draught animals This has often been explained in terms of the specifĳic landscape surrounding the 6th c fortifĳied sites in the Balkans Hence the small number of agricul-tural tools found in Caričin Grad in sharp contrast to the comparatively larger number of blacksmithing or carpentry tools was related to the hilly and densely-forested hinterland of the city with no signs of agricultural cultivation even during the centuries pre-dating its foundation71 Others have pointed out the causal link between the disappearance during the 5th c of villae rusticae and the drastic changes in the rural economy of the 6th c Balkan provinces Farming implements such as mattocks and pick-axes often of larger size than those of earlier periods could be indi-cations of this new economic profĳile characterised by a drastic reduction of areas under cultivation and by the emphasis placed on human labour with little or no use of draught animals72

A very diffferent picture emerges from the examination of hoards from the third and fourth quadrants of the correspondence analysis plot They produced a number of agricultural tool categories almost equal to that from late antique hoards but of quite diffferent quality Mattocks of Hen-ningrsquos classes K4 K5 and K8 have been replaced by lsquolightrsquo specimens of his classes K10 and K15 most typical for work in the early medieval vine-yards73 Similarly ploughshares of Henningrsquos class A1 and C1 appear in great numbers (as many as 9 specimens in the Dălgopol hoard) often in combination with coulters of Henningrsquos class E1mdashindicative of the cultivation of larger fĳields by means of ploughs with mouldboards such as depicted in grafffĳiti on the walls of the royal palace in Pliska dated

71ensp Popović (1990) 293 and (1994ndash1995) 69 There is a signifĳicantly smaller number of ploughshares from Early Byzantine than from Roman sites in the northern Balkans

72enspHenning (1987) 7973enspHenning (1987) 83 Curta (1997) 220



to the 9th c74 Ploughshares especially where found in a great number of specimens often appear together with socketed ard-shares of Central Asian origin an association most typical for early medieval hoards found in north-eastern Bulgaria and south-eastern Romania75

Spades and tanged shares in the form of spade irons (Henningrsquos class F2) have also been regarded as indicators of a type of agriculture associ-ated with the early medieval nomads76 To the same direction points the presence of scraping tools of Henningrsquos class P2 the earliest European specimens of which are known from 8th to 9th c assemblages of the Sal-tovo-Mayaki culture of southern Ukraine and Russia which is commonly associated with the Khazar Qaganate77 It is therefore no surprise that hoards from the third and fourth quadrants combine agricultural tools with bridle bits and stirrups as well as weapons typically associated with mounted shock combat such as the spear-shaped battle axe from Shumen or axes of Bartoškovaacutersquos class III78 This is true not only for hoards for which a medieval date may be advanced on the basis of the associated stirrups (fĳig 8) but also for others such as Shumen Jelica Montana 1 or Gamzi-grad which were until now believed to be of late antique date (Table 1)

Moreover a late possibly 9th c date may be tentatively advanced for at least some of the hoards from the fĳirst quadrant on the basis of the presence in such assemblages of such typically medieval items as axes of Bartoškovaacutersquos class III lsquoogribkirsquo ploughshares of Henningrsquos class A1 or lsquolightrsquo mattocks (classes K9ndash11) (fĳig 9)

If so then such hoards have nothing to do with the Early Byzantine forts in which they were found and must instead be attributed to the Early Medieval occupation of those sites and are part of a phenomenon linked to the political administrative and military changes taking place in 9th c Bulgaria

74enspHenning (1987) 49ndash69 With few exceptions ploughshares of Henningrsquos class A1 are not known from 6th c assemblages in the Balkans

75enspCurta (1997) 21976enspVagarelski (1929) Henning (1987) 73 The earliest evidence of ards equipped with

tanged shares comes from China under the Han dynastymdashsee Pleterski (1987) 27577enspKovaacutecs (1981) 94 Along with various battle axes scraping tools of Henningrsquos class P2

may have served as markers of social status for burials of Khazar warriors of the so-called afsad classmdashsee Afanasrsquoev (1993) 141ndash42

78enspFor spear-shaped axes see Henning (1989) 91 On the use of such weapons as well as of battle axes of Bartoškovaacutersquos classes II and III in mounted combat see Curta (1997) 225

832 florin curta


Forts

There are several conclusions to be drawn from the above discussion First it appears that very little if any evidence exists for the presence of large numbers of horsemen garrisoned in Balkan forts According to Pro-copius a commander of the cavalry cohorts stationed lsquofrom ancient timesrsquo at Tzurullum (present-day Ccedilorlu in Turkey) was defeated captured and savagely executed by marauding Sclavenes in AD 54979 But Tzurullum was a major city in the hinterland of Constantinople and the presence of

79enspProcop Goth 7385 The Sclavenes of AD 549 were probably horsemen for Pro-copius calls them an lsquoarmyrsquo (στράτευμα) a word he commonly uses for cavalry troops (eg Procop Pers 1126 12115 244 Procop Vand 31813) See Ivanov et al (1991) 234

Fig 8emspHoard of iron implements found in Troianov most (Serbia) selected artefacts sickle scythes belt buckle stirrup and censer

(After Garašanin and Vašić (1987))



cavalry troops there may be explained in connection with the defence of the Anastasian Long Wall There is nothing in the archaeological evidence so far known from Ccedilorlu that could be used either to confĳirm or to reject Procopiusrsquo information80 But the much richer archaeological record of 6th c forts in the northern Balkans is unambiguous there were very few if any cavalry units in Early Byzantine garrisons No horsemen are mentioned in the garrison of Asemus which so much impressed Peter the

80enspThe only Early Byzantine remains from Ccedilorlu known so far are the city walls for which see Pralong (1988) 185ndash86 For the archaeology of the Anastasian Long Wall Crow (2007) and (in this collection)

Fig 9emspHoard of iron implements found in Razgrad (Bulgaria) selected artefacts battle axes ploughshares and billknives (After Ivanov and Stoianov (1985))

834 florin curta


general at the head of the army sent by Emperor Maurice in AD 594 against the Sclavenes north of the Danube81 The evidence of weapons found on 6th c fortifĳied sites in the northern Balkans and discussed in the fĳirst part of this paper also suggests that the garrisons stationed there were made up of foot-soldiers not horsemen

But were those full-time soldiers or were they peasants like those at Thermopylae whom Procopius describes as suddenly becoming lsquomake-shift soldiers for the occasionrsquo abandoning their agricultural occupations until Justinian replaced the inexperienced garrison with regular troops82 Some scholars have interpreted the archaeological evidence of 6th c forti-fĳied settlements as indicating not military but civilian sites83 According to Archibald Dunn fortifĳied hilltop sites in northern Greece offfered shel-ter to the urban and rural populations fleeing the lowlands under the con-tinuous threat of barbarian raids84 Andrew Poulter denies the existence of any identity or even similarity between the hill-top sites in northern Balkans which he regards as temporary refuges and those ldquoregularly built fortifĳications on the frontier which more obviously performed a military rolerdquo85 Chavdar Kirilov points to the archaeological evidence of agricul-tural occupations as an argument in favour of the idea that hilltop sites were fortifĳied villages not military forts86 Because of farming implements from hoards Pernik Shumen and Odărci are therefore re-interpreted as defended villages although in all three cases there is plenty of evidence of an early medieval occupation phase87

81ensp Theoph Sim 731ndash1082enspProcop Aed 410 For the archaeological evidence of a Justinianic garrison guarding

the pass at Thermopylae see Rosser (2001)83enspKirilov (2007) 333 with a critique of Ovcharov (1982) See also Milinković (2007)

166ndash7984enspDunn (1997) 144 Dunn (2004) 551ndash5285enspPoulter (2004) 247 repeated verbatim in Poulter (2007) 380 While criticising others

for being ldquotoo quick to assume that they [the fortifĳied sites] all served a military func-tionrdquo Poulter then hastily attributes the last phase of occupation on fortifĳied sites in the northern Balkans to ldquonewcomers arriving about 500 ADrdquo either Slavs or other ldquonomadic migrantsrdquomdashPoulter (2004) 248 and (2007) 381 As the archaeological evidence of the last phase of occupation has nothing in common with that of sites north of the Lower Danube attributed to the 6th c Slavs his remarks must be treated with extreme caution especially his idea that the ldquoSlav pottery does not exist or is exceedingly rare because the nomadic Slavs did not use itrdquomdashPoulter (2004) 250 and (2007) 382

86enspKirilov (2007) 333ndash35 on the basis of the results of Dimităr Nikolovrsquos excavations at Mezideva near Krăn for which see Nikolov (1990) However it is not clear from either whether the abundance of agricultural tools on the site must be dated to the 5th or to the 6th c Judging by the numismatic evidence Mezideva was flourishing ca AD 400

87enspKirilov (2007) 337ndash38



We have seen that the Shumen hoard has in fact been misdated together with other assemblages such as Jelica and Gamzigrad As for hoards securely dated to Late Antiquity it is important to note that farming implements especially those used in tillage (as opposed to those used for harvesting) represent only a small percentage of the entire assemblage the Olympia hoard dated with coins struck for Justinian and Justin II includes 12 har-vesting implements (5 bill knives and 7 sickles) but only 6 tilling tools (two mattocks and 4 pick-axes) None of those tilling tools may be associated with any form of large-scale cultivation and some of them were instead a natural accompaniment to forest clearing activities The Sliven hoard (with three mattocks one pickaxe and 7 drag-hoes) is the only assemblage in which tilling tools predominate For Pernik although its hoard produced a ploughshare two drag-hoes three mattocks and a pick-axe the largest number of items comprise tools for harvesting (4 bill-knives one scythe and 8 sickles) The same is true for the Odărci and Stara Zagora 2 hoards in which tools for harvesting especially sickles and scythes appear in much greater numbers than those for tilling Despite the presence of mattocks and pick-axes the Carevec Tinje and Voivoda hoards have produced more carpentry tools (especially chisels wimbles saws burins planes and other carving tools) than either farming implements (for both tilling and har-vesting) or weapons The only hoard in which weapons predominate is Razgrad which is probably not of late antique date

