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THEORIES OF STUTTERING1

By J E WALLACE WALLIN, Psycho-Educational Clinic, St Louis

Scores upon scores of hypotheses have been advanced fromtime to time to explain stuttering, and the methods of treat-ment proposed have been equally numerous One of the recenttheories traces the affection to transitory auditory amnesia;while another theory finds the cause m unconscious emotionalcomplexes, which may be revealed by the method of psycho-analysis (dream analysis, association tests), or in consciousmental conflicts, which, however, frequently originate in somelatent complex Special significance has been ascribed to com-plexes of a sexual nature and to the use of smutty or pro-fane words.

According to the auditory amnesia or auditory aphasiatheory (BluemeP) the individual stutters on certain wordsbecause the auditory images of those words become tempor-arily weakened or are inhibited so that they do not rise in con-sciousness, m consequence of which the affected person isunable to recall the sounds of the words Therefore, accordingto the theory, he will experience difficulty m evoking or pro-nouncing the words whose auditory images are weak, and thisdifficulty will assume the form of stuttering Very few stutter-ers possess a good musical ear, which is also ascribed to theweak auditory imagery A rush of blood to the brain whenthe person is excited in the presence of others, as well as cere-bral anemia, is said to lower the activity of the auditory center,thereby inducing auditory aphasia. The primary cause ofstuttering is the auditory amnesia. Other causes, such asbewilderment, fear, autosuggestion inhibiting the will, etc., areall secondary They result from the primary cause. Thechief aim of the treatment, accordingly, is to overcome theprimary defect, the weak auditory images. The subject musthave strong auditory imagery, or none at all The trainingconsists m attending closely to the auditory sensations. Thesubject must think of how the words are going to sound, hemust continually recall their sounds and let the "primary

'We are using stuttering in the generic sense, to include stammering>n the specific sense

*C S. Bluemel Stammering and Cognate Defects, 1913, 2 Vols.

350 WALLIN

image" ring through the mind. The refractory images mayalso be awakened by acoustic sensations, especially the soundof the initial consonant. Hence the subject must begin toarticulate the words even if the images are not evoked. Theauditory images may also be strengthened by visual and kinaes-thetic associations In fact, the aim should be to have thevisual and motor imagery eventually supplement the auditory,so that the subject may be independent of the auditory amnesiawhenever it occurs. To this end he should attempt to feeland visualize the articulatory movements. He should observethe movements and positions of the speech organs of othersand of himself in a mirror. So much for the auditory amnesiatheory.

According to Freud3 there is found "almost invariably" inspeech disturbances a "disturbing influence of something out-side of the intended speech. The disturbing element is eithera single unconscious thought, which comes to light through thespeech blunder, and can only be brought to consciousnessthrough a searching analysis, or it is a more general psychicmotive, which directs itself against the entire speech" In"the stammering and stuttering of embarrassment" also "itis the inner conflict that is betrayed to us through the dis-turbance of speech." Coriat4 has made much of the Freudianconception. He affirms boldly that it has been demonstrated"that the psychogenesis of this disorder ("stammering") isone of the protean forms of an anxiety-neurosis or anxiety-hysteria, and not merely a tic, an obsession, an auditory amnesiaor a spastic neurosis of muscular coordination." The neurosis"manifests itself mentally as morbid anxiety and a conse-quent dread of speaking." "The individual stammers onlyin specific situations or in the presence of certain individualsand then solely as the result of definite emotional reactions.""For the most part, the motivating mechanism which causesthe stammering is unknown to the sufferer. . . the only con-scious reaction being that of anxiety and fear." The "associa-tion tests" reveal a "form of morbid anxiety due to uncon-scious emotional complexes, because, as each complex is struckin the test, the typical reaction of the complex indicator fol-lows." The complexes "lead either to no result at all or to amarked lengthening of the reaction time." "The fear in stam-merers, as in all cases of anxiety neurosis, at the beginning

3Sigmund Freud Psychopathology of Everyday Life, 1914, p. 80,113 (Brill's translation).

