14/8/2015 TwoCheersfortheMiddleAges!byEricChristiansen|TheNewYorkReviewofBookshttp://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2015/jul/09/twocheersmiddleages/?pagination=false&printpage=true 1/11Two Cheers for the Middle Ages!MuseCond,Chantilly,France/BridgemanImagesAcountryhouseholdinwinterrepresentingthemonthofFebruaryinthedukeofBerrysBookofHours,bytheLimbourgbrothers,circa14121416EricChristiansenJULY9,2015ISSUETheMiddleAgesbyJohannesFried,translatedfromtheGermanbyPeterLewisBelknapPress/HarvardUniversityPress,580pp.,$35.001381:TheYearofthePeasantsRevoltbyJulietBarkerBelknapPress/HarvardUniversityPress,506pp.,$29.95DarkMirror:TheMedievalOriginsofAntiJewishIconographybySaraLiptonMetropolitan,390pp.,$37.00Prejudiceagainstthemedievalrunsdeep.Itisanadjectiveappliedtoatrocity,asinSecretaryofStateJohnKerrysrecentcommentonthemenwhomurdered126peopleataschoolinPeshawarandservedadarkandalmostmedievalvision.Itisalsoappliedtoallseverepunishment,outofdatetechnology(thismedievaltypewriter),andallilliberalattitudes.Formany,theMiddleAgesareineradicablyreprehensible,aswellascomic:knightsimmobilizedintheirarmor,fatmonkspantingafterlicentiousnuns,ladieslockedintochastitybelts.Thestandbysofeighteenthcenturyderisionhavestoodthetestoftime.Rememberthoseangelsdancingonapinpoint?Theystilldanceforthosewhobelievethatthemedievalschoolswereengagedinawastedintellectualeffort.Unfair!themedievalistshaveshouted,fromthedayswhenEdwardGibbonFontSize:AAA14/8/2015 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2/11criedGoneAway!andsettheenlightenedhoundsonthescentofdecayandmoldymonksthatinhisnostrilsaccompaniedthefalloftheRomanEmpire.Unfairbecauseithasbeenfoundagainandagainthatourskills,laws,liberties,nations,andlanguagesaretheresultofhardworkinthemillenniumreputeddark,unlitbyreason,andrecessivefromthesunshineoftheclassicalcivilizations,whenperfectlyformedphilosopherssatdebatinginpubliccolonnades,monkfree.OurgratitudetothatGrecoRomancivilizationisseldomstinted,butthosewhocameafterwardhaveleftcastles,cathedrals,ItalianandFlemishandByzantineart,printing,plainsong,andparliaments,nottomentionuniversities.YettheblackpropagandaofVoltaire,Hume,Kant,andMarkTwainremainssuspendedintheairlikesootintheoldfactorytowns,whileintellectualscrowoverthebirthofmodernitylikefanciedfightingcocks.Theywillnotenjoythefattestofthesebooks,atranslationofJohannesFriedsTheMiddleAges,whichhasgonethroughthreeeditionsinthelastsixyearsandreadslikeacounterblasttothehotairoftheliberalhumanistinterpretersofEuropeanhistory.Theyshouldbeginattheend,withtheepilogueentitledTheDarkMiddleAges?whereFriedshowshiscardsandrehearsestheerrorsoftheEnlightenmentviewoftheperiod,aswellasthoseofRomanticmedievalism,withunsparingacuity.Thencomestheeulogy,whenheappliestotheMiddleAgesthetermsofapprovalthatmodernperiodsareawardedbytheirfans.WesternmedievalpeoplearecommendedbyFriedfordynamism,forknowhowinallfieldsoftechnologyandart,forhungryintellectualcuriosity,forcapitalism,globalism,education,andallaroundVorsprungdurchTechnik.Itwas,hewrites,themedievalpioneerswhostrangledtheserpentsofblindfaith,ignorance,andunexaminedhypothesesinthecradle.Readersresponsivetothisrhetoricwillbeintriguedifnotswayedbytheway14/8/2015 