Observation of the scattergram showing the relationships between artefact categories reveals the combination of tools and weapons under-lying the structure of the late antique hoards The cluster of hoards in the fĳirst quadrant is based on a combination of tilling (mattocks of Henningrsquos classes K4 and K8 pick-axes of classes L1 and L2 drag-hoes of class K3 and ploughshares of class B3) harvesting (bill-knives of Henningrsquos classes G1 and G2b sickles of class H1 and scythes of class I2) and primarily carpentry tools (straight planes wimbles and chisels) If fan-shaped axes were also used in carpentry then the number of craftsman tool types is as large as that of tilling tool types The lsquogrammarrsquo of late antique hoards seems to be based on the conceptual association of vineyard or fĳield har-vesting with tilling Judging from the tools themselves the latter was an activity linked to work in the garden or on small fĳields and cannot there-fore serve for the identifĳication of the function of any site as lsquoagriculturalrsquo and not lsquomilitaryrsquo

The mattocks and pick-axes as well as the sickles and bill-knives found in abundance in late antique hoards fĳit very well within the picture of small-scale cultivation of crops either within or just outside the city or fort

836 florin curta


walls Large lsquoopen spacesrsquo existed for example on the northern side of the Early Byzantine fort built in the south-eastern corner of the ancient city of Nicopolis ad Istrum (Nikiup) there is no sign of large-scale grain cultiva-tion and the open spaces may have been used for garden cultivation of millet and legumes88 Analysis of palaeobotanical assemblages from Iatrus (Krivina) has revealed that the diet of the soldiers in the fortrsquos garrison consisted of oats and peas both of which may have been cultivated on site89 This is further substantiated by the evidence of written sources in 583 when attacking Singidunum by surprise the Avars lsquoencountered the majority of the cityrsquos inhabitants encamped in the fĳields since the harvest constrained them to do this for it was summer season and they were gathering in their subsistencersquo90

However there is also evidence to suggest that the small-scale cul-tivation on plots inside or outside city walls was not sufffĳicient for the subsistence of the relatively large number of people living inside 6th c hill-top sites The distribution of 6th c amphorae (particularly LR1 LR2 and spatheia) on such sites in the Balkans has been interpreted as evi-dence of a state-run distribution of food supplies to the garrisons sta-tioned in forts91 Palaeobotanical assemblages from the late 6th and early 7th c military site at Svetinja comprised mixes of wheat rye barley and milletmdashan indication of supplies of corn coming from outside the mili-tary settlement probably from neighbouring Viminacium to which they may have been shipped via the annona-like distributions signaled by fĳinds of Late Roman amphorae92 The author of the Strategikon recommends that when campaigning north of the Danube River in Sclavene territory Roman troops do not destroy provisions found in the surrounding coun-tryside but instead ship them on pack animals and boats lsquoto our own countryrsquo93 That Roman soldiers needed to rely on food supplies captured from the enemy suggests that there was no large-scale production of food in or around the fortifĳied sites in the Balkans Similarly the analysis of

88enspPoulter (1995) 166 and 18189enspHajnalovaacute (1982) 232 According to Beech (2007) 244 and 247 the analysis of 6th c

samples from Nicopolis ad Istrum suggests ldquocontinued supplyrdquo of cereals but it remains unclear whether those were locally cultivated or brought to the site from afar

90enspTheoph Sim 141ndash2 (trans Whitby and Whitby (1986) 24ndash25) For a similar episode in Thessalonica during the early years of Heracliusrsquo reign see the Miracles of St Demetrius 22199

91ensp Curta (2001b) 209ndash10 For LR1 amphorae as an indicator of annona-type distributions to the army stationed in the northern Balkans see Karagiorgou (2001)

92enspBorojević (1987) 67 and 7093enspStrategikon 1148



faunal remains from Iatrus shows that the soldiers in the garrison relied heavily on hunting for meat procurement94

Even if some inhabitants of fortifĳied sites in the 6th c Balkan prov-inces of the empire turned to small-scale garden cultivation of crops in order to supplement (insufffĳicient or irregular) annona distributions no evidence exists that such activities were anything more than temporary or economically marginal Hill-top sites in the Balkans may not have all been military but none of them appears to have functioned as a fortifĳied village Behind or just outside the walls of the 6th c forts no agricultural occupations could be practised in such a way as to satisfy the needs of the existing population The lsquoruralisationrsquo of the late antique Balkans must instead be understood as the militarisation of the countryside

Conclusion

This discussion brings into focus a number of themes which have rele-vance to an understanding of the wider social issues underpinning the 6th c changes in the settlement pattern of the empirersquos Balkan provinces As part of the military strategy implemented by Emperor Justinian a great number of fortifĳied sites perched on hill-tops appeared almost everywhere in the Balkans It is difffĳicult to prioritise the various factors since they must be considered interdependent However the lack of sufffĳicient troops in the Balkans the disappearance of the old administrative structure especially of civitates and provinciae and the need to provide an efffĳicient response to devastating raids by barbarian horsemenmdashlsquoHunsrsquo Cutrigurs or Avarsmdashall contributed to the implementation of a vast program of fortifĳication the size of which the Balkans had never witnessed before The picture to emerge from the evidence reviewed is one of ldquolandscapes of kastrardquo95 a conclusion supported by the relative paucity of weapons or military equipment of Avar inspiration in relation to the existence of large numbers of cavalry units permanently stationed in the Balkan provinces

On the other hand reflecting upon the specifĳic range of farming imple-ments discovered in hoard assemblages from Early Byzantine fortifĳied

94enspBartosiewicz and Choyke (1991) 191 The situation at Iatrus sharply contrasts that at Butrint (Albania) and Tinje (Slovenia) two sites on which early and mid-6th c animal bone assemblages are dominated by pig with no traces of game See Powell (2004) 306 Table 171 Ciglenečki (2000) 167ndash71

95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta


sites a more general tendency towards garden cultivation of small fĳields that could be tilled by hand without the use of draught animals seems to suggest that among 6th c fortifĳied sites some at least had a civilian and not military function That distinction however is currently too ill-defĳined to be operational the identifĳication of certain fortifĳied sites as lsquomilitaryrsquo is based on ldquothe strengths of their fortifĳications their relation-ships to lines of communication and the edge of the plain and on the presence of particular internal featuresrdquo conversely civilian sites ldquodo not in practical terms control the Plain or its points of egress and entry or its roadsrdquo96

In reality no criteria currently exist to enable a clear-cut distinction between lsquomilitaryrsquo and lsquocivilianrsquo fortifĳied sites on the basis of the archaeo-logical evidence alone To the extent that all 6th c sites in the Balkans had defensive walls it is perhaps safer to assume that they were all lsquomilitaryrsquo despite the wide variation in the number and quality of troops stationed in every one of them Moreover the sheer number of forts precludes the possibility that some of them were fortifĳied villages meant to supply the others with food There is simply no evidence of a settlement hierarchy in the 6th c Balkans which could possibly mirror the distinction currently but artifĳicially drawn between various hilltop sites The agrarian technol-ogy revealed by the analysis of hoards is one of limited resources which could in no way be linked to a self-sufffĳicient rural economy Since the size of the fĳields is dependant on the implements being used to till them one might ask how it was possible to feed the populationmdashmilitary or other-wisemdashliving within the ramparts of the numerous 6th c Balkan forts

The emerging picture is one of contrasting lines of development On one hand the great number of forts must have created an enormous demand for food supplies even if we allow for the possibility that not all forts were permanently occupied On the other hand there is now clear evidence of a generalised collapse of the rural economy97 Whether or not the garri-sons of 6th c forts were made up of lsquomakeshift soldiers for the occasionrsquo by AD 500 there were certainly fewer peasants in the Balkans than in 400 and virtually no peasants at all by 600 If hoards of iron implements and weapons are to be regarded as evidence of civilian sites with agricultural

96enspDunn (2004) 551ndash5297enspCurta (2001b) The much rosier picture in Dunn (2005) can hardly apply to the 6th

c Much closer to reality seems to be Dunn (2004) 579 ldquoA countryside largely divided between supposedly self-sufffĳicient but actually impoverished kastra albeit of diverse ori-gins was a stagnant and probably disafffected onerdquo



functions it is perhaps no accident that such hoards were found inside forts without lsquoopen spacesrsquo in which very little room was left for the pos-sible garden cultivation of small fĳields Unless we assume that the agricul-tural tools found in hoards were employed for working on fĳields outside the fort walls there is no way to solve the contradiction between the con-cept of many overcrowded forts providing shelter for the rural population from the lowlands and the absence of any material culture indicators of a vibrant rural economy capable of feeding the inhabitants of forts

So were forts built as refuges or were they part of a much broader strategy of immediate response to barbarian raids from across the Danube frontier of the empire The idea that Justinianrsquos programme of fortifĳica-tion in the Balkans was based on a defence-in-depth strategy has been vehemently rejected by some or hesitantly accepted by others98 Instead of debating whether the concept of lsquodefence in depthrsquo had any application in the 6th c it may be wiser to give the last word to the author of the Strategikon that savvy Roman army offfĳicer with a good knowledge of the situation on the frontier of the empire

If an enemy force superior in strength or even equal to ours invades our country especially at the beginning of the invasion we must be sure not to engage it in pitched battle We should instead carefully lay ambushes by day or by night block the route it is taking seize strong points beforehand destroy supplies along its line of marchthinspthinspthinspthinspAll necessary supplies must be collected in very strong fortressesthinspthinspthinspthinspForts which are not in a strong natu-ral setting should be made more secure Part of the army depending on the progress of the fĳighting should be assigned to their defence Prepara-tions should be made to transfer the inhabitants of weaker places to more strongly fortifĳied ones (Strategikon 102)

Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge the contribution of the two anonymous readers to the fĳinal version of this chapter Although I disagree with both of them on almost every aspect of interpretation their comments and recommen-dations helped sharpen the focus of this research and have forced me to re-think some of the implications of my conclusions

98enspPoulter (2007) 380 ldquoThere exists no evidence whatsoever that imperial Roman or Early Byzantine policy adhered to the principle of defence in depthrdquo Meanwhile Crow (2007) refers to the Anastasian Long Wall as the lsquofĳinal frontierrsquo