4Isador H Coriat. Stammering as a Psychoneurosis Journal ofAbnormal Psychology, IX, 1914-1915, p. 417L

THEORIES OF STUTTERING 351

of the disorder, is merely a protective mechanism to preventbetrayal through speech, and consequently is a protector fromattacks of anxiety" The stammering arises as a "defenseor compensation mechanism to keep from consciousness certainpainful memories and undesirable thoughts, so that they maynot be.betrayed in speech." "The stammerer attempts to fortifyhis defective speech organs, because he lays upon these organsundue emotional stress in the effort to conceal and to preventbetrayal, and thus arises the conflict between defective speechand the situations under which defective speech is most aptto occur, thus developing into morbid anxiety and fear." "Theattempt to repress from consciousness into the unconsciouscertain trends of thought or emotions, usually of a sexualnature (libido), is the chief mechanism of stammering " "Thefear in stammering is a deflection of the repressed sexual im-pulse or wish." "The repressed thought, because of fear ofbetrayal, comes into conflict with the wish to speak and notto betray. Hence, the hesitation in speech arises, and as therepressed thoughts gradually are forced into the unconsciousthere finally develops the defective speech automatism, eitherstammering or a spastic aphasia." " 'An unconscious complexcrowds or presses between the syllable and the word ' " "Thedread of speaking to relatives or to intimate friends may bebased upon the fear that the unconscious wishes may be dis-covered and this stimulates the unconscious anxiety whereaswith strangers speech is free, because the dread of discoveryis absent." "In the large majority of cases the child did notbegin to stammer until it had been talking freely and nor-mally for several years."5 " The speech defect arose in child-hood as a type of morbid anxiety." "In adult life . . . . thedreams of stammerers are . . . . either dreams of inadequacywith efforts at compensation (not getting there, missing trains,etc.) or typical wish fulfilments, such as talking freely incompany or addressing an assembly like an orator." All ofthe following types of repressed complexes may produce stam-mering :

1. "Repression of sexual acts or secrets and the fear ofbetrayal."

6On the question of the age of onset of stuttering the writer mayquote from his investigation of two years ago "If we exclude the251 cases for which no data were supplied and base the per cents onthe remaining 432 cases, we get the following results, in 814% of thecases the stuttering began before the age of 6 (m many of these 'at anindefinite point in early life'), and in 15% between the age of 6 and10, and in 3.4% after the age of 10" Cf Report of the Board ofEducation of the City of Si Louis, 1915-1916, p. 187.

352 WALLIN

2. "Oedipus complex, with a fear of betrayal of the hateof the father."

3. "Masochistic phantasies."4 "The fear of pronouncing certain sexual, and therefore,

tabooed words," relating to "certain anal, urinary or sexualfunctions."

5. "As a manifestation of anal eroticism."From what has been said it follows that "the proper treat-

ment of stammering . . is purely psychological," namely,the removal of "the deeply rooted anxiety or dread from theunconscious, and this can only be accomplished through psycho-analysis " "The cure of stammering can be attained onlythrough an exploration of the unconscious, a complete break-ing down of resistances," "which lead to constant reversionsand stickings to the infantile libido with its tendency to con-ceal itself," "and to a sublimation of the effort to conceal thelibido in the unconscious for the pleasure desired " "Everystammerer should have a psychoanalysis, it teaches the suffererhis disturbing complexes, that is, what to avoid and whatnot to avoid, how to master certain situations and not bemastered by them "

In speaking of the influence of obscene words Freud says:°"In some forms of speech blunders we may assume" that thedisturbing factor is the result of striking against obscene wordsand meanings The purposive disfigurement and distortion ofwords and phrases, which is so popular with vulgar persons,aims at nothing else but the employing of a harmless motiveas a reminder of the obscene, and this sport is so frequentthat it would not be at all remarkable if it appeared uninten-tionally and contrary to the will " According to DunlapT "inmany cases (not in all), the stammerer has especial difficultywith words beginning with one of a small group of sounds—the sounds with which certain obscene words much favoredby small boys also begin " "The terms . . may be in partprofane expressions, or merely words like 'damn' or 'hell.'"The stammering began at the time the boy became familiarwith these words "which he employed with satisfaction amonghis juvenile friends but which it would never, never do tolet his mother, father or sisters hear." "The boy who is'carefully brought up,' if he is handicapped by a weak consti-tution" or "erratic muscular activity" is very apt to becomea stutterer, or a stammerer of the deadlock type." It is the

