transnational campuses: obstacles and opportunities for institutional research in the global...

This chapter highlights some of the issues that need to beaddressed when operating international campuses andprovides a list of questions to help guide relevantinstitutional research.

Transnational Campuses: Obstaclesand Opportunities for InstitutionalResearch in the Global EducationMarket

Jason E. Lane, M. Christopher Brown II, Matt-Allen Pearcey

Education as a tradable service in the international marketplace remains arelatively unexplored topic in American research and literature outside ofreports and updates issued by organizations such as the American Councilon Education and the National Committee for International Trade inEducation. Most of the extant literature emanates from scholars and pol-icy advocates in Australia, Canada, and Europe, most of whom are cautiousof the impacts of decreasing government control and regulation over edu-cational enterprises. While a number of areas concerning the impact of theliberalization of the policies regulating transnational educational enterprisedeserve attention from American researchers, this chapter looks at thegrowing importance of institutional research in this area and assesses the critical areas in need of research by those studying transnational edu-cational institutions.

Impact of Globalization on Institutional Research

As globalization continues to deconstruct traditional international bordersin all areas of commerce and service, education as a tradable good and thesubsequent proliferation of American higher education into international

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR INSTITUTIONAL RESEARCH, no. 124, Winter 2004 © Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 49

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50 UNIQUE CAMPUS CONTEXTS

markets remains largely overlooked in mainstream research. The operationof international campuses is not new. Public and private, profit and non-profit institutions in countries from Australia to the United States haveengaged in such activities for many years.

For most of its history, education has been considered a public good.Societies have long recognized the importance of colleges and universitiesfor laying the foundations of vital governments, vibrant culture, and vigor-ous economies (Chandler, 1998; Institute for Higher Education Policy,1998). In fact, in most countries, the government continues to be the largestprovider of education at all levels. Yet as evidenced by the other chapters inthis book, education has become viewed by some as a service—tradable andprofitable. In fact, the global market was estimated to be $27 billion in 1995(Patrinos, 2002). Furthermore, education ranked among the top five U.S.service exports in 1999, with the sector grossing approximately $10 billion(Moll, Gates, and Quiqly, 2001). In Australia, education exports totaled$5.6 billion in the 2003–2004 financial year, growing 14.8 percent from theprevious fiscal year. Education accounted for the country’s third largest ser-vice export (IDP, 2004). Given education’s role in creating economic, cul-tural, and human capital, it was inevitable that entrepreneurs would begincapitalizing on the pecuniary aspects of education.

Exporting educational services is not a new endeavor for U.S. institu-tions. The inclusion of education as a tradable service under the World TradeOrganization’s (WTO) General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS),however, brought increased attention to the many aspects of transnationaleducational services. While many areas of debate and concern exist regard-ing the effects of globalization on education, opportunities for educationalenterprises to offer their services in foreign markets will continue to increase.Thus, for institutions already engaged in such activity or perched to do so,understanding the unique and neoteric challenges to institutional assessmentwill become increasingly important.

As the desire for education providers to offer services in other coun-tries increases, the need for institutional research will become more preva-lent. Although not all concerns may be addressed by collecting data (forexample, whether education should be exclusively a government respon-sibility), a number of issues may be resolved, or at least partially ad-dressed, through institutional research. This chapter provides institutionalresearchers with information regarding some of the most pressing issuesassociated with operating a transnational educational institution (that is,an institution that operates campuses in multiple countries). Many of theissues addressed in this chapter warrant a chapter for themselves in orderto fully explore all of the explicit and implicit concerns and research con-siderations. Given the limitations of space, we provide a foundationaloverview of each area and encourage readers to more fully explore thoseareas of interest to them.

Modes of International Supply of Education

Transnational education exists in a number of forms. This section reviewsthe four categories that GATS uses to differentiate among the modes of edu-cational services supplied to foreign markets:

1. Cross-border supply: An organization provides educational services acrossinternational borders through such means as distance education and vir-tual universities.

2. Consumption abroad: In this largest and most recognizable mode of pro-viding international education, students travel to a foreign nation to takecourses.

3. Commercial presence: An organization establishes or partners with aneducational institution within another country to deliver educational ser-vices. This mode is the focus of the chapter.

4. Presence of natural persons (production abroad): Similar to mode 2, thismode includes institutional staff such as faculty traveling to anothercountry to provide services on a temporary basis.

