Human Information ProcessingH

IP1. What is HIP

2. HIP in HCI3. Predictive and Descriptive models

4. An alternative to the Cognitive Model5. Conclusion

6. References

HCI notes

HCI notes: Human Information Processing

HUMAN + INFORMATION PROCESSING

≅The computer is adopted as a

metaphor of human cognitive functioning.

people receive, store, integrate, retrieve and use information

1. What is HIP

how?

primarily developed a theory of memory.

focused on the way people pay attention to the environment events,

encodes information and related with already stored knowledge for

learning, and how information is retrieval when needed.

HIPtheory

(keyboard or scanner, or voice recognition system)

Analogous to CPUA n a l o g o u s t o R O M memory where software is stored

Analogous to Input device.

1.

sensorymemory

workingmemory

long termmemory

stimulus(sensory input)

■ A r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r transforming environmental input into neural impulses which the Short Term Memory system can process.

■ the memory buffer that holds c u r r e n t l y a n d r e c e n t l y processed information, and the can manipulate that information as well.

■ The mental storage system responsible for storing information on a relatively permanent basis

Perceptual Subsystem Cognitive Subsystem

motorprocessor

Motor Subsystem

PERCEPTION

ATTENTION

■ Pattern recognition. Process of granting meaning to the stimulus by comparing the entry with the known information.

sensorymemory

workingmemory

PROCESSES

■ Bottom-up (data-driven). Physical characteristics of stimulus drive perception. The interpretation emerges from the data.

■ Top-down (schema-driven). Knowledge, expectations, or thoughts influence perception. Constructivism: we structure the world. A higher-level concept influences your interpretation of lower level sensory data.

The "Rat-Man" of Bugelski and Alampay (1961).

“We go "beyond the information given" constantly in our mental processes. We learn to add assumptions and supplemental information derived from past experience to the evidence of our senses, and that is how we make sense of our world.” (Jerome Bruner, Beyond the Information Given, 1972)

1.

ATTENTION

Broadbentʼs (1958) Filter Model of Selective Attention

The stroop effect

■ Bottleneck models. Broadbent's -and other attention models likeTreisman's and Deutsch and Deutsch - are all bottleneck models because they predict we cannot consciously attend to all of our sensory input at the same time.

This limited capacity for paying attention is therefore a bottleneck and the models each try to explain how the material that passes through the bottleneck is selected.

Factors related with the filter:

The number of input of information | The similarity of the input | The complexity of the input.

■ C o n t r o l l e d a n d A u t o m a t i c processing. Controlled processes must be executed in series because they need attention. Autonomous processes do not need much attention so they can run in parallel with other processes.

As a controlled task becomes habitual,eventually becomes automatic.

Example: The stroop effect, It is very hard to disconnect an automatic process.

1.

2. HIP in HCI

“is a cognitive modeling method used to calculate how long it takes to perform a certain task”

HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSOR MODEL

■ Cognitive models come from cognitive science. Unlike behavioral models (theories based on the analysis of stimuli and responses) cognitivism is based on internal mental processes.

COGNITIVE MODEL?

E RINPUT OUTPUT

?

■ The origin of the cognitive sciences coincides with the emergence and development of computers. The operation of these machines serves as a metaphor for the researcher to explore the workings of internal cognitive processes.

2.

■ HIP models are used in HCI to predict how an interactive system can be used.

■ Inside the HIP the dominant model - and most used- is the GOMS, developed for Card, Moran & Newell in the 80s. GOMS is a theory of the cognitive skills involved in human-computer tasks.

■ HIP approach is broader than GOMS. HIP can be used to model more complex human behaviors like: Problem solving, Learning or group interaction.

HCIHIP

GOMS

why?

■ Is a predictive model (related mainly to routine skills). Reduces user-computer interaction to its elementary actions (physical, cognitive or perceptual)

■ The method uses experimental time to calculate cognitive motor processing time.

■ Allows a system designer to predict the PERFORMANCE with respect to time it takes a person to complete a task without performing experiments.

According to the GOMS, cognitive structure consist of 4 components:

GOMS

a set of goals

a set of operators

a set of methods for achieving the goals

a set of selection rules for chosing among competing methods.

GOMS

2.

Scientific foundations underlying GOMS

[Carroll, 2003]

2.

Predictivemodels

Descriptivemodels

Hick-Hyman Law

Fitt’s law

Keystroke-level model

GOMS

Key-action Model

Buxton’s 3-states model

Guiard’s model of bimanual control

[quantitative] [qualitative]

*PM. Refers to a mathematical model that can accurately predict future outcomes.

*DM. Refers to a mathematical model that describes historical events, and the presumed or real relationship between elements that created

3.

PREDICTIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE MODELS

3.

■ Provide a framework or context for thinking about or describing a problem or situation.

Often the framework is little more than a verbal or graphic articulation of categories or identifiable features in an interface. Nevertheless, the simple possession of such a framework arms the designer with a tool for studying and thinking about the user-interaction EXPERIENCE.

Descriptivemodels

Predictivemodels

Example: Key-action Model

■ Also engineering models or performance models.