6Sigmund Freud Psychopathology of Everyday Life, 1914, p 967Kmght Dunlap The Stuttering Boy Journal of Abnormal Psy-

chology, 1917, pp. 44L


" 'proper' little boys who become stutterers." "The boy inconstant fear lest one of his obscene terms may slip out inwrong company . . . . soon comes to hesitate over everyword which begins the same way as do these dangerous words;and as the hesitation becomes a more and more fixed habit, itextends to other types of words also." "Girls do not stutter"because they "do not develop the same fear of revealing atabu vocabulary, although they may have incriminating matterto conceal, and may develop accordingly a hesitating type ofstammering." In respect to the cure, "There are far safer andmore effective ways of discouraging the taste for bad languagethan by taking the I-would-be-shocked or the it-would-break-my-heart attitude " "If your small boy commences to stutter,find out what obscene and otherwise objectionable terms theboy is apt to be using," and then tell him "(if you can truly)that you did use those or equivalent words yourself, and havestopped " "Your attitude towards him" should "be no morecontemptuous, crushing or sniffling than if he should breakout with measles."

We have recently attempted to make a fairly extensivestudy of the causation and practical treatment of a few stut-terers. We here set forth the record of one of these cases,a boy of twelve, whom we had occasion to study and treatduring a period of six weeks in one of the mid-western univer-sities The investigation of the developmental history provednegative, save for an attack of pneumonia at nine months.At eleven months the boy spoke two or three words, and atsixteen months short sentences He began stuttering at twoand a half years The mother believes that the impedimentwas acquired imitatively from a maternal uncle whom he heardcommitting a stuttering selection at that time. He startedto imitate his uncle, and gradually grew worse and more timid.At three he had his tonsils clipped. The operation frightenedhim greatly, and the stuttering grew worse afterwards, it isalleged. At four the tonsils and adenoid tissue were removed,and, inadvertently, a portion of the uvula. The stuttering hascontinued until the present time, although it has abated some-what during the last year or two. The subject stutters littlewhen at play with boys, or when reciting poetry, while hestutters worse when tired and when speaking in a telephone.The mother thought that the most troublesome consonantswere R and M. The treatment which had been followed, con-sisted in an attempt to get him to speak more slowly. Hehad been examined by a physician who had pronounced thetrouble a "purely nervous affection." He was a good sleeper,

354 WALLIN

ate well, and was not nervous, according to the mother. Hehad two sisters, aged 4 and 9, neither of whom had ever stut-tered.

The physical examination showed that his nervous systemwas somewhat unstable and rather high strung. Daily obser-vations occasionally disclosed fidgety movements, especially ofthe hands. He had a severe phimosis, which was correctedby an operation in the hope that the nervous tension would belessened. According to the Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon scale the subject was advanced two months in intelli-gence (Basal Age IX) ; and according to the Seguin form-board he was advanced two years either by the combined normsor by the writer's norms for boys.8 He had just been pro-moted to the seventh grade, with a condition in arithmetic anda poor record in music. He sang a few familiar songs in fairtune to the writer, but did not sustain the tones well.

The writer had twenty-three sittings with the subject duringa period of six weeks, devoted in part to the investigation ofthe case and in part to the treatment of the stuttering. Duringfive days of each week the special class teacher took the subjectindividually also for two daily lessons, following, however,only two of the methods of treatment used by the writer. Inaddition to this, the subject was asked to practice some ofthe exercises and follow man}' of the instructions at home

The attempt to locate the hypothetical submerged complexby the method of dream analysis proved unavailing. Duringthe six-week period the subject was able to recall only threedreams, although he was urged immediately to jot down hisdreams whenever he awoke or whenever he could recall themHe said that he had a faint suspicion that he had one moredream, but could not recall a single fragment of it On thesixth of the month he "dreamed that he saw a crowd of boys,representing the North and South, playing war. There wereabout twenty Southern and thirty Northern soldiers. TheSouthern soldiers were near a log cabin. Three of the North-ern soldiers scared the Southern soldiers so that they ranaway through the back door. I asked the Northern soldiersto catch them. Then I saw the Southern soldiers come backto the log cabin and go inside, where the Northern soldierscaptured them. They put them in jail about five miles fromour camp. I was near the Northern camp, and fought withthe North. I shot with a gun, but did not hit anyone. I feltno fear." On the seventeenth of the month he dreamed that