The GATS creates no new enterprises; it merely classifies the existingforms of trade in the international education market. Although the researchconsiderations we examine are primarily based on the concept of transna-tional campuses, such that an institution establishes a branch campus orother commercial presence within the physical borders of another country,it is important for individuals studying transnational education to under-stand the breadth of offerings covered by the GATS umbrella.

Transnational education encompasses a broad range of offerings, fromstudents studying in a foreign nation to the establishment of a satellite cam-pus outside the country of origin. Although each of these areas deserves anin-depth analysis of the economic, political, and academic impacts result-ing from the inclusion of education within the GATS framework, this chap-ter focuses on some of the challenges presented to institutional researcherswhen working with transnational campuses. Such activity is commonlylabeled as commercial presence, although this label implies a magnitude ofcorporatization that many institutions desire to avoid.

Critical Issues for Transnational Campuses

The following sections highlight three critical areas of concern for institu-tional researchers to be aware of and contemplate when dealing with trans-national settings. Each section begins with an overview of the concerns forboth the importing country and foreign provider and concludes with a listof questions to guide researchers in each area. (Importing countries are thosecountries allowing providers of educational services from another country

TRANSNATIONAL CAMPUSES 51

to offer educational programs within their borders. Foreign providers are theeducational organizations seeking to offer education programs in a nationother than the one in which they are based.) The questions are geared towardinstitutions considering expanding into the transnational market; institu-tions with existing campuses in foreign countries should already be able toprovide the answers. Many of the questions are driving the current debateamong WTO members and other interested parties and are likely to continueto be used in structuring future discussions as well as relationships betweenthe foreign provider and importing nation.

Assessing Capacity of Foreign Markets. A major motivator for boththe importing country and foreign provider to pursue entry into the transna-tional educational market is the existence of excess demand in the import-ing nation (Knight, 2003). Throughout the world, many countries have beenunable to provide enough capacity within their tertiary systems to meet thedemand of their citizenry. One potential benefit of transnational educationis that nations with excess capacity will be able to export some of theirresources to nations unable to provide enough access for the demands oftheir citizenry (Knight, 2002). Thus, identifying the existence of excessdemand benefits all interested parties. For example, nations such as Malaysiahave invited foreign institutions within their borders to provide the educa-tional opportunities to their citizens that they are unable to support (van derWende, 2003). Other nations, such as Australia and India, have been iden-tified as having quality systems and excess capacity and thus are able toexport their educational services.

Questions to Guide Research• What proportion of the population desires to attend a postsecondary edu-

cational institution? In order to determine whether a nation’s educationalcapacity is at its limit, one must first understand how many individuals inthe country want to pursue a postsecondary degree. Possible sources for thisinformation include the country’s government agency responsible for edu-cation (if such an entity exists), the World Bank, and the Organization forEconomic Development.

• How many of these individuals are qualified to pursue a higher educationdegree? Regardless of whether an individual desires a postsecondary degree,he or she must have the appropriate prerequisites before engaging in the aca-demic enterprise. In this case, the institutional researcher should be carefulin defining “qualified.” The most common form of qualification lies in thearea of requisite knowledge and skills; however, a number of other obstaclesmay exist that make it difficult or impossible to pursue a tertiary degree. Forexample, as we (Brown and Lane, forthcoming) have noted, language isproving to be an obstacle for South Africans who do not speak English orAfrikaans. Some South Africans have little knowledge of either English or Afrikaans, yet almost all tertiary education in the country is conducted inthese two languages. Although the country desires to provide academic


access to all students by offering learning opportunities in multiple tribal lan-guages, most of these languages are not currently advanced enough toaccommodate the lingual requirements necessitated by advanced scienti-fic knowledge.

• To what extent is the nation able to provide access to a quality postsec-ondary educational experience? Determine both the type of postsecondaryprograms already existing within the country and the number of studentsthese programs are able to accommodate. Do not overlook the fact that stu-dents may be seeking programs and opportunities not offered by the exist-ing system (van der Wende, 2003). Furthermore, it is critical to understandhow the country determines who is admitted into the tertiary system. In theUnited States, most institutions determine their own admission standards,whereas in some Asian countries, access depends on a student’s score on anational standardized test. Such systems may dictate who and how manystudents will be able to attend any institution.