840 florin curta


Table 1enspRe-dating of the hoards found on Early Byzantine sites

Hoard Previous dating New datingBalajnac Late antique (6th c) Late antique (6th c)Carevec Late antique (6th c) Late antique (6th c)Caričin Grad Late antique (6th cndash7th c) Late antique (6thndash7th c)Odărci Late antique (7th c) Late antique (5thndash6th c)Olympia Late antique (6thndash7th c) Late antique (6thndash7th c)Pernik Late antique (5thndash6th c) Late antique (5thndash6th c)Sliven Late antique (5thndash6th c) Late antique (5thndash6th c)Zheglica Late antique (6th c) Late antique (6th c)Stara Zagora 1 Late antique (6th c) Late antique (6th c)Gamzigrad Late antique (5thndash6th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Jelica Late antique (6thndash7th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Montana 1 Late antique (5thndash6th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Razgrad Late antique (5thndash6th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Shumen Late antique (5thndash6th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Stara Zagora 2 Late antique (5thndash6th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Strezhevo Late antique (7th c) Early medieval (10thndash11th c)Tinje Late antique (5thndash6th c) Early medieval (8thndash9th c)Voivoda Late antique (5thndash6th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Dolishte Early medieval (9thndash10th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Montana 2 Early medieval (9thndash10th c) Early medieval (9tndash10th c)Troianov most 1 Early medieval (10thndash11th c) Early medieval (10thndash11th c)Troianov most 2 Early medieval (9thndash10th c) Early medieval (9thndash10th c)Asenovgrad Early medieval (8thndash9th c) Late antique (5thndash6th c)

Bibliography

Primary SourcesConst Porph DAI = Moravcsik G and Jenkins R J H (1967) edd Constantine Porphyro-

genitus De administrando imperio (Washington 1967)Menander = Blockley R C (1985) ed and trans The History of Menander the Guardsman

(Liverpool 1985)Miracles of St Demetrius = Lemerle P (1979ndash81) Les plus anciens recueils des miracles de

Saint Deacutemeacutetrius et la peacuteneacutetration des Slaves dans les Balkans (Paris 1979ndash81)Procop Goth Procop Vand Procop Pers = Dewing H B (1914ndash54) ed and trans Proco-

pius History of the Wars 1ndash5 (Cambridge Mass and London 1914ndash54)Procop Aed = Dewing H B (1914ndash54) ed and trans Procopius Buildings 7 (Cambridge

Mass and London 1914ndash54)Sebeos = Thomson R V Howard-Johnston J D and Greenwood T (1999) trans comm

and notes The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos (Translated Texts for Historians 31) (Liverpool 1999)

Strategikon = Dennis G T (1984) trans Mauricersquos Strategikon Handbook of Byzantine Mili-tary Strategy (Philadelphia 1984)



Theoph Sim = Whitby M and M (1986) trans The History of Theophylact Simocatta an English Translation with Introduction and Notes (Oxford 1986)

Secondary WorksAfanasrsquoev G E (1993) ldquoSistema socialrsquono-markiruiushchikh predmetov v muzhskikh

pogrebalrsquonikh kompleksakh Donskikh alanrdquo Rossiiskaia Arkheologiia 4 (1993) 131ndash44Agallopoulou P (1975) ldquoLadochori Igoumenitsasrdquo ArchDelt 302 (1975) 239Aibabin A I (1974) ldquoStremena Pereshchepinskogo tipardquo Soobshcheniia Gosudarstvennogo

Ermitazha 39 (1974) 32ndash34mdashmdash (1985) ldquoPogrebanie khazarskogo voinardquo Sovetskaia Arkheologiia 3 (1985) 191ndash205Aleksandrov G (1977) ldquoRezultati ot razkopkite na lsquoKaletorsquo v Mikhailovgradrdquo Izvestiia na

Muzeite v Severozapadna Bălgariia 1 (1977) 267ndash92mdashmdash (1987) ldquoRezultati ot razkopkite na krepostta Montana (1971ndash1982)rdquo in Montana ed

V Velkov (Sofĳia 1987) 54ndash85Aleksiev I (1976) ldquoNakhodka na orădiia na truda i văorăzhenie ot Carevecrdquo Muzei i pamet-

nici na kulturata 162 (1976) 33ndash36Ambroz A K (1973) ldquoStremena i sedla rannego srednevekovrsquoia kak khronologicheskii poka-

zatelrsquo (IVndashVIII v)rdquo Sovetskaia Arkheologiia 4 (1973) 81ndash98mdashmdash (1982) ldquoO Voznesenskom komplekse VIII v na Dnepremdashvopros interpretaciirdquo in

Drevnosti epokhi velikogo pereseleniia narodov VndashVIII vekov Sovetsko-vengerskii sbornik edd A K Ambroz and I Erdeacutelyi (Moscow 1982) 204ndash22

Antonova V (1973) ldquoArkheologicheksi prouchvaniia na Shumenskata krepostrdquo Izvestiia na Narodniia muzei Shumen 6 (1973) 127ndash58

mdashmdash (1975) ldquoGrad Shumen do XI vek (V svetlinata na arkheologicheskite prouchvaniia)rdquo Vekove 46 (1975) 22ndash30

mdashmdash (1985) ldquoShumenskata krepost prez rannoto srednovekovie (VIIndashX v) (obsht obzor)rdquo Godishnik na muzeite ot Severna Bălgariia 11 (1985) 55ndash63

Atanasov G (2004) ldquoDe nouveau sur la localisation de la forteresse bas-byzantine St Cyril en Scythie Mineurerdquo in Prinos lui Petre Diaconu la 80 de ani (Brăila 2004) 405ndash11

Bachrach B S (1984) ldquoA picture of Avar-Frankish warfare from a Carolingian Psalter of the early ninth century in light of the Strategikonrdquo Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 4 (1984) 5ndash27

Baacutelint Cs (1992) ldquoKontakte zwischen Iran Byzanz und der Steppe Das Grab von Uumlccedil Tepe (Sowj Azerbajdžan) und der beschlagverzierte Guumlrtel im 6 und 7 Jahrhundertrdquo in Awarenforschungen ed F Daim (Vienna 1992) 309ndash496

mdashmdash (1993) ldquoProbleme der archaumlologischen Forschung zur awarischen Landnahmenrdquo in Ausgewaumlhlte Probleme europaumlischer Landnahmen des Fruumlh- und Hochmittelalters edd M Muumlller-Wille and R Schneider (Sigmaringen 1993) 195ndash273

Barački S (1960) ldquoGrupni nalazi starosrpskog gvozdenog alata iz Vršacardquo Rad Vojvodanskih Muzeja 9 (1960) 186ndash95

Bartosiewicz L and Choyke A M (1991) ldquoAnimal remains from the 1970ndash1972 excavations of Iatrus (Krivina) Bulgariardquo ActaArchHung 43 (1991) 181ndash209

Bartoškovaacute A (1986) Slovanskeacute depoty železnyacutech předmětů v Československu (Prague 1986)Bavant B (1990) ldquoLes petits objetsrdquo in Caričin Grad II Le quartier sud-ouest de la ville haute

edd B Bavant V Kondić and J-M Spieser (Belgrade and Rome 1990) 191ndash257Beech M (2007) ldquoThe environmental archaeology research programme at Nicopolis meth-

odology and resultsrdquo in The Transition to Late Antiquity on the Danube and Beyond ed A G Poulter (Proceedings of the British Academy 141) (Oxford 2007) 219ndash48

Bejan A (1976) ldquoUn atelier metalurgic de la Drobeta-Turnu Severinrdquo Acta Musei Napocensis 13 (1976) 257ndash68

Bikić V (1997) ldquoSrednjovekovna trapezna keramika sa Gamzigradardquo in Arheologija istočne Srbije Zbornik radova ed D Srejović (Belgrade 1997) 319ndash24

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Blockley R C (1985) ed and trans The History of Menander the Guardsman (Liverpool 1985)

Bobcheva L (1972) ldquoOrădiia na truda ot srednovekovieto v muzeia v Tolbukhinrdquo Muzei i pametnici na kulturata 12 2 (1972) 9ndash12

Boslashlviken E Ricka Helskog E Helskog K Holm-Olsen I M Solheim L and Bertelsen R (1982) ldquoCorrespondence analysis an alternative to principal componentsrdquo WorldArch 14 (1982) 41ndash60

Borojević K (1987) ldquoAnaliza ugljenisanog semenja sa lokaliteta Svetinjardquo Starinar 38 (1987) 65ndash71

Bugarski I (2005) ldquoA contribution to the study of lamellar armoursrdquo Starinar 55 (2005) 161ndash79

mdashmdash (2007) ldquoOstava iz Strezheva uzengije u ranovizantijskom konteksturdquo in Niš and Byzantium Vth Symposium Niš 3ndash5 June 2006 The Collection of Scientifĳic Works 5 ed M Rakocija (Niš 2007) 251ndash67

Bury J B (1906) ldquoThe treatise De Administrando Imperiordquo ByzZeit 15 (1906) 517ndash77Čermanović-Kuzmanović A (2004) Tekija (Belgrade 2004)Changova I (1992) Krepostta Pernik VIIIndashXIV v (Pernik 3) (Sofĳia 1992)Cholakov I M and Ilieva P (2005) ldquoEin Hortfund von Metallgegenstaumlnden der fruumlhbyzan-

tinischen Epoche aus Stara Zagora (Suumldostbulgarien)rdquo Archaeologia Bulgarica 93 (2005) 53ndash85

Cholakova A (2005) ldquoRannovizantiiksi kompleks ot zhelezni sechiva i predmeti ot Odărci (aspekti v izsledvaneto na koletivnite nakhodki)rdquo Arkheologiia 46 (2005) 147ndash58

Ciglenečki S (2000) Tinje nad Loko pri Žusmu Poznoantična in zgodnjesrednjeveška nasel-bina (Ljubljana 2000)