8 Table XLIX, in the writer's Psycho-Motor Norms for PracticalDiagnosis, 1916


be was at home, but could not recall a single detail, andsix days later he dreamed that be "was home ridingaround in his wagon (he has a pony), and that heplayed hide-and-go-seek, tag, and other games withboys and had fun." He could not recall any further details.Some psycho-analyst may be able to find from these bare frag-ments the symbolism and the latent complex or inner conflictat the root of the stuttering. Our attempt to expound thesymbolical character of these dreams to the subject and tobring the hypothetical submerged complexes into conscious-ness proved abortive, so far as concerns any salutary effect onthe stuttering. This does not constitute a valid criticism ofthe method of dream analysis, because of the paucity of thedream material secured from this subject. The legitimateuse of the method requires the analysis of many dreams. Themethod has, however, proved ineffective with two other stutter-ers (youths) who have reported far more dreams. Thesedreams have been "analyzed" independently by two studentsfamiliar with Freud's works and by myself. There is littleagreement in the three analyses respecting the interpretationof the dreams or the character of the symbolism read intothem. It would be profitable to subject to an unprejudicedanalysis the psycho-analytic interpretations which have beenoffered by a considerable number of analysts who have not hadaccess to each other's interpretations, of several extensive setsof the same dreams. The subjective, individual and fantasti-cal nature of much psycho-analysis would in this way probablybe brought clearly to light.

The results of the use of the association-reaction test wasalso disappointing. The stimuli which we used consisted ofa series of words read aloud distinctly by the experimenter.None of the words was shown to the subject. After eachword had been read, the reaction-word and the reaction-time(taken by a stop watch showing fifths of a second) wererecorded. These responses are recorded in the column headed"reaction-words" in the accompanying series. After the entireseries of words had been presented and the reaction-wordsrecorded, the subject was asked to try to reproduce the samereaction-word as he had previously given as each of the stimu-li-words was again read. These results are recorded in thecolumn headed " reproduction of reaction-word." Series 2was given eleven days after series 1, Series 3 seven days afterSeries 2, and Series 4 the next day after Series 3. We hadin view a three-fold aim in the employment of this test First,to bring to the surface any possible emotional complexes or

356 WALLIN

conflicts whether conscious or subconscious. The test hasbeen used for this purpose, on the assumption that when agiven word "touches" an emotional complex, or a latent com-plex ("complex indicator"), the reaction to the word in ques-tion, or to the following word or words, will be delayed oreven blocked. By analyzing the type of words causing delayedreactions in a given series or a number of series, or interroga-ting the subject in connection with the words which causeddelays, it is possible, according to the theory, to determinethe nature of the emotional complex Manifestly it is no easymatter to construct lists which shall contain a number of signi-ficant words, when the history of the case is negative, so far

Stimulus-WordHeadGreenLongDeathTo payWindowFatherLakeKindMotherBoatSisterCandyFallRunSingScreamSummerBiotherSchoolNurseFunny .TalkMoneyGirlsSwim ,Steal

SERIES IImmediate ]

WordRedBlueWhiteBlackYouBrownHomeBlueAreHomeRowPlaj.PinkYouI

. IYouSunshineSwimSummerTheClownSheBankTheYouHe

ReactionTime2 22 22 05 07 28 07 63 07 0

22 02 2

13 23 28.44 0

10 411 015 08 66 26 2

11 011 029 04.47 25 0

Reproduction ofReaction-Word

++++He+++

Pink++Home+

He+He

She+++++

I++He

You

2 89 0

23 03 07 82 82 42 0

16 03.02.02 22 04 04 04 03 48 07 01.42 11.45 24 04 23 05.0

The unit of measurement in all the series is seconds. A plus sign inthe delayed reproduction column in all the senes indicates that the wordgiven in the immediate reaction was correctly reproduced. In the caseof incorrect reproductions the wrong word is given in the reproductioncolumn

* The subject stuttered on all of the words marked with an asterisk


SERIES II

Stimulus-WordSunWinter. .Desk..SkatesJumpBallPretty . .KnifeLost .. . .FatherHitHat . .BankScreamPants.SnowMoneyTreeDeathHouseSister,TrainBridgePumpSwear

t A slight interruption occurred here.