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3/11PFrieddeploysit.Eventhosewhodoubtthathotairisthebestwayofdefeatinghotairwillbeimpressedbythemainbodyofthework,whichcoversathousandyearsofmostlyWesternandCentralEuropeanhistorywithmagnificentconfidence.HedoesjusticebothtothecentrifugalfragmentationoftheEuropeanregionintomonarchies,cities,republics,heresies,tradeandcraftassociations,vernacularliteratures,andtothepersistenceofunifyingandhomogenizingforces:thepapacy,theWesternEmpire,theschools,thefriars,thecivillawyers,thebankers,theCrusades.Contrastingelementsthencoexistedincloseproximityandonfairlyequalterms,untilatendencytodehierarchizationbegantopredominateinmanyfieldsduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Popesandemperorsstillclaimeduniversalauthority,butwithdecreasingsuccess.MarsiliusofPaduawasarguingthatsovereigntylaywithbodiesofvirtuouscitizens.OtherclericsheldthatinspiritualmattersthewholechurchincounciltrumpedtheauthorityofitsnowduplicatedheadsatRomeandAvignon.FriedtracesthisinvigoratinglackofconsensusbacktoCharlemagne,kingoftheFranksandemperoroftheWest,whodiedin814.HislearnedcourtiersinstigatedanewAgeofReasonbycopyingclassicaltexts,bothChristianandpagan,andbydisagreeingoverpointsofdoctrine.ItsnotclearwhyReasonstartsthere,whenIrish,AngloSaxon,andHispanicscholarshadbeencopyingclassicaltextsanddiscussingdoctrinelongbeforeCharlemagnewasborn.Tobeassuredwithoutexplanationthatheinventedsomethingcalledthefeudalsystemwillannoymostmedievalistsandmisleadothers,evenatFrankfurtontheMain.However,thedevelopmentofrationalityisthethemeofFriedsbook,anditistracedthroughtheapplicationofAristotleslogicinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturyschoolstothespreadofitsinfluenceinwaysthatmakeitpossibleforFriedtopostulateathoughtcollectiveamongeducatedWesternEuropeansbytheendoftheperiod.erhapstherewassuchacollective.InFriedsworkitsriseandachievementaregivenaprioritythatleavesnotenoughroomforcontraryculturaldevelopments.Onethatisnotedinhisbookisthealmostuniversalexpectationoftheimminentendofallthings,oftheLastDaysandFinalJudgmentpredictedbyJesusandacceptedthroughouttheearlychurch.Abouteverythirtyyearsfromthetenthcenturyonward,thisfeartookpossessionofvarious,sometimeslargebodiesofmenandwomenandinspiredthemtoformmassmovements.Collectivepenance,pentecostalenthusiasm,irregularcrusades,unauthorizedpilgrimages,messianicmobbingalltheseengagedChristianswhofeareditmightsoonbetoolate.14/8/2015 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4/11NThiswasarecurrentelectricalchargebothinpoliticsandinreligion,andFrieddoesitjusticealthoughitsitsillwithhisinsistenceontheperiodasanAgeofReason.Heseemsreluctanttoconcedethathysteriakeptpaceandoutstrippedtheachievementofthethoughtcollective.By1500art,printing,theater,andsonghadenrichedtheWestwithavividbackdroponwhichthepresenceofAntichrist,theLastJudgment,theDevil,HellsMouth,andtormentsweremadeclearerthaneverbefore.Individualconsciousnessofsinwassointensethattheattemptedreformationofthechurchwouldturnintohellonearth.Ofcourse,thelongingforpeaceandquietdeservesequaltreatment.LimitationsonwarandrestrictionsonviolencetookonnewformsintheMiddleAges,andtherejectionofgrossmaterialisminspiredboththecontemplativeordersofmonksandthebarefootfriarswhowentamongsecularmenandwomen.Thiswasthetimeofpeacekeepingassociationsofallkinds,ofhermits,andofthebenevolentladiescalledbeguinesofplacessetapartforrefugeandasylum,ofhospicesandleperhousesofquitelongsilences,whichcannotplaymuchpartinthestoryofdynamism,innovation,andcupiditythatFriedtells.ThereisneveraquietmomentinhisMiddleAges,andhisvocabularyisalivewithfakeurgency.Institutionsandideasburgeon.Churches,societies,andculturesareeitherinfluxorinfermenteverythingiseitherupandcomingoroutofdate.Periods,peoples,andconceptsareinvestedwithpersonalitiesandpowersthatenablethemtograpplewithlogic,takepains,yearnformore,shaketothecore,ormerelymarch,onwardandupwardunlessbrieflyhaltedbyantiquatednotions,liketheemperorFrederickBarbarossasimperialism.Notforlong,whilereason,faith,theWest,andotherabstractionsaregenerouslyascribedtoonegroupafteranother.Tocarpatthelanguageseemsunfairwhenthisisatranslationbutthetranslator,PeterLewis,isanexperiencedandtrustworthylinguist.Apartfromthelanguage,thecriticmustfeelsomechillydraftsthroughtheholesinFriedssplendidhistoricaltapestry.IfyouwanttoknowaboutthelifeandcontributionsoftheJewsinthisprecociousAgeofReason,youmustsingityourself.HementionsonlyinpassingthatJewsweresystematicallyexcludedfromtheurbancommunitieshediscusses.WhileheseesChristianityasaunifyingandhomogenizingforce,hehaslittletosayaboutthedifferentformsofChristianitydevelopedandpracticedintheByzantineEmpireaftertheEastWestschismoftheeleventhcentury.earlyacenturyago,whentheCambridgeMedievalHistorywasbeginningtoappear,thepapistprovocateurHilaireBellocfoundafatalflawinthefirst14/8/2015 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5/11Jvolume:itdoesnotmentiontheMassonce.Aflaw,becauseinthisperiodMass(Missa)cametomeantheactofworshipthatdefinedallChristians:clergy,laity,thewholepopulationotherthanpagans,Jews,Muslims,andthosehereticswhodidwithoutpriests.TohavethisritecelebratedallthewayfromGreenlandtotheFarEastwasnoslightoccurrenceinthehistoryofmankind.HenceBellocssurprise.Fried,whocannotbefaultedforhisemphasisontheintellectualsummitsofChristianity,doesratherbetterthantheCambridgemedievalists.Bymycount,hementionstheMasstwice.WhiletheUSsecretaryofstatewasholdingupthedarkvisionoftheMiddleAgesfordetestationthispastDecember,AlexSalmond,theformerleaderoftheScottishnationalists,wasdemandinganewPeasantsRevoltinEngland,asaninsurrectionlikelytoprovebeneficialtotheScots.SinceagenuinePeasantsRevoltwouldinvolvethedecapitationofthearchbishopofCanterbury,theLordTreasurer,andmanyotherrespectableofficials,Salmondclearlyhasastrongstomachwhenitcomestoconfoundinghisenemiesbuttherearemanywhoadmiretherevoltof1381asthenearestEnglandevercametoarealliverevolution.PlebeianarmiesmarchedorrodetoLondon,confrontedtheyoungking,RichardII,andhiscourt,presentedtheirgrievances,massacredtheirenemies,andspreadtheircausefarintothemidlandsandeasterncounties.Burningcharters,rentrolls,andlawbookslittheJuneskiesabbotsandbishopstrembled,baronskeptoutoftheway,Flemishimmigrantsfoundthattheonlywaytostayalivewastopronouncebreadandcheeselikenatives.Itwasunruly,unkind,anddestructive,butintheviewofmanyhistorians,itwasanessentiallyrighteousuprisingoftheoppressed,whosuddenlydecidedthatenoughwasenough,andthattheegalitarianismoftheitinerantpriestJohnBallwasgoodenoughforthem.ulietBarkerscoredamemorablebullseyeabouttenyearsagowithherstudyoftheBattleofAgincourt.Nowsheturnsherunsparingeyeontheeventsof1381andthegeneraluprisingofthatsummerwiththeconsequentrevengeoftheauthoritiesoverthenexttwoyears,andrejectsmuchofthenarrativeofeventsoutlinedabove.AcloserlookatthechroniclesandlegalrecordssuggeststoBarkerthatthiswasnotsomucharevoltofpeasants,thatis,ofsmallormiddlingcultivatorstiedtomanorsandtheirhereditarystatusofunfreedom.Itwasinsteadtherevoltofallbutthehighestclassesoflandowners,withcraftsmen,townsmen,minorofficials,andevengentryandclergywhoconsideredthemselvesovertaxed,overgoverned,andmisgovernedbyprofiteeringoligarchsunableto14/8/2015 