Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections

Chapter 22

The Exploration of the World’s Oceans• Age of Exploration (by Europeans)• Financed by governments and/or investors • knowledge of the world global network of

communication, transportation, and exchange

Motives for Exploration• Combination: resources, land, trade routes, spread

Christianity - justified and reinforced each other• Portuguese: resources and cultivable land (esp. for

sugar plantations)• Trade routes: wealthy needed spices and gold,

wanted direct access(bigger quantities,lower prices)• Missionary efforts: wanted to expand Christendom

The Technology of Exploration• Combination of Mediterranean, N. European,

Chinese, and Arabic elements• Ships and sails: rudder, triangular and square sails -

> tacking• Navigational instruments: magnetic compass,

astrolabe -> direction and latitude• Knowledge of winds and currents: trades and

westerlies (in Atlantic and Pacific), monsoons (in Indian) – often required indirect routes (e.g., volto do mar)

Voyages of Exploration: from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic

• Started in 13th century, 14th century explored E. Atlantic, by late 15th century into Indian Ocean

• Prince Henry of Portugal, B. Dias, V. da Gama– Paved the way for est. of trading posts (Africa, India)

• C. Columbus: sought western route to India, but ended up in the Bahamas– Unsuccessful, but inspired others and linked the eastern and western hemispheres

Voyages of Exploration: from the Atlantic to the Pacific

• F. Magellan (Spain, circumnavigation)• Spain: est’d trade routes between Mexico and the

Philippines• England: sought NW passage, Sir F. Drake explored

Pacific, and J. Cook• France: joined in mid 1700s• Russians: land-based exploration by 1700s

Trade and Conflict in Early Modern Asia

• Europeans wanted commercial opportunities• Built fortified trading posts to try to control trade

(esp. in spices)• Led to competition among European countries,

with Britain coming out on top

Trading Post Empires: Portuguese• Goal was not to conquer, but to control trade

routes, forcing merchant ships to pay duties• Portuguese: used military force (A.

d’Alboquerque) – seized Hormuz, Goa, Melaka; safe-conduct passes; couldn’t dominate, Port. Influence weakened by end of 16th century

Trading Post Empires: English & Dutch• English and Dutch: built trading posts, but didn’t try to

control shipping– England: India– Holland: S. Africa and SE Asia

• Advantages over Port.: better ships and joint-stock companies (limited risk, increased profits)

• English East India Company and United East India Company (VOC): funded by private merchants, with government support (but no oversight)– Charters allowed them the right to buy, sell, build trading posts,

make wars– Very successful global trade network

European Conquests in SE Asia • Not very successful at conquering and controlling

in East, except in Philippines and Indonesia• Philippines: 1565, Spanish overtook most of islands– Policy: trade (Manila became silk entrepot) and

Christianity (tried to convert leaders, generally successful)

• Indonesia: Dutch, focused on spice trade– Gained control via military power and manipulation of

local politics, but did not rule directly

Foundations of the Russian Empire• Mid-16th century: conquers C. Asian Mongol Khanates

-> trade with Ottomans, Iran, India• By 1639, expanded to Pacific Ocean (wanted Siberia

for furs)– Russians tried to exact tribute from native groups, with

varying responses (also spread disease)– To keep furs coming, tried to protect them and convert to

orthodox Christianity (unsuccessful)– Russian settlers were misfits, criminals, POWs – began building agricultural settlements near trading posts

Commercial Rivalries and the Seven Years’ War

• Competition and conflict: • Early: Dutch dom’d Indian Ocean • By early 1700s (cotton and tea), England and

France dom’d (1746: French seized Madras)• Americas: English pirates and privateers seized

Spanish ships, fighting over territory• The Seven Years’ War (1756-63): global, involved

natives

The Great War for Empire (cont.)• The war: – Europe: Britain and Prussia vs. France, Austria, and

Russia– India: British vs. French (plus, each had local allies)– Caribbean: British vs. French and Spanish– North America (French and Indian Wars): British vs.

French (plus, each had native allies)• British dom’d: kicked France out of India, took

colonies (Canada and Florida) and laid foundation for British hegemony of the next 150 years

Ecological Exchanges• Beginning of unprecedented exchanges between

cultures and regions of biological species (plants, crops, animals, human populations, and disease) with varying effects

The Columbian Exchange• Resulted in permanent changes to the world’s

human geography and natural environment– Disease: decreased populations in Americas and

Pacific Islands (esp. small pox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, and flu) because people had zero immunity -> epidemic (vs. endemic)

– Food crops and animals: increased population, food supplies, nutrition, animal energy; flowed both ways

– Migration: voluntary (European settlers, Asian workers) and forced (enslaved Africans)

The Origins of Global Trade• Started with Portuguese, Dutch, and English

trading post empires (Asian goods to Europe)• Became truly global with Americas: – Americas to Europe: silver, tobacco, sugar– Africa to Americas: slaves– Europe to Africa: manufactured items

• Also in Pacific basin: Manila galleons (American silver to Asia for luxury items)

• Environmental impact: extinct animals