• If demand exists, how can your institution meet the needs of the popu-lace? Conduct an environmental scan of the country or smaller service areato determine the needs of prospective students and employers. There aretwo primary areas on which to focus. First, determine both the current andexpectant needs of potential employers. Higher education is a catalyst foreconomic development and may have a snowball effect in developing coun-tries. Increasing capacity in a nation’s educational system will likely resultin increased investment by both domestic and foreign industries and cor-porations, leading to even greater demand for higher education. Thus, inorder to plan appropriate educational offerings, consider not just the imme-diate need but also that expected to result from increased educationalaccess. Second, identify social and welfare needs of the state and determinehow the institution may be able to help address these needs. Institutionsmay consider establishing agreements with national governments to havethe government cover part of the cost of educating welfare workers, teach-ers, and rural development professionals.

• Will the experience be affordable for the targeted population? A majorarea of debate concerning transnational education surrounds the issues ofaffordability and access (Knight, 2002). Proponents of the liberalization of international educational opportunities believe that it will bring increasedaccess to higher education, particularly in developing countries. Opponentsworry that the increased opportunities will be available only to the wealthy,illustrating the concept of the rich getting richer and the poor gettingpoorer. Regardless of the philosophical issues surrounding the issue ofaffordability, institutions need to be aware of current cost structures withinthe country (for example, some nations do not require students to pay fortertiary education) and determine the economic feasibility of offering pro-grams within that structure.

Recognition and Transferability of Credentials. An issue of con-cern for the governments of many importing nations is the worth of the


credential provided by the educational enterprise desiring to operate withinits borders (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,2003). Although this issue is associated with the concept of quality assur-ance discussed later, it is of large enough concern internationally to war-rant a separate discussion. This is especially true because the existence ofquality does not ensure that the credentials an institution awards will berecognized by the government or potential employers.

The primary impetus for the international debate on transferabilityemanates from the increased mobility of students and employees due toglobalization. The international reknown of institutions such as Harvardor Oxford accords their graduates a high level of transferability. However,most students come from institutions or systems without an internationalreputation. These institutions may offer the same quality educational expe-riences as their more well-known peers, but the same level of quality assurance about the worth of the degree in the market does not exist.Particularly in an age experiencing exponential growth in diploma millsand other education-based scams, those responsible for validating theworth of a credential are becoming increasingly skeptical. Now, with morethan 1 million students studying abroad annually and even more seekingemployment in international markets, the need for international recogni-tion of credentials is imperative.

Some nations have entered into agreements regulating the transferabil-ity of degrees conferred by institutions within their borders. One such exam-ple is the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications Concerning HigherEducation in the European Region (known as the Lisbon Convention), whichrequires signatory nations to accord the educational credentials awardedwithin other signatory nations a basic level of transferability. This document,adopted in 1997 by the Council of Europe and UNESCO, has been agreed toby more than forty nations. Countries can still disallow the recognition of adegree if cause exists, but the convention is based on the premise that alltertiary-level experiences are basically the same. Thus, a student pursuing abaccalaureate degree in one nation is believed to engage in an educationalexperience similar to that in another country.

The Council of Europe/UNESCO Code of Good Practice builds on theLisbon convention and has three basic suggestions for ensuring transferability:

1. The quality of educational experiences offered in a foreign countryshould be comparable to those of other institutions and should meet thebasic expectations of the importing nation.2. Institutions awarding the degrees are responsible for quality assurance.3. Institutions providing the transnational study programs are responsiblefor awarding the requisite degrees and providing clear and transparent infor-mation about the credential.

As transnational education and international employment becomemore prevalent, the need for multilateral agreements on transferability of


degrees will increase. Until that time, particularly in nations with underde-veloped educational and quality assurance programs, institutions them-selves will have to ensure the transferability of the degrees they confer.

Questions to Guide Research• Are your current degrees recognized outside your home country? Will

the degree you confer at a transnational campus be afforded the same respectas one from the home campus? Assuming degrees awarded in your homecountry are recognized as quality credentials by the national governmentand local employers, are graduates also able to obtain employment outsidethe country? If so, determine if the basis for the international reputation ofyour credential is transferable to the campus in the foreign country. If not,determine the reasons for the lack of transferability of the institution’s cre-dential, and attempt to address the issue before awarding degrees in theimporting country.

• Will employers in the importing country recognize the degree you con-fer? To ensure that future graduates of the institution are able to beemployed, be sure to determine what is required for employers to recog-nize degrees as a valid credential.