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6/11BritishLibrary,LondondefendthecoastsagainstFrenchraidersorleadsuccessfulcounterattacksintoFrance.Therisingwasaresponsetothefailureoftheupperclass,ratherthantotheclasssystem.Itsbriefsuccesswasowingtotheaccidentalabsenceofthekingspowerfulunclesandbettermilitarycommanders,sothatwhentheinsurgentsofKentandEssexreachedtheoutskirtsofLondontheywereconfrontedbyafourteenyearoldboykingRichardIIratherthanabristlingbattalionofmenatarms.Harrowing,inwhichaboyfollowsaharrowwithaslingshotandstonestoscareawaybirdsandkeepthemfromeatingtheseedsfromtheLuttrellPsalter,circa13251335IfNewYorkisLondon,thenKentisConnecticut:notgeographically,butquasisociologically.Attwoopenairmeetingsthisboyagreedtoallthattherebelswanted,includingtheabolitionofhereditaryunfreedom(unknowninKent),thenationalizationofthewealthofthechurch,freetradethroughoutthekingdom,andpardonforoffensescommittedmeanwhile.Whilethekingsclerkswere,onthekingsorders,writingoutdozensofchartersofemancipationandexculpation,toberushedouttotheshiresandvillages,someofthemoreLeninesqueinsurgentswereletintotheTowerofLondonandmurderedthearchbishopandthetreasurer,beforeconductingdoortodoordecapitationsinthecity.Somuchiswellattested,evenifthechroniclerstendtodramatizeandvilifytheplebeians.LikemanymodernEnglishmentheywantedonlytokillthelawyers,thepoliticians,theforeigners,andcertainlandlordsinthehopeofbuildingafairersociety.UnlikemodernEnglishmen,theyactuallydidthekilling,butonlyuptoapoint.WhatstoppedthemwastheastonishingcourageofyoungRichard,whowhenthemayorofLondonkilledtherebelchiefWatTylerinabrawl,rodeforwardandshoutedtotherebels,Gohome.Iwillbeyourleaderandtheywent,eitherawedbythedivinitythatdothhedgeaking,orunwillingtokillthekingwhohadauthorizedthesmallchartersofemancipationtheyhadtuckedinto14/8/2015 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7/11Ttheirhatsandpursesandbelts.Asfarastheywereconcerned,thegoosehadlaidthegoldenegg.Forthenexttwoorthreeweeks,manyEnglishsubjectsenjoyedaholidayfrommanyoftheconstraintsthathadheldgoodforcenturies.heirliberationwasnotaprettysight,butforlaterhistorians,politicians,andpoetsthisholidayinspiredallsubsequentEnglishfreedomfighters,andtolledtheknellofpassingfeudalism.Infacttherebellionpassedmuchmorequicklythanthefeudalismvilleinage,orownershipofpeople,hadbeenonthewayoutbeforethis,buttheemancipationwassooncanceledwhileworkableserfdompersisted.Astheuprisingspread,itdidsoentirelyinthenameofKingRichardandtheTrueCommons,withsealedparchmenttojustifyandpardonthemayhem.Barkerconcludesthatthekingdidinfactsympathizewiththerebelsherescindedhisconcessionsreluctantlyandwasconvincedfromthenonwardthatitwastheupperratherthanthelowerclasseswhoweretrulydangerous.Ifso,hewasright:earlsweretodeposehimin1399andmurderhim,notchurls.Butitseemsfancifultoreadhismindasitwasin1381,whenthereisreallynoevidenceeitherway.Therespectforroyaltyandsealedparchmentshownbybloodyhandedbutchersofmenmayseemparadoxical,butChaucersEnglandwaslikethat.Anarmedpopulationwassubjecttolaw,thesword,custom,andmarketforcesinofteninharmoniouscollaboration,withviolenceneverabsent.Norwasreligionbutbishopstendedtobecivilservants,andBishopDespenserofNorwichrodearmedfromheadtofootlookingforrebelheadstosplitopen.Bothbaronsandseniorclergyneededarmedretinuestoprotectthemfromrobbersandfromoneanothertownsmenfoughtlikecatstodefendtheirtradesandboroughstatus.Intimidationandthuggerywereendemic,butthereachofthekingsandotheradministrativesystemsandservantswaslongandintrusive,andtheagentsofroyal,church,andprivatelawmadeagoodliving.Suchasituationgavebirthtocontinualunrestanddiscontent,andBarkersees1381astheyearinwhichtheusuallydiffusestrainsofpublicangercametogether,startedbyanewsortofpolltaxtopayforawaragainstFrancealreadylostordiscontinued.Itwasabriefopportunityforanyonewithagrudge,grievance,orvendettaandlivingwithinahundredmilesofLondonorYorktokill,despoil,humiliate,androbtheirenemiesinthekingsname.ThesuppressionoftherevoltfromJuly1381toJuly1383wasachanceforsomeofthevictimsandtheoffendedauthoritiestokill,despoil,humiliate,androbinturn,orpardonthosewhocouldpay.Thereweretobenomoreattemptstolevy14/8/2015 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8/11OapolltaxuntilthetimeofCharlesII,buttherewasnoreformofjustice,noabolitionoftraderestrictionsandcharges,andpoliticswerehandedbacktothekingandhisbarons.Barkersbookisathoroughandworkmanlikestudy,aworldawayfromFriedscomprehensivecoverageofthewholemedievalcontinentinflux,butofferingacloselookatwhatthingswereactuallylikeinpartofoneislandofftheshoreofthatcontinentinoneyear,insofarasthedocumentswilllether.AndwherewasChaucer,whilehisEnglandwasinturmoil,andJackStrawandhismobweremurderingtheFlemishweavers?Historydoesnotrelate.AshispatronwasJohnofGaunt,themosthatedmaninEnglandforthetimebeing,myguesswouldbeunderthebloodybed,astheIrishsay.neclassofpersonswhocouldnotparticipateintheuprisingofoppressedgroupsin1381wasJews.Theircommunitieshadbeenexpellednearlyahundredyearsearlierin1290byKingEdwardI,andindividualswereonlyallowedbackunderspeciallicense.TwohundredyearsoftheJudaicpresenceweresimplyobliterated.However,antiSemiticiconographycontinuedtobeproducedinEngland:picturesofmeninfunnyhatswithlargehookednosesandstragglingandpointedbeards,orwomeningaudygreenraimentwithringsintheirears.ThehousesofJewsportrayedintheseimageswerethoughttoholdheapsofgold,brokenanddefiledcrucifixes,idols,cats,andthebodiesofChristianchildrenwhohadmetthefateofthosestillpopularyoungsaintsWilliamofNorwich,LittleHughofLincoln,andAdamofBristolforMerryEnglandhadbeenthenurseryoftheBloodLibel,accordingtowhichJewssacrificedChristianbabes.IfthatwashowEnglishgentilesmighthaveimaginedJews,SaraLiptonexplains,theywouldhavebeendisappointedineveryway.InDarkMirror,hermeticuloussurveyofmedievaldepictionsofJewsfrommanycitiesandcountriesacrossEurope,shefindsthatwherehostileorderisivetheywerebasednotontheactualJewishappearance(whichwasusuallythesameasthatoftheChristiansamongwhomtheylived)butontheeffortbyartistsandsculptorstosymbolizethemoralblindnessandmaterialismofallwhofailedtorecognizethedivinityofChrist,whetherJewsornot.Bywayofsupportofthisproposition,shefindsnocaricatureofJewsearlierthantheeleventhcentury,howeverfiercelytheywereblamedbysomeofthechurchfathers.ChristianvenerationofJewishscriptureandJewishprophetsandChristandtheapostlesmeantthattheJewsportrayedhadtolookvenerable.Sotheyweregivenhatslikemitres,longbeards,andscrollsandLiptondeducestheconicalbrimmedheadgearassignedtolessvenerableJews14/8/2015 