Immediate ReactionWord

RunSnowBrownIceYouHallWhiteButcherSheHomeHeTheSavingsSheTheWhiteTheBrownFuneralBlackPlaySmokyCementSmashedYou

Time2 01 42 62 23.02.25 0

13 8*4 0

25 62 22 4

10 05 22 85 0

12 03 67 65 27 04 24 02 46 0


+ 1.0+ 1.0+ 2.0-1- 14

2 015.02.06 8f4 23 06.24.22 2

Fall

+You

+YouHoly

+Smashed

2 65 2f2 4

10 22 22 24 0*1 6

11 42.04 01 2

Stimulus-WordMill . .Music .RiverStoneWhistleLittleBarkinpElephantCalling .RockRattlingLittle .MotherRollKittyCryHorseSingingWith

SERIES III

Immediate ReactionWord Time

FlourViolinSteamboatCementBoyHenDogStoutSheFallIronSparrowHomeBallBrownYouBrownSheHe

3 23 4*4 04 0

14 04 43 47 23 05 2

12 03.0

12 45 4*5 0

10 05 03 0

10 2

Reproduction ofReaction-WordWind

Fall+

He

They+

You

22.24 82 27.04 83 05 22.03 46 23.62 01.84.23 43.01 68 45 4

358 WAILIN

SERIES III—Continued

Immediate Reaction Reproduction ofStimulus-Word Word Time Reaction-Word

Stamping Horse 3.2 + 1.8Noise They 6.8 — 17.0Shoe Horse 3.0 + 1.8Thunder It - 4.0 + 12.0Fun We 3.0 + 2.4Shine Shoes 3.0 + 2.0Fool They 7.4 You 5.2Kiss I 7.2 + 2.0

Stimulus-WordDoorDarnFireArmLe? .Hole

SERIES IV

Immediate ReactionWord Time

He .SunHellDip

DamCookGirlsAloneGod ..

LoveCar ..

Shirt

Prunes

FloorBoyHouseStrongWeak*FloorCementSheFireBoyCementHorseDogCementSupper*BadSheHeavenMuleSheSmashedHeStripeHeBrown

2.25.43.24.83.44 26.43.05 63.85.64 65.44 64 86.42 2

13.46.83.04.24.05.03.64.8


+ 1.8+ 4.4+ 7 4+ 3.4+ 2.0

3.66.4

15.02.4

10 06 23.65.24.05.63.23.22.21.62.61 42.41.6

15.02 6

+BoyBoy

Cement+

Mule

He

+Barn

as the obtained information goes, as regards occurrences which,by implication, would have caused mental conflicts, or emo-tional upheavals in the life of the subject. Careful inquiryof the mother (and tactful questioning of the subject later)did not disclose any grounds for such conflicts in the presentinstance. Arbitrary lists have in the past been constructedand these lists have been used with naive confidence in theirrevealing efficacy by some writers. We have included a fewwords from one of these lists. But to maintain that all thewords in a custom-made list which are associated wiUi delayed


responses reveal an inner conflict or emotional complex, maysuffice for the unsophisticated devotee of a cult but surelycannot satisfy the critical experimental scientist* who demandsfacts capable of objective verification. We included a fewwords like death, father, mother, sister, brother, nurse, girls,scream, bank, money, steal (the father was a banker), whichwe thought might have been associated with unpleasant experi-ences in the past, and with submerged conflicts at the time.As will be seen later, some of these words produced delayedresponses while others did not

The second purpose in employing the association reactiontest was to determine whether the subject stuttered becauseof the present or past use of indecent or profane words. Theassumption made is that the subject will stutter on wordsbeginning with the same letter as one of the foul words, andhence the record should show that the subject stuttered onsuch words, or that the responses were delayed. We may

90ne is tempted to quote Solomon's stinging rebuke of some of theFreudians, m discussing the etiology of stuttering' "I must stoutlyprotest against an evasion of the real issues by the leaders of theFreudian movement. Let them retrace their steps and first prove thetruth, soundness and validity of their psychological and sexual theoriesand cease pressing on to pastures new " "If they are not prepared todo this, or are unwilling so to do, I do not believe that they areentitled to continue to inflict upon others views which have little realfoundation in fact, which are unproven, unfounded, purely speculative,imaginative, pure figments of the imagination, a delusion, and a snare."