• Will student credits transfer to native educational institutions? Will yourinstitutions accept credits from native educational institutions? Transferabilityof credits is fundamental to the creation of an effective educational system.Determine how the native system of tracking, evaluating, and accumulatingcourse credits corresponds with that of your own system, and establish pro-tocols for resolving differences. Institutions may also want to consider estab-lishing articulation agreements with local colleges and universities to ensureease of transferability of both credits and students.

• Will graduates be able to pursue employment outside the importingcountry with your degree? Unlike the United States with its vast geographyand resources, many parts of the world rely on a citizen’s ability to obtainemployment in bordering nations, enabling that person to remain a citizenof his or her home country. As Knight (2003) states, “Even if the educa-tion program does not move, the student or the prospective employee canmove and therefore credentials need to be recognized if further study oremployment is desired” (p. 14). Investigate whether existing internationalagreements or accords on transferability have an impact on the degreesoffered by your institution. If none exists, the institution may need toexplore the extent to which its degree is recognized by employers and insti-tutions in other countries.

Accountability (Quality Assurance). One of the most pressing areasof concern is ensuring the quality of the education offered by transnationalcampuses (Bjarnanson, n.d.; Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment, 2003; Van Damme, 2002). The formal enterprise of qualityassurance is relatively new throughout the world. Nations with advancededucation systems in many European nations as well as the United States andCanada operate extensive quality assurance and accreditation operations.


The concern at the international level lies primarily with underdevelopedand developing countries, which are likely to be the primary target oftransnational education providers (Knight, 2002). Many of these countriesstruggle to provide basic human services and have not been able to providemuch access to advanced learning opportunities for their citizenry. A coun-try may desire to use the expertise of established educational institutions tofill this need, but many do not have the infrastructure in place to assess thequality of the educational service that a foreign entity desires to providewithin its borders.

While the phrase “quality assurance” is a relatively recent addition tohigher education parlance, some scholars (for example, Lewis, 2003; vanVught, 1993) note that the idea of quality assurance within academia hasexisted for centuries. The question of whether to rely on external monitors orpeer review has been at the heart of an ongoing debate, with most systemsadapting a combination of both approaches. For example, in the UnitedStates, institutions and academic programs are commonly evaluated andaccredited by external organizations comprising professional peers. Currently,however, the focus of the quality assurance debate seems to be shifting fromwho controls the process to how quality is measured. At the TransatlanticDialogue in July 2001, representatives from Canada, Europe, and the UnitedStates agreed that accountability and quality assurance increasingly will bebased on measurements of outcomes (Green, Eckel, and Barblan, 2002; seealso Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2003).

Those involved with international discussions about quality assuranceneed to agree on the definition of key terms. Terms such as approval, regis-tration, accreditation, authorization, or licensure have different meaningsfrom country to country (Knight, 2003; Organization for Economic Coop-eration and Development, 2003). Second, researchers need to identify what,if any, quality assurance programs already exist within the country andincorporate those program guidelines and standards into data collectionprocedures. Third, if no quality assurance programs exist, which is likely inmost developing nations, institutional researchers should work with appro-priate local, national, and regional bodies to ensure that any internallydeveloped quality assurance program includes areas deemed important bythose entities.

One method adopted by some institutions is the incorporation of inter-nationally recognized quality standards from business and industry. CentralQueensland University in Australia is an example of a transnational insti-tution attempting to pursue a rigorous quality assurance program to ensurea similar level of quality of its programs at its eight national locations andfive offshore, international sites (Tickle, Clayton, and Hawkins, 2002). Theinstitution endeavors to assess the quality of management, planning, inter-nal and external reporting, and policy compliance at each location. To over-come the obstacles of ensuring quality in a vacuum of internationallyrecognized education standards, institutions such as Central Queensland


University use internationally accepted quality management protocols suchas those associated with the Baldrige National Quality Program (http://www.quality.nist.gov) and the International Organization for Standardization(http://www.iso.ch).