Cirkin A V (1972) ldquoShokshinskii mogilrsquonikrdquo Sovetskaia Arkheologiia 1 (1972) 155ndash70Conchev D (1950) ldquoPrinos kăm bălgarskata materialna kulturardquo Izvestiia na Arkheolog-

icheskiia Institut 17 (1950) 298ndash305Čorović-Ljubinković M (1954) ldquoLlsquoencensoir des environs de Kuršumljardquo ArchIug 1 (1954)

83ndash89mdashmdash (1956) ldquoRanokhrishtjanska kadionica iz Pepeljevcardquo in Konzervatorski i ispitivachki

radovi ed M Panić-Surep (Belgrade 1956) 139ndash40Crow J (2007) ldquoThe Anastasian Wall and the Lower Danube frontier before Justinianrdquo in

The Lower Danube in Antiquity (VI c BCndashVI c AD) International Archaeological Confer-ence Bulgaria-Tutrakan 6ndash7102005 ed L Vagalinski (Sofĳia 2007) 397ndash410

Csallaacuteny D (1958) ldquoSzabolcs-Szatmaacuter megye avar leleteirdquo Joacutesa Andraacutes Muacutezeum Evkoumlnyve 1 (1958) 31ndash87

mdashmdash (1958ndash59) ldquoA hajduacutedorogi avar mellpaacutenceacutelrdquo A Debreceni Deacuteri Muacutezeum Eacutevkoumlnyve 35 (1958ndash59) 17ndash23

mdashmdash (1969ndash71) ldquoAvar paacutenceacutelok a Kaacuterpaacutet-medencebenrdquo Joacutesa Andraacutes Muacutezeum Evkoumlnyve 12ndash14 (1969ndash71) 7ndash44

mdashmdash (1982) ldquoAvar kori paacutenceacutelok a Kaacuterpaacutet-medencebenrdquo Joacutesa Andraacutes Muacutezeum Evkoumlnyve 15ndash17 (1982) 5ndash12

Csiky G (2007) ldquoA kora avar laacutendzsaacutek tipoloacutegiaacutejardquo Archaeologiai Eacutertesitő 1321 (2007) 305ndash23

Curta F (1997) ldquoBlacksmiths warriors and tournaments of value dating and interpreting early medieval hoards of iron implements in Eastern Europerdquo Ephemeris Napocensis 7 (1997) 211ndash68

mdashmdash (2001a) The Making of the Slavs History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region c 500ndash700 (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought 52) (Cambridge and New York 2001)

mdashmdash (2001b) ldquoPeasants as lsquomakeshift soldiers for the occasionrsquo sixth-century settlement patterns in the Balkansrdquo in Urban Centers and Rural Contexts in Late Antiquity edd T S Burns and J W Eadie (East Lansing 2001) 199ndash217



mdashmdash (2008a) ldquoThe earliest Avar-age stirrups or the lsquostirrup controversyrsquo revisitedrdquo in The Other Europe in the Middle Ages Avars Bulgars Khazars and Cumans ed F Curta (East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages 450ndash1450 2) (Leiden and Boston 2008) 297ndash326

mdashmdash (2008b) ldquoThe northwestern region of the Black Sea during the sixth and early seventh centuriesrdquo Ancient West amp East 7 (2008) 149ndash85

Daim F (2003) ldquoAvars and Avar archaeologyrdquo in Regna and Gentes the Relationships between Late Antique and Early Medieval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World edd H-W Goetz J Jarnut and W Pohl (Transformation of the Roman World 13) (Leiden and Boston 2003) 463ndash570

Damianov S (1976) ldquoProuchvaniia na sgrada no 8 ot kăsnoantichniia grad pri s Voivoda Shumenskordquo Godishnik na muzeite ot Severna Bălgariia 2 (1976) 17ndash27

Dennis G T (1984) trans Mauricersquos Strategikon Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy (Philadelphia 1984)

Deroko A and Radojčić S (1950) ldquoOtkopavanje Carichina grada 1947 godinerdquo Starinar 1 (1950) 119ndash42

DeVries K (1998) Medieval Military Technology (Peterborough 1998)Dimitrov D P Chichikova M Sultov B and Dimitrova A (1965) ldquoArkheologicheskie rasko-

pki v vostochnom sektore Nove v 1963 godurdquo Izvestiia na Arkheologicheskiia Institut 28 (1965) 43ndash62

Doncheva-Petkova L (1986) ldquoSelishte ot vremeto na Părvoto bălgarsko carstvo pri s Odărci Tolbukhinski okrăgrdquo in Zbornik posveten na Boshko Babich Meacutelange Boško Babić 1924ndash1984 (Prilep 1986) 165ndash68

Dunn A W (1997) ldquoStages in the transition from the late antique to the Middle Byzantine urban centre in southern Macedonia and southern Thracerdquo in Aphieroma ston N G L Hammond (Etaireia Makedonikon Spoudon) (Thessalonica 1997) 137ndash50

mdashmdash (2004) ldquoContinuity and change in the Macedonian countryside from Gallienus to Justinianrdquo in Recent Research on the Late Antique Countryside edd W Bowden L Lavan and C Machado (Late Antique Archaeology 2) (Leiden and Boston 2004) 535ndash86

mdashmdash (2005) ldquoThe problem of the Early Byzantine village in eastern and northern Macedo-niardquo in Les villages dans lrsquoempire byzantin IVe-XVe siegravecles edd J Lefort C Morrisson and J-P Sodini (Paris 2005) 267ndash78

Dzhambov Kh (1956) ldquoRannokhristiianska cărkva pri s Isperikhovo Peshterska okoliiardquo Godishnik na Narodniia Arkheologicheski Muzei Plovdiv 2 (1956) 175ndash92

Dzhingov G (1966) ldquoPrinos kăm materialnata kultura na Preslav i negovata okolnostrdquo Arkheologiia 8 no 2 (1966) 42ndash58

Faacutebiaacuten G J and Ricz P (1991) ldquoUjabb adatok az avarok uacutegynevezett reflex iacutejaacuteroacutel (Ijtanul-maacuteny a baacutecskai avar kori leletek alapjaacuten)rdquo A Herman Otto Muacutezeum Eacutevkoumlnyve 30ndash312 (1991) 127ndash40

Ferluga J (1978) Lrsquoamministrazione bizantina in Dalmazia (2nd ed Venice 1978)Fine J V A (2000) ldquoCroats and Slavs theories about the historical circumstances of the

Croatsrsquo appearance in the Balkansrdquo Byzantinische Forschungen 26 (2000) 205ndash18Freeden U v (1991) ldquoAwarische Funde in Suumlddeutschlandrdquo JRGZM 38 (1991) 593ndash627Gabričević M (1986) ldquoRtkovomdashGlamija Imdashune forteresse de la Basse eacutepoque Fouilles de

1980ndash1982rdquo Đerdapske sveske 3 (1986) 71ndash91Gaitzsch W (2005) Eisenfunde aus Pergamon Geraumlte Werkzeuge und Wafffen (Berlin and

New York 2005)Garam Eacute (1990) ldquoBemerkungen zum aumlltesten Fundmaterial der Awarenzeitrdquo in Typen

der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Beruumlcksichtigung der Bayern edd H Friesinger and F Daim (Vienna 1990) 253ndash72

mdashmdash (1992) ldquoDie muumlnzdatierten Graumlber der Awarenzeitrdquo in Awarenforschungen ed F Daim (Vienna 1992) 135ndash250

844 florin curta


mdashmdash (2000) ldquoUumlber die Beziehung der byzantinischen Goldschnallen und der awarenzeitli-chen Pseudoschnallenrdquo in Kontakte zwischen Iran Byzanz und der Steppe im 6-7 Jahr-hundert ed Cs Baacutelint (Varia Archaeologica Hungarica 10) (Budapest 2000) 215ndash28

mdashmdash (2001) Funde byzantinischer Herkunft in der Awarenzeit vom Ende des 6 bis zum Ende des 7 Jahrhunderts (Budapest 2001)

Garašanin M and Vašić M (1987) ldquoCastrum Pontes Izveshtaj o iskopavanjima u 1981 i 1982 godinardquo Đerdapske sveske 4 (1987) 71ndash116

Gavritukhin I O (2001) ldquoEvoluciia vostochnoevropeiskikh psevdopriazhekrdquo in Kulrsquotury Evraziiskikh stepei vtoroi poloviny I tysiacheletiia ne (iz istorii kostiuma) edd D A Stash-enkov A F Kochkina and L V Kuznetsova (Samara 2001) 31ndash86

mdashmdash (2006) ldquoLa date du lsquotreacutesorrsquo de Pereščepina et la chronologie des antiquiteacutes de llsquoeacutepoque de formation du Khaganat khazarrdquo in La Crimeacutee entre Byzance et le Khaganat Khazar ed C Zuckerman (Monographies du Centre de recherche drsquohistoire et civilisation de Byzance 25) (Paris 2006) 13ndash30

Gavritukhin I O and Oblomskii A M (1996) Gaponovskii klad i ego kulrsquoturno-istoricheskii kontekst (Moscow 1996)

Georgieva S (1961) ldquoSrednovekovnoto selishte nad razvalinite na antichniia grad Abritusrdquo Izvestiia na Arkheologicheskiia Institut 24 (1961) 9ndash36

Gerasimov T (1946) ldquoNakhodki v razvalinite na rannovizantiiskogo gradishche pri s Zheg-licardquo Izvestiia na Arkheologicheskiia Institut 15 (1946) 203ndash205

Goldina R D and Vodolago N V (1990) Mogilrsquoniki Nevolinskoi kulrsquotury v Priuralrsquoe (Irkutsk 1990)

Goldstein I (2005) ldquoDiscontinuitycontinuity in Croatian history from the sixth to the ninth centuryrdquo in LrsquoAdriatico della tarda Antichitagrave allrsquoetagrave carolingia Atti del convegno di studio Brescia 11ndash13 ottobre 2001 edd G Brogiolo and P Delogu (Rome 2005) 195ndash211

Grinchenko V A (1950) ldquoPamrsquoiatka VIII st kolo s Voznesenky na Zaporizhzhirdquo Arkheolo-hiia 2 (1950) 37ndash63