. "Not) a single case has been presented in proof of the conclu-sions drawn in the paper Surely this is not what we have beenaccustomed to expect in other fields of mediane" "I venture to saythat in no department of medicine or in fact in no other aspect oflife would scientific men tolerate presentation and promulgation, despiteopposition and disproof and with no tangible or definite evidence orproof." (Meyer Solomon. Remarks upon Dr. Coriat's Paper, 'Stam-mering as a Psychoneurosis' Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1915.130 f ) Solomon may be interested to know that a similar vociferous"promulgation" has gone on in another phase of psychological diagnosis,the diagnosis of mental deficiency by means of mental tests and arbi-trary standards the validity of which has never been demonstrated bymethods which will stand a scientific test. On the basis of this pro-cedure the public has been regaled for years with the most exaggeratedstatements of the prevalence and criminal menace of the feeble-minded Some workers have habitually diagnosed persons whom theyhave never seen (much as the mental healers diagnose and heal at adistance), on the basis of tests given by amateurs, and these resultshave been repeatedly referred to as "conservative" and as "scientificallydemonstrated " Fortunately for clinical psychology a period of criticalevaluation is setting in, the influence of a body of critical workers jsgradually permeating through the ranks, and less denunciation is nowheaped upon any one who ventures to question the "ipse dixit" thanwas the case within a period of time that is still green in memory.

360 WALLIN

also assume, according to the theory, that the subject either willstutter or the reactions will be delayed when he attempts torepeat the vulgar words themselves, or when he reacts withanother word to them, because he will feel ashamed and getflustered when he hears the objectionable words. In the lastassociation reaction test which we gave, we introduced nineinelegant or obscene words, some of which we have indicatedby dashes. On the following day we asked the subject towrite out a list of all the "bad," "ugly" or "nasty" wordswhich he had ever used and also a list of indecent words whichhe had heard other boys use. The former list included onlythe word "dam fool"—the parents later said this was the onlybad word they had heard him use, but it is probable that hehad used others, in fact he said he had been punished for usingbad words—while the list of bad words which he had heardothers use included four which we used in Series IV and twowhich we did not use.

The third aim of the use of the association reaction testwas to determine whether the subject suffered from auditoryamnesia. The assumption was made that auditory amnesiashould affect words whose images are predominantly auditoryrather than visual or motor, and that the responses to suchwords should be delayed, owing to the difficulty of evokingthem or the tendency to stutter on them. This assumption, itseems to us, is a natural consequence of the theory, althoughwe would not be understood as attempting to justify it, formany persons undoubtedly visualize words which are pre-dominantly auditory in character. It is evident, therefore,that in selecting a list of words with auditory imagery wecannot dogmatically affirm that the subject did not actuallyuse visual or motor images rather than auditory images. Butthis merely proves how inherently intricate and difficult ofsolution this kind of a problem is.

The average and median reaction-times for the reaction-words and the later reproductions of the reaction-words in thedifferent series are as follows:

Series I Series II Series III Series IVAv. M. Av. M. Av M. Av. M.

Reaction-words 8 2 7.2 5 6 4 0 5.7 4.4 4.8 4.6Reproduction-time . . 5.7 4.0 4 0 2 6 5 1 3 4 4.6 3.4

Av = average. M.= median.It is observed that the time for the reproductions is invariablyshorter than the time for the original reactions. The responseswere the slowest in Series I, for both the reaction-words and


the reproductions, while they were the fastest in Series IV,which contained the offensive words, if the results are basedon the averages (one exception). Based on the general avera-ges or medians for each series there is no evidence of delayedresponses in the series containing the reprehensible words.

The following are the stimuli words which produced theslowest reaction-words in each series, together with the aver-age and median reaction-times for the reaction-words and forthe reproductions.

Average .Median ..

Average..Median ..

SeriesMotherSisterSingScreamSummerFunnyTalkMoney

15 312.1

3.93 7

I Series IIKnifeFatherBankMoneyDeathSister

Series IIIWhistleRattlingMotherCryWithFoolKiss

TIME FOR REACTION WORDS

12 611 0

14 510 2

TIME FOR REPRODUCTIONS

4 32.6

3.63 6

Series IVGod

Girl

8.26.6

3 32 7

The impressive point about the above figures is that while,as a matter of course, the times are invariably longer for thesereaction-words than for the reaction-words in the correspond-ing complete series, the times are shorter for most of the repro-ductions than for the reproductions in the corresponding com-plete series. In other words, conclusions based on the time re-quired to give the reaction-words would not at all apply to thereproduction of the reaction-words, and the question must in-evitably arise which series should furnish the criterion. It hasbeen assumed that when stimulus-words cause delayed reac-tions the later reproductions of the reactions will also be slowerand more difficult or impossible. To be sure, the reproductionswere not always correctly given for these slow reaction-words.More than half of the reproductions in Series I and III andhalf in Series IV were wrong, while all of those in Series IIwere correct. But wrong reproductions are also frequentlyfound with rapid reaction-words. Moreover, the time for thecorrect and incorrect reproductions does not differ signifi-cantly. We also find instances in each series in which the

362 WALLIN

reproduction-times are stow when the reaction-times are rapid,e.g.:

SenesIKind-GreenLongNurse

Series IIBall—Train

Series IIIMiU*SingingNoise—Thunder

SenesIVFireHe—. . . .