Supporters of GATS point out that the agreement does not control thequality of the service being provided, only the policies regulating the tradeof the service. Within the education sector, the two issues may not be asdivorced as many advocates claim. Quality assurance programs operate toprotect consumers (students and employers) from poor or faulty educa-tional experiences and protect local providers from foreign competitors(Allport, 2002). Some countries, including China, require large fees forproviders to register their courses, a prerequisite for the opportunity to offerthe course (Allport, 2001). Many individuals in academia are concernedabout each nation’s and institution’s ability to regulate the quality of theeducational enterprise in the future (Knight, 2003). GATS Article 6.4 dic-tates that “qualifications, requirements and procedures, technical standardsand licensing are not more burdensome than necessary to ensure the qual-ity of the service.” Critics of GATS fear that those responsible for facilitat-ing the GATS process may interpret quality assurance programs as excessiveregulations barring foreign providers from operating within a country,resulting in a reduction in the standards of quality assurance programs.Depending on how the clause is enforced, it could quite possibly be themost intrusive attempt to control national government authority of anytrade agreement to date (Cohen, 1999).

Regardless of the impact of GATS, there exists an increasing need formethods of ensuring quality at the international level (Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development, 2003). Corporations need assur-ance that the individuals they are hiring are appropriately trained and edu-cated. Governments need assurance that institutions are providing theircitizens with a quality education. Students need assurance that their degreewill be recognized as a credible credential.

Questions to Guide Research• What assurances are there that your institution will provide a quality

educational experience? All institutions desiring to operate transnationalcampuses should be able to demonstrate to all interested parties the poli-cies and procedures in place to ensure the quality of the education beingprovided. Procedures should cover educational assessment, institutionalgovernance, reporting requirements, compliance with government require-ments, and meeting expectations of local employers.

• What are the requirements of the local accrediting or quality assurancebodies? Determine whether there are local accrediting standards, and if thereare, incorporate them into data collection methods. An institution’s abilityto offer programs may depend on its ability to demonstrate how it meets thestandards of local quality assurance programs.


About the General Agreement on Trades in Servicesand Education

GATS is an international agreement created in 1995 to reduce barriers tointernational trade among the 145 member countries of the WTO. Theintent of GATS is to regulate trade among member nations. What thismeans for education is not yet fully known. What is evident is that GATSdoes not cover the quality of the service being traded, only the process oftrade itself. Thus, GATS ensures that a country treats all nations the same.For example, if a country desires to prevent one nation from offering edu-cational services within its borders, then that country must exclude allnations from offering such services. The rules of trade must be applied equi-tably to all members of the WTO.

Education is one of the twelve primary trade sectors covered by GATS.The education sector includes five service areas: primary, secondary, higher,adult, and other. Of the twelve primary sectors included under the GATSumbrella, education has received the fewest number of commitments todate. (A commitment is a basic agreement on how a country intends to treatall other WTO members.) Only forty-eight countries have made commit-ments in education (in the areas most relevant to postsecondary education,thirty-five commitments have been made in higher education, thirty-four inadult education, and nineteen in other education).

As of this writing, the impact of GATS on transnational educationremains ambiguous. Although there exists a great deal of discourse anddebate about the potential impact of including education among the trad-able services covered by the GATS agreement, countries continue to engagein negotiations on the subject. Countries may submit offers and requestsregarding the trade of educational services until January 1, 2005, althoughit is anticipated that this deadline will be extended because of the lack ofparticipation of member states to date (Knight, 2003).

While GATS is sure to have an impact on education in a number of waysand venues, we have attempted to avoid asserting any subjective statementsabout the inclusion of education in the GATS negotiations and the potentialramifications of such. Our intention here is only to highlight the criticalissues of import to those engaged in research on institution-level issuesrelated to transnational education. Proponents and critics of the GATS pro-cess have made several sound arguments to make their cases. Furthermore,a number of national and international associations have issued public pol-icy statements on the matter. Most notably, the Association of Universitiesand Colleges of Canada, the American Council on Education, EuropeanUniversity Association, and Council for Higher Education Accreditation(2001) issued the Joint Declaration on Higher Education and the GeneralAgreement on Trade in Services. This statement exudes concern about theinclusion of education in the GATS process. While supporting efforts to lib-eralize international restrictions on transnational education further, these


organizations believe that the trade process is not the most effective way tofacilitate such change. This statement both reflects the concerns of the edu-cation sectors in the represented nations and illustrates, in the case of the U.S.and European nations, lack of policy congruence with their respective traderepresentatives (Knight, 2002). Both the United States and Europe have madecommitments in education services within the GATS context.