Hajnalovaacute E (1982) ldquoArchaumlobotanische Funde aus Krivinardquo in Iatrus-Krivina Spaumltantike Bef-estigung und fruumlhmittelalterliche Siedlung an der unteren Donau (Berlin 1982) 207ndash35

Haldon J F (2002) ldquoSome aspects of Early Byzantine arms and armourrdquo in A Companion to Medieval Arms and Armour ed D Nicolle (Woodbridge and Rochester 2002) 65ndash80

Hampel J (1905) Alterthuumlmer des fruumlhen Mittelalters in Ungarn (Braunschweig 1905)Haumlrke H and Belinskii A (2000) ldquoNouvelles fouilles de 1994ndash1996 dans la neacutecropole de

Klin Yarrdquo in Les sites archeacuteologiques en Crimeacutee et au Caucase durant lrsquoAntiquiteacute tardive et le Haut Moyen Age edd M Kazanski and V Soupault (Leiden and Boston 2000) 193ndash210

Heinrich-Tamaacuteska O (2005) Studien zu den awarenzeitlichen Tauschierarbeiten (Innsbruck 2005)

Henning J (1986) ldquoBulgarien zwischen Antike und Mittelalter im Spiegel der Wirtschaft-sarchaumlologierdquo Das Altertum 322 (1986) 100ndash12

mdashmdash (1987) Suumldosteuropa zwischen Antike und Mittelalter Archaumlologische Beitraumlge zur Landwirtschaft des I Jahrtausends u Z (Berlin 1987)

mdashmdash (1989) ldquoVostochnoe po proiskhozhdeniiu oruzhie i snariazhenie vsadnikov v kladakh sellsquoskokhoziaistvennykh zheleznykh izdelii v iugo-vostochnoi Evrope (VIIIndashX vv)rdquo Problemi na prabălgarskata istoriia i kultura 1 (1989) 87ndash104

mdashmdash (2007) ed Post-Roman Towns Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium 2 vols (Berlin and New York 2007)

Herrmann J (1992) ldquoKarasura 1981ndash1991 Zu den bisherigen Ergebnissen von Ausgrabun-gen und Forschungsarbeiten in Suumldthrakien zwischen Stara Zagora und Plovdivrdquo ZfA 26 (1992) 153ndash80

Hofer N (1996) ldquoBewafffnung und Kriegstechnologie der Awarenrdquo in Reitervoumllker aus dem Osten Hunnen und Awaren Burgenlaumlndische Landesausstellung 1996 Schloszlig Halbturn 26 April-31 Oktober 1996 edd F Daim K Kaus and P Tomka (Eisenstadt 1996) 351ndash54

Iotov V (2004) Văorăzhenieto i snariazhenieto ot bălgarskoto srednovekovie (VIIndashXI v) (Varna 2004)



mdashmdash (2007) ldquoOtnosno datirovkata na sbornata nakhodka ot Strezhevo Bitolskordquo Problemi na prabălgarskata istoriia i kultura 42 (2007) 171ndash80

Iurukova I (1992) ldquoTrouvailles moneacutetaires de Sadovetzrdquo in Die spaumltantike Befestigungen von Sadovec Ergebnisse der deutsch-bulgarisch-oumlsterreichischen Ausgrabungen 1934ndash1937 ed S Uenze (Munich 1992) 279ndash333

Ivaniševič V and Špehar P (2005) ldquoEarly Byzantine fĳinds from Čečan and Gornji Streoc (Kosovo)rdquo Starinar 55 (2005) 133ndash59

Ivanov S A Gindin L A and Cymburskii V L (1991) ldquoProkopii Kesariiskiirdquo in Svod drevnei-shikh pislsquomennykh izvestii o slavianakh edd L A Gindin S A Ivanov and G G Litavrin (Moscow 1991) 170ndash249

Ivanov T and Stoianov S (1985) Abritus its History and Archaeology (Razgrad 1985)Izmailov I L (1990) ldquoPoiavlenie i rannaia istoriia stremian v Srednem Povolzhrsquoerdquo in Voen-

noe delo drevnego i srednevekogo naseleniia Severnoi i Centralrsquonoi Azii Sbornik nauch-nykh trudov edd Iu S Khudiakov and Iu A Plotnikov (Novosibirsk 1990) 61ndash70

Janakievski T (1980) ldquoKale s Strezhevo-Bitolsko (izveshtaj od zashtito arkheoloshko istra-zhuvanie)rdquo Macedoniae Acta Archaeologica 6 (1980) 97ndash110

Janković Đ Podunavski deo oblasti Akvisa u VI i pochetkom VII veka (Belgrade 1981)Jakšić N (1984) ldquoConstantine Porphyrogenetus as the source for destruction of Salonardquo

Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju Dalmatinsku 77 (1984) 315ndash26Jeremić M (1995) ldquoBalajnac agglomeacuteration protobyzantine fortifĳieacuteerdquo Antiquiteacute Tardive 3

(1995) 193ndash207Jeremić M and Milinković M (1995) ldquoDie byzantinische Festung von Bregovina (Suumldser-

bien)rdquo Antiquiteacute Tardive 3 (1995) 209ndash25Karagiorgou O (2001) ldquoLR2 a container for the military annona on the Danubian borderrdquo

in Economy and Exchange in the East Mediterranean during Late Antiquity Proceedings of a Conference at Somerville College Oxfordmdash29th May 1999 edd S Kingsley and M Decker (Oxford 2001) 129ndash66

Kirilov Ch (2007) ldquoDer rissig gewordene Limes Houmlhensiedlungen im oumlstlichen Balkan als Zeugnis fuumlr die Schwache des ostroumlmischen Reiches in der Spaumltantikerdquo in The Lower Danube in Antiquity (VI c BCndashVI c AD) International Archaeological Conference Bul-garia-Tutrakan 6ndash7102005 ed L Vagalinski (Sofĳia 2007) 329ndash52

Klaić N (1990) Povijest Hrvata u srednjem vijeku (Zagreb 1990)Kleemann O (1956) ldquoSamlaumlndische Funde und die Frage der aumlltesten Steigbuumlgel in Europardquo

in Documenta archaeologica Wolfgang La Baume dedicata 8II1955 (Bonn 1956) 109ndash22Kolias T (1988) Byzantinische Wafffen (Vienna 1988)Kouzov Kh (2000) ldquoA fĳind of medieval iron objects from the fortress near the village of

Dolishte Varna district (Bulgarian Black Sea coast)rdquo Archaeologia Bulgarica 42 (2000) 85ndash91

Kovačević J (1966) ldquoAvari na Jadranurdquo in Referati sa simpozijuma praistorijske i srednjevjek-ovne sekcije Arheološkog Društva Jugoslavije ed N Tašić (Belgrade 1966) 53ndash81

Kovaacutecs L (1981) ldquoDer landnahmezeitliche Grabfunde von Hajduacuteboumlszoumlrmeny-Erdős tanyardquo ActaArchHung 33 (1981) 81ndash103

Kovrig I (1955) ldquoContribution au problegraveme de lrsquooccupation de lrsquoHongrie par les Avaresrdquo ActaArchHung 6 (1955) 163ndash92

mdashmdash (1963) Das awarenzeitliche Graumlberfeld von Alattyaacuten (Budapest 1963)Kukharenko Iu V (1952) ldquoNovopokrovskii mogillsquonik i poseleniiardquo Arkheolohiia 6 (1952)

33ndash50Kurnatowska Z and Mamzer H (2007) ldquoErgebnisse und Erfahrungen aus den polnischen

Untersuchungenrdquo in Post-Roman Towns Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzan-tium 2 vols ed J Henning (Berlin and New York 2007) 527ndash42

Lalović A (1985) ldquoGamzigradRomulianardquo Arheološki pregled (1985) 164ndash65Lazaridis P (1965) ldquoNea Anchialosldquo ArchDelt 20 no 2 (1965) 326ndash34Liubenova V (1981) ldquoSelishteto ot rimskata i rannovizantiiskata epokhaldquo in Pernik I Posel-

ishten zhivot na khălma Krakra ot V khil pr n e do VI v na n e ed T Ivanov (Sofĳia 1981) 107ndash203

846 florin curta


Lrsquovova Z A (2000) ldquoPogrebeniia v Maloi Pereshchepine i Voznesenke i Kubrat kagan Velikoi Bulgariirdquo Stratum 5 (2000) 145ndash60

Majewski K Press L Kolkuna S Sokhatski Z Tabash Z Shubevt V and Kolendo J (1974) ldquoArkheologicheski izledvaniia v zapadniia sektor na Noverdquo Izvestiia na Arkheo-logicheskiia Institut 34 (1974) 176ndash203

Mano-Zisi Đ (1958) ldquoIskopavanja na Carichinom Gradu 1955 i 1956 godinerdquo Starinar 7ndash8 (1958) 311ndash28

Margetić L (2001) Dolazak Hrvata (Split 2001)Marjanović-Vujović G (1987) ldquoPontes-Traianov most Sredniovekovna ostava Brdquo Đerdapske

sveske 4 (1987) 136ndash42Marović I (1984) ldquoReflexions about the year of the destruction of Salonardquo Vjesnik za arhe-

ologiju i historiju Dalmatinsku 77 (1984) 293ndash314mdashmdash (2006) ldquoO godini razorenja Salonerdquo Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju Dalmatinsku 99

(2006) 253ndash72Marušić B (1962) ldquoNeki nalazi iz vremena seobe naroda u Istrirdquo Jadranski zbornik 5 (1962)

159ndash75Mazhitov N A (1990) ldquoKompleksy s monetami VIII v iz Birskogo mogilrsquonikardquo Sovetskaia

Arkheologiia 1 (1990) 261ndash66Mikulčić I (2002) (ed M Konrad) Spaumltantike und fruumlhbyzantinische Befestigungen in Nor-

dmakedonien Staumldte-Vici-Refugien- Kastelle (Munich 2002)Milenković M (1997) ldquoKostol-Pontes u XIndashXII vekurdquo in Slavianskii srednevekovyi gorod ed

V V Sedov (Moscow 1997) 243ndash51Milinković M (1995) ldquoDie Gradina auf dem Jelica-Gebirge und die fruumlhbyzantinischen