TIME OF REACHON-WORDS

Average.. 4.3 3.2 4.2 3.1

TIME OF REPRODUCTIONS

Average.. 17 2 13.2 14.9 112

* Stuttered.

In only 4 of these twelve words were the reproductions incor-rect. These instances are indicated by the minus sign follow-ing the stimulus word. The responses were slower for someof these incorrect reproductions, but not all. We are unableto find any "common element" that is responsible for thewrong reproductions.

An analysis of the individual words given on the previouspage which produced the slowest associations shows that eightof those given on page 359 are included while three are not,namely "brother," "nurse" and "steal." The original reactionto "death" in Series II was only slightly delayed, but it was notdelayed in Series I, while the reproduction times were fasterthan the general averages in both series. The word "scream"produced delayed associations in 1 but not in II, while thereproductions, although wrong, were accelerated in both series.The reaction-words to "mother" and "sister" were delayed inboth I and III, and to "father" in II, but not in I, while thereproduction times are shorter than the general averages inboth series. The reactions to "brother" were average. Thereaction-time to "girls" was slightly delayed in IV but acceler-ated in I, while the reproductions were faster in both SeriesI and IV. The parents, however, said that the relations werenot strained between them and the boy, while the boy also madethe same statement, although he said that his father had some-times punished him and he sometimes got into trouble withhis sister. The word "bank" produced a delayed reaction butan accelerated reproduction in II. The word "money" pro-duced delayed reactions in both I and II, and the reproductionwas delayed in II while in I it was accelerated although theboy stuttered on the word. He was not known to have appro-priated any money. The word "steal" did not produce any


delayed association, although tiie reproduction of the associa-tion was wrong. From this it might be inferred that the boyhad had trouble with the family over money matters, althoughhe was not known to have stolen.

The list of delayed reactions on page 361 contains a dozenwords which were not included in our list on page 359. Thesewords were given only once. The time for the reproductionsof the reaction-words was less than normal for most of thesewords. The list includes such widely varying words as, sing,summer, funny (but fun produced an accelerated response),talk, whistle, with and God; and we do not believe that aminute analysis of these words would shed any particular lighton our problem. Had the words been repeated several timesthey would probably have shown both delayed and acceleratedresponses, as did some of the other words.

The average time for the reactions to the nine obscene wordsin Series IV is 4.9 (median 4.6), and for the reproductions5.8 (median 5.2). The time for the reaction-words is shorterthan it is in Series I, II and III (except for the medians inII and I I I ) , and practically the same as in Series IV. On theother hand, the time to reproduce the reaction-words is con-sistently longer for the obscene words than for the words inany of the complete series, although the differences are some-times negligible. It is evident that the conclusion drawn wouldbe antithetical according as the results were based on the orig-inal reaction-words or on the reproduction times. Most work-ers would probably make the original response the criterion,in which case the obscene words produced a result directlyopposite to that demanded by the theory. We have alreadycalled attention to the fact that the average time for the reac-tion-words is the shortest in Series IV. Based on the timeof the responses, we find no evidence that the obscene words"touched" any submerged complex or produced any emotionalperturbation when first read—the subject seemed to flush andgrow slightly disconcerted only twice—while they producedonly slight perturbation when read the second time. The sub-ject did not stutter once on these reaction-words or reproduc-tions, while six of the reproductions were correct.

It has been said that the emotional delay or blocking of theassociational processes may appear only in the words whichfollow the exciting words. To test this theory we have aver-aged the time for the reaction-words to the first word follow-ing each of the objectionable words. The average is 4.3 (med-ian 4.8), while for the reproduction of the reaction-wordsthe average is 5.5 (median 5.2). In other words, the reaction

364 WALLIN

times are actually shorter for these words than for all of thewords in any of the complete series (except for the medians).However, we again find that the reproduction times for thesewords are slightly longer than in the complete series, but thedifferences are not large.

We have also compiled the reaction rates for the words inthe different series, which begin with the same letters as doobscene or inelegant words. The following figures representthe average times (in seconds) for all the stimulus words inthe four series which begin with the designated initial letters(i.e., the letters which begin some obscene or profane word) :

LetterA . . . .BC . .D . .FGHKPS . . . .