Expansion into transnational educational markets by U.S. and otherproviders of adult and higher education services will continue regardlessof when the GATS stipulations about education are approved. Currently,the most direct impact of GATS on current transnational enterprises is theincreased attention and scrutiny it has brought to international providers.Impetus for this chapter emanated from the increased scrutiny of thoseproviding service in foreign markets, and thus those evaluating and assess-ing those services need to be aware of the concerns expressed by nationsimporting such services. Whether it is increasing awareness of governmentpolicies, affirming sensitivity and respect for local culture, evaluating the worth of conferred credentials, or assessing the economic impact of thelocal campus, institutional researchers will play important and vital rolesduring this period in the development of transnational education.

Conclusions for Institutional Research

Institutional research plays a critical role in aiding colleges and universitiesas the borders of their service regions expand to include global environs.This chapter reviews some of the basic questions associated with conduct-ing preliminary scans of the needs of the society, governmental policies andpractices, and economic concerns of students, government, and the insti-tution. Each of the questions stems from the need of institutional researchto aid institutional decision makers in understanding the important factorsassociated with operating a postsecondary campus in an environment out-side the country of institutional origin.

Institutional researchers deal with many of the issues addressed in thischapter in the normal course of their work. Addressing these issues withinthe context of a foreign culture, however, requires that the researcher disas-sociate himself or herself from traditional assumptions on a broad range ofissues, from students’ precollegiate characteristics to local cultural beliefsregarding the role of education in society. Preconceived notions and assump-tions can be particularly problematic for those working in a developed nationand seeking to work within the context of a developing nation. Those fromlong-established and respected education systems will need to be diligent inunderstanding the unique and complex challenges faced by a country withnothing more than a fledging tertiary system. (See Chapter Six for a discus-sion of the importance of incorporating context in institutional research.)

This chapter serves only as an entry point into a large and complexdiscussion concerning some of the most basic challenges associated with


creating and operating transnational institutions. Depending on the coun-try or countries an institution desires to operate within, researchers areencouraged to learn and understand as much as possible about the historyand cultural characteristics of each country and its people. The Websources listed in the “Web Resources” sections of this chapter provide addi-tional information regarding a broad range of subjects, including global-ization, transnational education, and the inclusion of education in aliberalized trades and services market.

As the world moves toward the creation of an international system ofhigher education, wherein traditional political, economic, and geographicalboundaries dissipate, allowing the free flow of students, faculty, and edu-cational services, it will become increasingly imperative that institutions beable to understand their role within the culture of institutional origin, thecultures of international branch campuses, and the larger global commu-nity. In seeking to understand their role within multiple contexts, policy-makers and decision makers will likely rely on institutional researchers toprovide them with relevant data and contextual information. Those inter-ested in transnational education are encouraged to set aside their traditionalassumptions about the educational enterprise, explore the relevant litera-ture and research being produced by colleagues outside the home countryin order to gain a larger perspective on tertiary education, and assemble anew set of lenses and frameworks from which to engage in the work of insti-tutional research.

Web Resources for Information on GATS andTransnational Education

American Council on Education, http://www.acenet.edu/programs/interna-tional/gats. Provides summative information about the effects of GATS onhigher education, as well as ACE’s position statements.

Center for Quality Assurance in International Education, http://www.cqaie.org. Works to address issues of transnational cooperation by facilitatingthe quality assurance process and promoting credential and competencymobility among national educational systems.

National Committee for International Trade in Education, http://www.tradeineducation.org. Advises the Office of the U.S. Trade Representativeon the education components of the GATS negotiations.

Observatory on Borderless Education, http://www.obhe.ac.uk. A joint effortof the Association of Commonwealth Universities (and Universities UK)to monitor the advancement of education across geographical, sectoral,and conceptual boundaries.

Office of U.S. Trade Representative, http://www.ustr.gov. The primary U.S.representative to the GATS negotiations.


Web Resources for International Information onEducation

Organization for Economic Development, http://www.oecd.org. Addressesinternational economic and social issues in education, trade, develop-ment, science, and innovation.

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,http://www.unesco.org. Serves as a clearinghouse for disseminatinginformation on capacity building in the areas of education, science, cul-ture, and communication.

The World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org. Focuses on fighting povertyand improving living standards throughout the world. The Web site pro-vides a host of information about the development of learning and knowl-edge in developing nations.

References

Allport, C. “Education and Organising Globally: Perspectives on the Internet and HigherEducation.” Australian Universities Review, 2001, 44(1–2), 21–27.