Befestigungen in der Umgebung von Čačak Westserbienrdquo Antiquiteacute Tardive 3 (1995) 227ndash50

mdashmdash (2001) ldquoDie byzantinische Houmlhenanlage auf der Jelica in Serbienmdashein Beispiel aus dem noumlrdlichen Illyricum des 6 Jhrdquo Starinar 51 (2001) 71ndash133

mdashmdash (2006) ldquoOsvrt na nalaze vremena seobe naroda sa juga Srbije i iz susednikh oblastirdquo in Niš and Byzantium IV Symposium Niš 3ndash5 June 2005 the Collection of Scientifĳic Works 4 ed M Rakocija (Niš 2006) 245ndash63

mdashmdash (2007) ldquoStadt oder lsquoStadtrsquo fruumlhbyzantinische Siedlungsstrukturen im noumlrdlichen Illy-ricumrdquo in Post-Roman Towns Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium 2 vols ed J Henning (Berlin and New York 2007) 159ndash91

Milošević G (1987) ldquoRanovizantijska arhitektura na Svetinji u Kostolcurdquo Starinar 38 (1987) 39ndash57

Muumlller R (1996) ldquoDie Awaren und die Landwirtschaftrdquo in Reitervoumllker aus dem Osten Hun-nen und Awaren Burgenlaumlndische Landesausstellung 1996 Schloszlig Halbturn 26 April-31 Oktober 1996 edd F Daim K Kaus and P Tomka (Eisenstadt 1996) 365ndash71

Mutafchiev P (1914) ldquoSondazhi pri s Chelopechrdquo Izvestiia na Varnenskoto arkheologichesko druzhestvo 4 (1914) 264ndash66

Nagy G (1901) ldquoSiacuterleletek a reacutegibb koumlzeacutepkorboacutel III Neacutemedi (Tolna m)rdquo Archaeologiai Eacutertesitő 21 (1901) 314ndash18

Nagy K (2005) ldquoNotes on the arms of the Avar heavy cavalryrdquo ActaOrHung 58 (2005) 135ndash48

Nielsen K H (1988) ldquoCorrespondence analysis applied to hoards and graves of the Ger-manic Iron Agerdquo in Multivariate Archaeology Numerical Approaches to Scandinavian Archaeology ed T Madsen (Aarhus 1988) 37ndash54

Nikolov D (1990) ldquoMezideva a Thracian settlement in Late Antiquityrdquo Terra antiqua bal-canica 5 (1990) 166ndash72

Nikolov D and Kalchev K (1986) ldquoRazkopki na obekt lsquoMladezhki domrsquo v Stara Zagora prez 1982 grdquo Izvestiia na muzeite ot Iugoiztochna Bălgariia 9 (1986) 39ndash66

Novaković R (1972) ldquoNeka zapazhanja o 29 i 30 glavi De administrando imperiordquo Istorijski časopis 19 (1972) 5ndash54

Ovcharov D (1982) Vizantiiski i bălgarski kreposti VndashX vek (Sofĳia 1982)



Petković S (1995) Rimski predmeti od kosti i roga sa teritorije Gornje Mezije (Posebna izdanja 28) (Belgrade 1995)

Pillon M (2005) ldquoArmeacutee et deacutefense de lrsquoIllyricum byzantin de Justinien agrave Heacuteraclius (527ndash641) De la reacuteorganisation justinienne lrsquoeacutemergence des lsquoarmeacutees de citeacutersquo rdquo Erytheia 26 (2005) 7ndash85

Pleterski A (1987) ldquoSebenjski zakladrdquo ArhVest 38 (1987) 237ndash330Pohl W (1988) Die Awaren Ein Steppenvolk im Mitteleuropa 567ndash822 n Chr (Munich

1988)mdashmdash (1995) ldquoOsnove Hrvatske etnogeneze Avari i Slavenirdquo in Etnogeneza Hrvata ed

N Budak (Zagreb 1995) 211ndash23Popović I (1990) ldquoLes activiteacutes professionnelles Caričin Grad vers la fĳin du VIe et le deacutebut

du VIIe siegravecle drsquoapregraves les outils de ferrdquo in Caričin Grad II Le quartier sud-ouest de la ville haute edd B Bavant V Kondić and J-M Spieser (Belgrade and Rome 1990) 269ndash306

mdashmdash (1994ndash1995) ldquoLes particulariteacutes de lrsquooutillage protobyzantin dans les Balkans du Nordrdquo Starinar 45ndash46 (1994ndash95) 67ndash75

Popović M (1999) Tvrđava Ras (Belgrade 1999)Popović V (1982) ldquoDesintegration und Ruralisation der Stadt im Ost-Illyricum vom 5 bis

7 Jahrhundert n Chrrdquo in Palast und Huumltte Beitraumlge zum Bauen und Wohnen im Alter-tum von Archaumlologen Vor- und Fruumlhgeschichtlern edd D Papenfuss and V M Strocka (Mainz 1982) 545ndash66

Poulter A G (1995) Nicopolis ad Istrum a Roman Late Roman and Early Byzantine City (London 1995)

mdashmdash (2004) ldquoCataclysm on the Lower Danube the destruction of a complex Roman land-scaperdquo in Landscapes of Change Rural Evolutions in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages ed N Christie (Aldershot and Burlington 2004) 223ndash53

mdashmdash (2007) ldquoThe Bulgarian-British research programme in the countryside and on the site of an Early Byzantine fortress the implications for the Lower Danube in the 5th to 6th centuries ADrdquo in The Lower Danube in Antiquity (VI c BCndashVI c AD) International Archaeological Conference Bulgaria-Tutrakan 6ndash7102005 ed L Vagalinski (Sofĳia 2007) 361ndash84

Powell A (2004) ldquoThe faunal remainsrdquo in Byzantine Butrint Excavations and Surveys 1994ndash99 edd R Hodges W Bowden and K Lako (Oxford 2004) 305ndash20

Pralong A (1988) ldquoRemarques sur les fortifĳications byzantines de Thrace orientalerdquo in Geacuteographie historique du monde meacuteditranneacuteen ed H Ahrweiller (Paris 1988) 179ndash200

Rajković S (1997) ldquoVizantijska Dalmacija u spisu De administrando imperiomdashnove dilemerdquo Zbornik radova Vizantološkog Instituta 36 (1997) 221ndash32

Rapanić Ž (2001) ldquoDai coloni greci ai missionari franchirdquo in Bizantini Croati Carolingi Alba e tramonto di regni e imperi edd C Bertelli G P Brogiolo M Jurković I Matejčić A Milošević and C Stella (Milan 2001) 31ndash59

Rashev R (2000) Prabălgarite prez VndashVII vek (Sofĳia 2000)Rautman M (1990) ldquoArchaeology and Byzantine studiesrdquo Byzantinische Forschungen 15

(1990) 137ndash65Rendić-Miočević D (1952) ldquoNekoliko zanimljivih nalaza iz starokrščanskog Solinardquo Vjesnik

za arheologiju i historiju Dalmatinsku 54 (1952) 199ndash204Ricz P and Faacutebiaacuten G J (1993) ldquoInterdisciplinarni pristup rekonstrukciji avarskog luka

Kratak prikaz stanja problematikerdquo Rad Vojvodanskih Muzeja 35 (1993) 79ndash85Romiopoulou E (1973ndash74) ldquoAgios Demetrios Kitrourdquo ArchDelt 292 (1973ndash74) 697Rosser J (2001) ldquoEvidence for a Justinianic garrison behind Thermopylae at the Dhema

Passrdquo in Mosaic Festschrift for A H S Megaw edd J Herrin M Mullett and C Otten-Froux (London 2001) 33ndash41

Schulze-Doumlrrlamm M (2006) ldquoAwarische Einfluumlsse auf Bewafffnung und Kampftechnik des ostfraumlnkischen Heeres in der Zeit um 600rdquo in Arms and Armour as Indicators of Cultural Transfer the Steppes and the Ancient World from Hellenistic Times to the Early

848 florin curta


Middle Ages edd M Mode and J Tubach (Nomaden und Sesshafte 4) (Wiesbaden 2006) 485ndash507

Semenov A I (1988) ldquoK vyiavleniiu centralrsquonoaziatskikh elementov v kulrsquoture rannesred-nevekovykh kochevnikov Vostochnoi Evroperdquo Arkheologicheskii sbornik Gosudarstven-nogo Ermitazha 29 (1988) 97ndash111

Shennan S (1990) Quantifying Archaeology (Edinburgh 1990)Shtereva I and Radeva M (2001) ldquoKolektivna nakhodka ot rannovizantiiski orădiia na

truda ot Slivenrdquo Arkheologiia 421ndash2 (2001) 79ndash84Simon L (1991) ldquoKorai avar kardokrdquo Studia Comitatensia 22 (1991) 263ndash346Smilenko A T (1965) Hlodosrsquoki skarbi (Kiev 1965)mdashmdash (1968) ldquoNakhodka 1928 g u g Novye Senzhary (Po materialam obsledovaniia

A K Takhtaia)rdquo in Slaviane i Rusrsquo Sbornik statei K shestdesiatiletiiu akad B A Rybak-ova edd E I Krupnov V I Buganov S A Pletneva I P Rusanova and G F Solovrsquoeva (Moscow 1968) 158ndash66

Sodini J-P (1993) ldquoLa contribution de lrsquoarcheacuteologie agrave la connaissance du monde byzantin (IVendashVIIe siegravecles)rdquo DOP 47 (1993) 139ndash84

Sokolova I V (1995) ldquoMonety pereshchepinskogo klada Katalogrdquo Vizantiiskii Vremennik 56 (1995) 305ndash19