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9/11Aafteraround1000toderivefromthosequasimitres.YetthehatsshowninearlymanuscriptslookmorelikethoseofMexicanpeonsthanthoseofsuchnobleHebrewsasMelchisadekthepriestking.ToidentifyJewsbytheirhatsseemsaweaklinkwhichisnottosaythatsuchalinkmaynothaveexisted,butthattheillustrationsinLiptonsbookdontsupportit.Besides,ifamodernunbelieverweretobedenotedbyhishat,whywouldthathatbereminiscentofthosewornbyancientwitnessestothetruthandforetellersofChrist?Wasthatirony?Afterthat,itwasashortsteptodepictingthetormentorsofJesusashideousgrimacingfigures,hattedorbareheadedandsoingivingvisualformtolovelesslooking,medievalChristendomlearnedtolookwithhateontheirJewishfriends,neighbors,andcreditors.Thisisnotwhenthehatredbegan:thelawsoftheseventhcenturyVisigothickingsofSpainandthetractsofAgobardagainsttheJewsofLyonsintheninthcenturyarefullofit,asLiptonconcedesbuttheincreasingemphasisonChristsbodilysufferingandtheneedtoavengeitonunbelieversofallsortsmadetheJewishpresenceseemsubversiveandoffensive,evenwhentoleratedandprotectedbyrulersandchurchmen.lthoughOldTestamentJewscontinuedtobeshowninstoneandglassasholyandhandsome,theconventionsofbookillustrationandwallpaintingtendedtoincludejabbering,gesticulating,andjeeringJewishonlookersasintheQuentinMatsysEcceHomonowinMadridorthenastyhagsattheCircumcisioninaFrenchmanuscriptofcirca1400.Suchdistortedimages,weareassured,werenotintendedtorousehatredoflivingJewsorwoundtheirfeelings,likethecartoonsofthetwentiethcenturyNazipress.TheincreasingsegregationofJewsintheWestaftertheFourthLateranCouncilof1215,whichinsistedthattheyweardistinctivebadges,wasnottheresultofvisualdemonizationthevisualdemonizationwasnotconfinedtopicturesofJews,butresultedfromatheologicaldrivetoincreasethedevotionofthelaitytotheLifeofChrist.Ifso,welearnyetagainthattheroadtohellispavedwithgoodintentions.Ifnot,theargumentofthebookisstillworthreading,asarthistory.Theintentionsoftheartistsarestillaproblem.WhenCharlesDickenssillustratorGeorgeCruikshankengravedFaginintheCondemnedCellforOliverTwist,heshowedanunmistakablyvileoldJewafraidtomeethismeritedfateonthegallows.Dickensmadehimunabletoprayorshowremorseeveninthatstate.YetneitherauthornorartistintendedtoattackorinsultJews.Theiraimwastodeprecatecrime,childabuse,andcruelty,buttheycouldnotresistmakingtheirsecondordervillainJewish,acaricatureoftheknownfenceIkeySolomon.14/8/2015 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10/11Faginisalsoendowedwithcharm,hospitablemanners,andconcernforhisyoungdisciples.Wethinkweknowhimwedonthatehimnearlyasmuchashiscreatordid.Nevertheless,hebecameatypebywhichallJewsweremeasured,andfoundwantingbyracialpurists.ThereisnoreasontosupposethatDickensandCruikshankwereanylesspureintheirintentionsthanwerethetwelfthandthirteenthcenturyscribesandyetitwouldbeanaiveapologistwhoexplainedtheHebraicFaginasmerelyamoralfiction,unconnectedwithLondonLowLifeofthe1830s.TheadvancepraiseforDarkMirroronthebackofthejacketannouncesthatitisaspectacularachievement.OnestatementbeginswiththeadverbsCompellingly,thoughtfully.IwouldntgoquitethatfarbutthepublisherhasdoneSaraLiptonproud,withfullreferences,frequenttextillustrations,andfourteencolorplates,atacompetitivethirtysevendollars.LettersNastyImagesofJewsAugust13,2015RELATEDTheInventionoftheJewishNoseSaraLiptonHereBeMonstersMarinaWarner14/8/2015 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