Allport, C. “Transnational Education and GATS—an Australian Perspective.” Paper pre-sented at the Emergence International Conference on Higher Education, Montreal,Canada, Mar. 13–15, 2002.

Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, American Council on Education,European University Association, and Council for Higher Education Accreditation.“Joint Declaration on Higher Education and the General Agreement on Trade inServices.” Ottawa, Canada: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada,American Council on Education, European University Association, and Council forHigher Education Accreditation, 2001. Accessed Oct. 27, 2004, at http://www.aucc.ca/_pdf/english/statements/2001/gats_10_25_e.pdf.

Bjarnanson, S., and others. The Business of Borderless Education. UK Perspectives, n.d.London: Universities UK.

Brown, M. C., and Lane, J. E. “Democracy, Education, and Citizenship: PolicyPerspectives on Desegregation in South Africa and the United States.” In C. C. Yeakey,R. K. Hopson, and F. M. Bokari (eds.), Education and Schooling in Global Societies.Dordrecht: Elsevier, forthcoming.

Chandler, A. Public Higher Education and the Public Good: Public Policy at the Crossroads.Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges and Universities, 1998.

Cohen, M. G. “The General Agreement on Trade in Services: Implications for PublicPost-Secondary Education in Australia.” Australian Universities’ Review, 1999, 42(1),9–15.

Council of Europe and UNESCO. “The Convention on the Recognition of QualificationsConcerning Higher Education in the European Region.” Apr. 11, 1997. Accessed Oct.20, 2004, from http://www.bologna-berlin2003.de/pdf/Lisbon_convention.pdf.

Green, M., Eckel, P., and Barblan, A. The Brave New (and Smaller) World of HigherEducation: A Transatlantic View. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education,2002.

IDP. Australia’s Export of Education Services. Accessed Nov. 2, 2004, from http://www.idp.com/marketingandresearch/research.


Institute for Higher Education Policy. Reaping the Benefits: Defining the Public and PrivateValue of Going to College. New York: Institute for Higher Education Policy, Mar. 1998.

Knight, J. “Trade Talk: An Analysis of the Impact of Trade Liberalization and the GeneralAgreement on Trade in Services on Higher Education.” Journal of Studies inInternational Education, 2002, 6, 209–229.

Knight, J. GATS, Trade and Higher Education: Perspectives 2003—Where Are We? London:Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, 2003.

Lewis, R. Recent Developments in National, Regional, and International Quality AssuranceSystems. Trondlheim, Norway: Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment/Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, 2003.

Moll, J. R., Gates, S., and Quigly, L. “International Education and Training Services: A Global Market of Opportunity for U.S. Providers.” Export America, May 2001, pp. 19–21.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. “Enhancing ConsumerProtection in Cross-Border Higher Education: Key Issues Related to QualityAssurance, Accreditation and Recognition of Qualifications.” Report. OECD/CERI:Trondlheim, Norway, 2003.

Patrinos, A. H. “The Role of the Private Sector in the Global Market for Education.”Presentation at Shifting Roles, Changing Rules: The Global Higher Education MarketConference. The Hague, Netherlands, March 19, 2002.

Tickle, K. S., Clayton, D. J., and Hawkins, K. G. Quality Management Models forInternational Campuses and Operations: A Case Study of a Regional University’sExperience. Queensland, Australia: Central Queensland University, 2002. AccessedOct. 20, 2004, at http://www.quality.cqu.edu.au/happening/bulletin_docs/kch_paper.pdf.

Van Damme, D. “Trends and Models in International Quality Assurance andAccreditation in Higher Education in Relation to Trade in Education Services.” Paperpresented at the Economic Cooperation and Development/U.S. Forum on Trade inEducational Services, May 2002.

van der Wende, M. C. “Globalisation and Access in Higher Education.” Journal of Studiesin International Education, 2003, 7(2), 193–206.

van Vught, F. “Toward a General Model of Quality Assessment in Higher Education.”Paper presented at the First Biennial Conference of the International Network ofQuality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education, Montreal, Canada, May 24–28,1993.

JASON E. LANE is assistant professor of higher education in the College ofEducation and Human Development at the University of North Dakota.

M. CHRISTOPHER BROWN II is executive director and chief research scientist ofthe Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute of the United Negro College Fundand on leave from the Pennsylvania State University.

MATT-ALLEN PEARCEY is a doctoral candidate in the higher education programin the Department of Teaching and Learning at the University of North Dakota.


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