Somogyi P (1987) ldquoTypologie Chronologie und Herkunft der Maskenbeschlaumlge zu den archaumlologischen Hinterlassenschaften osteuropaumlischer Reiterhirten aus der pontischen Steppe im 6 Jahrhundertrdquo ArchAustr 71 (1987) 121ndash54

mdashmdash (1997) Byzantinische Fundmuumlnzen der Awarenzeit (Innsbruck 1997)Sretenović M (1984) ldquoMokranjske stene Visheslojno naselje Izveshtaj o arkheoloshkim

istrazhivanjima u 1980 godinirdquo Đerdapske sveske 2 (1984) 221ndash30Stadler P (2005) Quantitative Studien zur Archaumlologie der Awaren I (Vienna 2005)mdashmdash (2008) ldquoAvar chronology revisited and the question of ethnicity in the Avar qagan-

aterdquo in The Other Europe in the Middle Ages Avars Bulgars Khazars and Cumans ed F Curta (East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages 450ndash1450 2) (Leiden and Boston 2008) 47ndash82

Staňa Č (1961) ldquoDepot želez a žernovů na slovanskeacutem hradišti Stareacute Zaacutemky u Liacutešněrdquo Sborniacutek československeacute společnostiacute archeologickeacute pri ČSAV 1 (1961) 110ndash20

Stanchev D (1985) ldquoNakhodka na zhelezni predmeti ot s Stambolovo Rusenski okrăgrdquo Godishnik na muzeite ot Severna Bălgariia 11 (1985) 31ndash34

Stancheva M (1970) ldquoEpanouissement et disparition de deux villae rusticae pregraves de Serdicardquo in Actes du Premier Congregraves international des eacutetudes balkaniques et sud-est-europeacuteennes Sofĳia 26 aoucirct-1septembre 1966 edd V Georgiev N Todorov and V Tăpkova-Zaimova vol 2 (Sofĳia 1970) 535ndash38

Stanilov S and Aleksandrov G (1983) ldquoSrednovekovno ezichesko svetilishte v razvalinite na Montanardquo Arkheologiia 251ndash2 (1983) 40ndash52

Stoichev S (2005) ldquoTriperite vărkhove na streli ot Shumenskiia regionrdquo in Prof din Stan-cho Vaklinov i srednovekovnata bălgarska kultura edd K Popkonstantinov B Borisov and R Kostova (Veliko Tărnovo 2005) 171ndash77

Szaacutedeczky-Kardoss S (1981) ldquoDer awarisch-tuumlrkische Einfluss auf die byzantinische Krieg-skunst um 600 (Anmerkungen zum Strategikon des Maurikios)rdquo Studia turco-hungarica 5 (1981) 63ndash71

mdashmdash (1986) Avarica Uumlber die Awarengeschichte und ihre Quellen (Szeged 1986)Szentpeacuteteri J (1993) ldquoArchaumlologische Studien zur Schicht der Wafffentraumlger des Awaren-

tums im Karpatenbecken Irdquo ActaArchHung 45 (1993) 165ndash246Totev K (2002) ldquoTri vizantiiski procesiini krăsta ot Preslavrdquo Arkheologiia 433 (2002)

57ndash65mdashmdash (2005) ldquoVizantiiski procesien krăst ot părvite razkopki v Pliskardquo in Prof din Stan-

cho Vaklinov i srednovekovna bălgarska kultura edd K Popkonstantinov B Borisov and R Kostova (Veliko Tărnovo 2005) 216ndash19



Uenze S (1992) Die spaumltantiken Befestigungen von Sadovec Ergebnisse der deutsch- bulgarisch-oumlsterreichischen Ausgrabungen 1934ndash1937 (Munich 1992)

Vagalinski L (1998) ldquoEin neuer spaumltantiker Segmenthelm aus Voivoda Schumen Gebiet (Nordostenbulgarien)rdquo Archaeologia Bulgarica 21 (1998) 96ndash106

Vagarelski Kh (1929) ldquoIz veshtestvennata kultura na bălgarite (rala)rdquo Izvestiia na Narodniia Etnografskiia Muzei 8ndash9 (1929) 98ndash110

Văzharova Zh (1976) Slaviani i prabălgari po danni na nekropolite ot VIndashXI v na teritoriiata na Bălgariia (Sofĳia 1976)

mdashmdash (1986) Srednovekovnoto selishte s Garvăn Silistrenski okrăg (VIndashXI v) (Sofĳia 1986)Velkov V (1935) ldquoEine Gotenfestung bei Sadowetz (Nordbulgarien)rdquo Germania 19 (1935)

149ndash58Vitlianov S (1978) ldquoKolektivna nakhodkamdashzhelezni orădiia na truda ot Preslavrdquo Vekove

74 (1978) 76ndash78Voumllling Th (1995) ldquoEin fruumlhbyzantinischer Hortfund aus Olympiardquo AM 110 (1995) 425ndash59Werner J (1984) Der Grabfund von Malaja Pereščepina und Kuvrat Kagan der Bulgaren

(Munich 1984)mdashmdash (1984b) ldquoEin byzantinischer lsquoSteigbuumlgelrsquo aus Caričin Gradrdquo in Caričin Grad I Les

basiliques B et J de Caričin Grad quatre objets remarquables de Caričin Grad le treacutesor de Hajdučka Vodenica edd N Duval and V Popović (Belgrade and Rome 1984) 147ndash55

mdashmdash (1985) ldquoKagan Kuvrat fondatore della Magna Bulgaria La sua tomba a Malaja Pereščepina presso Poltavardquo Archeologia Medievale 12 (1985) 709ndash12

mdashmdash (1992) ldquoGolemanovo Kale und Sadovsko Kale Kritische Zusammenfassung der Grabungsergebnisserdquo in Die spaumltantiken Befestigungen von Sadovec (Bulgarien) Ergeb-nisse der deutsch-bulgarisch-oumlsterreichischen Ausgrabungen 1934ndash1937 ed S Uenze (Munich 1992) 391ndash417

mdashmdash (1992b) ldquoNeues zu Kuvrat und Malaja Pereščepinardquo Germania 102 (1992) 430ndash36Whitby M and M (1986) trans The History of Theophylact Simocatta an English Transla-

tion with Introduction and Notes (Oxford 1986)White L (1962) Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962)Zaacutebojniacutek J (1991) ldquoSeriation von Guumlrtelbeschlaggarnituren aus dem Gebiet der Slowakei und

Oumlsterreichsrdquo in K problematike osiacutedlenia stredodunajskej oblasti vo včasnom stredoveku ed Z Čilinskaacute (Nitra 1991) 219ndash321

Zanini E (1994) Introduzione allrsquoarcheologia bizantina (Rome 1994)Zlatarski D (1960) ldquoKolektivna nakhodka ot slavianski sechiva ot s Dălgopolrdquo Izvestiia na

Varnenskoto arkheologichesko druzhestvo 11 (1960) 103ndash109

List of Figures

Fig 1emspEarly Avar apple-shaped cast stirrups with elongated suspension loop 1mdashBaja sacrifĳicial pit 2mdashunknown location in northeastern Bulgaria 3mdashPernik Early Byzan-tine hill-fort 4mdashNevolino grave 122 5mdashStrezhevo hoard of iron implements (After Hampel (1905) Iotov (2004) Goldina and Vodolago (1990) and Janakievski (1980))

Fig 2emspDistribution of late 6th to 7th c stirrups in south-eastern Europe The cluster in the Carpathian Basin is of Early Avar apple-shaped cast stirrups with elongated suspen-sion loop and flat tread slightly bent inwards Smallest circle thereafter up to 2 3 and 7 specimens respectively (Data after Stadler (2005) with additions)

Fig 3emspDistribution of 6th and 7th c stirrups in Eastern EuropeFig 4emspHoard of iron implements found in Strezhevo (Macedonia) selected artefacts

L-shaped key sickle bridle bit processional cross and stirrups (After Janakievski (1980))Fig 5enspDistribution of hoards of iron implements and weapons found on Early Byzantine

hill-fort sites in the Balkans

850 florin curta


Fig 6emspCorrespondence analysis plot of 32 hoards of iron implements and weapons ASENmdashAsenovgrad BALAmdashBalajnac BOZHUmdashBozhurovo CAREmdashCarevec CARGmdashCaričin Grad CHELOmdashChelopech DALGmdashDălgopol DOLImdashDolishte GAMZImdashGamzigrad JELImdashJelica MONT1mdashMontana 1 MONT2mdashMontana 2 ODARmdashOdărci OLYMPmdashOlympia PERNmdashPernik PRES1mdashPreslav 1 PRES2mdashPreslav 2 RAZGmdashRazgrad SEBENmdashSebenje SHUMmdashShumen SLIVmdashSliven STAMmdashStambolovo STARA1mdashStara Zagora 1 STARA2mdashStara Zagora 2 STREZHmdashStrezhevo TINJmdashTinje TROI1mdashTroianov most 1 TROI2mdashTroianov most 2 VOIVmdashVoivoda VRSA1mdashVršac 1 VRSA2mdashVršac 2 ZHEGmdashZheglica

Fig 7emspCorrespondence analysis plot of the artefact categories found in 32 hoards of iron implements and weapons ANVmdashanvil AXEFANmdashbattle axe fan-shaped AXEIIAamdashbattle axe Bartoškovaacutersquos class IIAa AXEIIIAbmdashbattle axe Bartoškovaacutersquos class IIIAb AXEIIIBmdashbattle axe Bartoškovaacutersquos class IIIB BELLmdashcattle bell BELTBmdashbelt buckle BILLG1amdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G1a BILLG1bmdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G1b BILLG2bmdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G2b BILLG4amdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G4a BILLG5mdashbill-knife Henningrsquos class G5 BITmdashbridle bit BRONZEmdashbronze vessels BUCKmdashbucket handles CANDLEmdashcandlestick CENSmdashcenser CHAINmdashplow chain CHISmdashchisel COMBmdashcurrycomb COULmdashcoulter Henningrsquos class E 1 HAMMmdashhammer HOEK3mdashdrag hoe Henningrsquos class K3 KETTLEmdashkettle KEY1mdashkey L-shaped KEY2mdashkey anchor-shaped LAMPmdashlamp LANCEmdashlance head Iotovrsquos class 1B MATTK4mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K4 MATTK5mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K8 MATTK8mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K 8 MATTK10mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K10 MATTK15mdashmattock Henningrsquos class K15 OGRIBmdashtool (ldquoogribkardquo) PICKL1mdashpickaxe Henningrsquos class L1 PICKL2mdashpickaxe Henningrsquos class L 2 PLAN1mdashplane curved PLAN2mdashplane straight PLOWA1mdashploughshare Henningrsquos class A1 PLOWB3mdashplough-share Henningrsquos class B3 PLOWC1mdashploughshare Henningrsquos class C1 SCISmdashscissors SCRAPP2mdashscraping tool Henningrsquos class P2 SCRAPP3mdashscraping tool Henningrsquos class P3 SCYTHI2mdashscythe Henningrsquos class I2 SCYTHI5mdashscythe Henningrsquos class I5 SOCKmdashsocketed share SPADEmdashspade Henningrsquos class F1 SPIKmdashspike STIRR8Amdashstirrup Iotovrsquos class 8A TONGSmdashtongs WHETSmdashwhetstone WIMBmdashwimble