■ In HCI, allow metrics of human performance to be determined analytically without experiments.

■ Predictions are a priori: allow a design scenario to be explored hypothetically.

Example: Keystroke-level model

TEXECTUTE= tK + tP + tH + tD + tM + tR

(motor-control operators)K= key stroking | P= pointing | H= homing | D= drawing.

M= metal operatorR= System-response operator

Symbol keys: deliver graphic symbols ( letters, numbers, or punctuation)

Executive keys: invoke actions in the application or at the system level or meta level. (examples include ENTER, F1 or ESC)

Modifier keys: Set up a condition necessary to modify the effect of a subsequently pressed key. (example SHIFT or ALT)

3.3.

Why alternatives are necessary?

There is some evidence that the cognitive approach may be limited for HCI. The limitation of modelling methods to support the design

process, may be due to their lack of taking 'context' into account.

4. Alternatives to Cognitive Models. Activity Theory

ALTERNATIVES TO COGNITIVE MODELS

■ It does not provide an appropriate conceptual basis for studies of computer use in its social, organizational and cultural contexts.

■ The method has a number of 'defects' such as reducing problem solving and judgement to mere rule fo l lowing, ignoring in formal communicat ion, underestimating of errors, giving no help to analysing work organisation, etc

■ Humans are not processing the information input from the environment - they are actively picking up the information that is relevant in the context of their current needs and goals.' It is control of this information pickup where the focus of HCI should be Gibson, 1966.

■ Difference in the information processes of computers and human mental decision processes.(Rasmussen)

In some contexts, HIP model is not completely satisfactory. Activity Theory (AT) has been a recognized conceptual framework in HCI and related

disciplines.

■ Develop by Vygotsky (1920-30) Is an alternate psychological approach (Russian). A more broad based and durable framework for understanding ‘humans interacting with computers’.

■ The subject and the object are viewed as poles of a system of activity, which emphasises the active nature of humans.

■ Takes a broader view of the 'technisation' of human operations and places HCI within this wider framework.

■ Emphasises the contextuality of computer use.

■ (Respect to Cognitive Models) Activity Theory attacks its theoretical basis: the principle of cognitive identity between human thinking and computer simulation

Activity Theory

The contextual model of Activity.

4.

represent two different approaches to the study of cognitive processes

Cognitive Science Activity theory

His basic idea was that human activity is mediated by cultural signs: words and tools, which causes changes in a person's activity, and thus its mental reflection.

4.

Activitytheory

CognitiveScience theory

■ In HPI model the components of the structure is limited to two entities:

The main difference between the two theories (applied to HCI) is

the point of view of the problem, or “clipping” (constraints) that

makes the reality.

The Tool Mediation perspective suggest a different structure

from the Information Processing Loop.

Information Processing Loop Tool-mediation

■ The computer is just another tool that mediates the interaction of human beings with the environment.

■ There are 2 interfaces: The human-c o m p u t e r a n d t h e c o m p u t e r-environment.

Information Processing Loop:The output from the human being, enters the computer's input, and visa versa.

4.

USER COMPUTER

USER OBJECTTOOL

4.

Thanks to the internet and social software boom (and many others), it seems that we have taken a step higher in the scale of complexity described by Modridge.

5.

CONCLUSION

@computer internet social software

anthropometrics physiology psychology sociology anthropology ecology

simplest level most complex

The sizes of people, for the design of physical objects

need to understand the issues that will affect the environmental condition of our planet as well as the interconnected social and economic systems that we need to sustain.

The way people relate to one another, for the design of connected systems

The way the mind works, for the design of human-computer interactions

The way the body works, for the design of physical man-machine systems

The human condition, for global design.(cultural variations )

(social information systems)

affective interactions

■ Increasing complexity.

■ Need to incorporate more complex and wider models to help us predict

behavior in dynamic contexts (as in social networks).

■ Need to work with multidisciplinary teams (Psychologists. Sociologists... )

■ Need to incorporate frameworks beyond usability (Funology, emotional design, etc...)

funologyemotional design

human centered design

thanks!

persuability

6.

Aboulafia, Annette; Gould, Edward; Spyrou, Thomas. Activity Theory vs Cognitive Science in the Study of Human-Computer Interaction.

Carroll, John M. (2003) HCI models, theories, and frameworks: toward a multidisciplinary science.http://books.google.com/books?id=gR3Imgvr5dYC&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=map+of+HCI+models&source=bl&ots=C86ciZWVKk&sig=v7YhY8JEdclkNY4goyb5Nc0u0h4&hl=en&ei=LMb2S-zzNabWmgOS48zHAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=map%20of%20HCI%20models&f=false.

Gibson J. J. (1966) The Senses Considered as Perseptual Systems, Boston, Houghton Mifflin.

Kaptelini, Victor. Activity Theory: Implications for Human-Computer Interaction.

Moggridge, Bill (2007) Designing Interactions. Boston, MIT Press.

Mwanza,Daisy; Bertelsen, Olav W. (2003) Methods for applying Activity Theory to HCI Design.

Norman, Donald (1998) The Invisible Computer. Boston, MIT Press.

REFERENCES