Fig 8emspHoard of iron implements found in Troianov most (Serbia) selected artefacts sickle scythes belt buckle stirrup and censer (After Garašanin and Vašić (1987))


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 DEU 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 ESP ltFEFF005500740069006c0069006300650020006500730074006100200063006f006e0066006900670075007200610063006900f3006e0020007000610072006100200063007200650061007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000640065002000410064006f0062006500200061006400650063007500610064006f007300200070006100720061002000760069007300750061006c0069007a00610063006900f3006e00200065006e002000700061006e00740061006c006c0061002c00200063006f007200720065006f00200065006c006500630074007200f3006e00690063006f0020006500200049006e007400650072006e00650074002e002000530065002000700075006500640065006e00200061006200720069007200200064006f00630075006d0065006e0074006f00730020005000440046002000630072006500610064006f007300200063006f006e0020004100630072006f006200610074002c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200079002000760065007200730069006f006e0065007300200070006f00730074006500720069006f007200650073002egt ETI 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 FRA 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GRE 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 HEB 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 HRV ltFEFF005a00610020007300740076006100720061006e006a0065002000500044004600200064006f006b0075006d0065006e0061007400610020006e0061006a0070006f0067006f0064006e0069006a006900680020007a00610020007000720069006b0061007a0020006e00610020007a00610073006c006f006e0075002c00200065002d0070006f0161007400690020006900200049006e007400650072006e0065007400750020006b006f00720069007300740069007400650020006f0076006500200070006f0073007400610076006b0065002e00200020005300740076006f00720065006e0069002000500044004600200064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400690020006d006f006700750020007300650020006f00740076006f00720069007400690020004100630072006f00620061007400200069002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000690020006b00610073006e0069006a0069006d0020007600650072007a0069006a0061006d0061002egt HUN 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 ITA 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 JPN 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 KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020d654ba740020d45cc2dc002c0020c804c7900020ba54c77c002c0020c778d130b137c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt LTH 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 LVI 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 NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor weergave op een beeldscherm e-mail en internet De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR ltFEFF004200720075006b00200064006900730073006500200069006e006e007300740069006c006c0069006e00670065006e0065002000740069006c002000e50020006f0070007000720065007400740065002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740065007200200073006f006d00200065007200200062006500730074002000650067006e0065007400200066006f007200200073006b006a00650072006d007600690073006e0069006e0067002c00200065002d0070006f007300740020006f006700200049006e007400650072006e006500740074002e0020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740065006e00650020006b0061006e002000e50070006e00650073002000690020004100630072006f00620061007400200065006c006c00650072002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200065006c006c00650072002000730065006e006500720065002egt POL 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 PTB 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 RUM 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 RUS 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 SKY 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 SLV 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 TUR 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 UKR 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 ENU (Brill Webready 2v1) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false BleedOffset [ 0 0 0 0 ] ConvertColors NoConversion DestinationProfileName (None) DestinationProfileSelector WorkingCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks true IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles true MarksOffset 6 MarksWeight 0250000 MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector WorkingCMYK PageMarksFile RomanDefault PreserveEditing false UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling UseDocumentProfile UseDocumentBleed false gtgt ltlt AllowImageBreaks true AllowTableBreaks true ExpandPage false HonorBaseURL true HonorRolloverEffect false IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false IncludeHeaderFooter false MarginOffset [ 0 0 0 0 ] MetadataAuthor () MetadataKeywords () MetadataSubject () MetadataTitle () MetricPageSize [ 0 0 ] MetricUnit inch MobileCompatible 0 Namespace [ (Adobe) (GoLive) (80) ] OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false PageOrientation Portrait RemoveBackground false ShrinkContent true TreatColorsAs MainMonitorColors UseEmbeddedProfiles false UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true gtgt ]gtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [600 600] PageSize [453543 680315]gtgt setpagedevice


CONTENTS

VOLUME 81

Acknowledgementsensp ixList of Contributorsensp xiForewordensp xvii Alexander Sarantis and Neil Christie

Waging War in Late Antiquityensp 1 Alexander Sarantis

Bibliographic Essays

War in Late Antiquity Secondary Works Literary Sources and Material Evidenceensp 101 Conor Whately

Military Equipment and Weaponry A Bibliographic Essayensp 153 Alexander Sarantis

Tactics A Bibliographic Essayensp 177 Alexander Sarantis

Organisation and Life in the Late Roman Military A Bibliographic Essayensp 209

Conor Whately

Strategy Diplomacy and Frontiers A Bibliographic Essayensp 239 Conor Whately

Fortifĳications in the West A Bibliographic Essayensp 255 Alexander Sarantis with Neil Christie

Fortifĳications in Africa A Bibliography Essayensp 297 Alexander Sarantis

vi contents











Michel Kazanski


contents vii




Ian Colvin



The West




The Balkans



viii contents



The East



Civil War




Indexensp 1009




Florin Curta

Abstract





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Stirrups





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Hoards










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Forts










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Conclusion




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Acknowledgements



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Bibliography


































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List of Figures






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SKY ltFEFF0054006900650074006f0020006e006100730074006100760065006e0069006100200070006f0075017e0069007400650020006e00610020007600790074007600e100720061006e0069006500200064006f006b0075006d0065006e0074006f0076002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002c0020006b0074006f007200e90020007300610020006e0061006a006c0065007001610069006500200068006f0064006900610020006e00610020007a006f006200720061007a006f00760061006e006900650020006e00610020006f006200720061007a006f0076006b0065002c00200070006f007300690065006c0061006e0069006500200065002d006d00610069006c006f006d002000610020006e006100200049006e007400650072006e00650074002e00200056007900740076006f00720065006e00e900200064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400790020005000440046002000620075006400650020006d006f017e006e00e90020006f00740076006f00720069016500200076002000700072006f006700720061006d006f006300680020004100630072006f00620061007400200061002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000610020006e006f0076016100ed00630068002egt SLV 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 SUO 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 SVE ltFEFF0041006e007600e4006e00640020006400650020006800e4007200200069006e0073007400e4006c006c006e0069006e006700610072006e00610020006f006d002000640075002000760069006c006c00200073006b006100700061002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400200073006f006d002000e400720020006c00e4006d0070006c0069006700610020006600f6007200200061007400740020007600690073006100730020007000e500200073006b00e40072006d002c0020006900200065002d0070006f007300740020006f006300680020007000e500200049006e007400650072006e00650074002e002000200053006b006100700061006400650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740020006b0061006e002000f600700070006e00610073002000690020004100630072006f0062006100740020006f00630068002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020006f00630068002000730065006e006100720065002egt TUR 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 UKR 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 ENU (Brill Webready 2v1) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false BleedOffset [ 0 0 0 0 ] ConvertColors NoConversion DestinationProfileName (None) DestinationProfileSelector WorkingCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks true IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles true MarksOffset 6 MarksWeight 0250000 MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector WorkingCMYK PageMarksFile RomanDefault PreserveEditing false UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling UseDocumentProfile UseDocumentBleed false gtgt ltlt AllowImageBreaks true AllowTableBreaks true ExpandPage false HonorBaseURL true HonorRolloverEffect false IgnoreHTMLPageBreaks false IncludeHeaderFooter false MarginOffset [ 0 0 0 0 ] MetadataAuthor () MetadataKeywords () MetadataSubject () MetadataTitle () MetricPageSize [ 0 0 ] MetricUnit inch MobileCompatible 0 Namespace [ (Adobe) (GoLive) (80) ] OpenZoomToHTMLFontSize false PageOrientation Portrait RemoveBackground false ShrinkContent true TreatColorsAs MainMonitorColors UseEmbeddedProfiles false UseHTMLTitleAsMetadata true gtgt ]gtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [600 600] PageSize [453543 680315]gtgt setpagedevice

vi contents











Michel Kazanski


contents vii




Ian Colvin



The West




The Balkans



viii contents



The East



Civil War




Indexensp 1009




Florin Curta

Abstract





810 florin curta


















Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

812 florin curta











Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight





Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta







contents vii




Ian Colvin



The West




The Balkans



viii contents



The East



Civil War




Indexensp 1009




Florin Curta

Abstract





810 florin curta


















Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

812 florin curta











Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight





Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta







viii contents



The East



Civil War




Indexensp 1009




Florin Curta

Abstract





810 florin curta


















Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

812 florin curta











Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight





Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta









Florin Curta

Abstract





810 florin curta


















Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

812 florin curta











Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight





Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta







810 florin curta


















Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

812 florin curta











Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight





Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta















Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

812 florin curta











Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight





Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta







812 florin curta











Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight





Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta











Stirrups





Ćirkovići
Highlight
Ćirkovići
Highlight

814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta







814 florin curta













816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta
















816 florin curta













818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta
















818 florin curta












820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta










820 florin curta

















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta
















822 florin curta



Hoards










824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta











824 florin curta

















826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta













826 florin curta

















828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta














828 florin curta













830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta
















830 florin curta

















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta


















832 florin curta


Forts










834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta












834 florin curta















836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta












836 florin curta













Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta











Conclusion




95enspDunn (2004) 578

838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta







838 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta












Acknowledgements



840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta







840 florin curta




Bibliography


































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta
































842 florin curta
















































844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta






























844 florin curta



















































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta

































846 florin curta



















































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta































848 florin curta









































List of Figures






850 florin curta

























List of Figures






850 florin curta







850 florin curta