No. of words3

. . 7

. . 7684835

. . 19

Tune forreaction words

4 65 15 15 18 76 63 58 63 76.3

Time forreproductions

2 75 53 63 63 54 65 98.75 73 1

In the main—we cannot take space to compare each initialwith the average for each series given on page 360—the timesare shorter for the reaction-words beginning with six of theabove initials (A, B, C, D, H, and P) and longer for only four(F, G, K, S), and about the same relation holds for the repro-duction series. It is evident that the results obtained fromthe reaction-word times and reproduction times are again con-tradictory for some of the words. The long reaction timewhich we find for the F-words is reduced to 6 3 if the word"father" is excluded in the second series, where it is abnormallylong. On the whole, we do not find any greater tendency tostutter on words beginning with the initials of obscene wordsthan on words beginning with any other letters,10 judged bythe reaction times or the tendency to stutter on the responses.

But it may be objected that the words beginning with theabove initials should not have been selected from the list ofstimulus words, but from the subject's responses, because it isonly claimed that stuttering affects those words which areactually spoken by the stutterer and which begin with theinitial of the forbidden words. To test this theory, we have

10Sotne of the words on which the subject stuttered most, beginningwith the most severe, were: little, Prentice, With, kitty, roll, rock,went, mill, river, rest, problem, cow boy, up, sixteenth, press.


averaged the reaction times required by the subject to utterthe words in the different series which begin with the initialof one of the objectionable words. The averages are as fol-lows:

LetterAB. .CD . .F. .HP.S.

No. of words1

17626

163

23

Time forreaction words

7 06 85 94.44 67 97 85 1

Time forreproductions

16 03 94 52 66 44 91 94.3

Exclusive of the first letter, which is based on only one occur-rence, the time to give the reaction-words is, on the whole,somewhat longer for four of the initials (B, C, H and P) thanthe subject's normal time in the four series, and somewhatshorter for three initials (D, F and S). If "home" whichhas an abnormally long reaction time in Series I and II isexcluded the average for H is reduced to 4.1, which is lessthan normal. When we turn to the reproduction series, wefind that the time is shorter for all the initials except F, whereit is longer, and H, where it is about the same There are anumber of instances in which the wrong reproductions beginwith the above initials, but they are not included in the aver-ages. Most of them, however, show no delays.

It is evident that the results from the dream analysis andthe association-test only justify a negative conclusion with re-spect to the causal relation of the stuttering in this case tosubmerged emotional complexes or the use of words whichbegin with the initials of vulgar words This conclusion is inharmony with the "general impressions" which remained aftera study of all the aspects of the case. The therapeutical effectsof the above methods of analysis were nil The only "complexindicator" which we could make out was possible friction ofthe boy m the home with the rest of the family We pointedout to the subject how this was indicated by the tests, but,as stated above, the implication was denied. Moreover, theattempt to render the "latent" content "manifest" did notmitigate the stuttering. The boy also said that he did nothave nor had he had any fear of using "bad" words in thepresence of his parents or of older persons or of girls. He wastold that his stuttering was due to the use of such words inas many respectable persons had used such words. He wasthe past, but that this was nothing to feel ashamed about now,told to stop paying any attention to this or worrying about

366 WALUN

it, and the impression was strongly conveyed that followingthis advice would soon cause the stuttering to stop. We felt,however, that this line of treatment was quite impotent.

We are not yet prepared to say that the method of psycho-analysis has no value in the analysis and treatment of stutter-ing. There may be cases in which it is applicable. We havemade an attempt to apply it, so far as our limited time haspermitted, to three cases—the other two more mature than thepresent patient—but with unfavorable results. Naturally wehave become soberly conservative with respect to the glowingclaims which have been put forth in behalf of the theory.Very few of these claims have been substantiated by detailedexperiments and observations and by adequate follow-up re-ports. Owing to the skill and the great amount of time neededto apply the method, it cannot be used, even if it were effective,in a large school system with a large number of stutterers.11

As we have before intimated, it is impossible to determinewith absolute accuracy the type of imagery which any onemay use in connection with a given word. This is particularlytrue when the subject finds it hard to determine introspectivelywhat images actually appeared with different words. Our timedid not enable us to secure extensive introspective data fromthe subject of this investigation. The data we did secure indi-cated that his word imagery was of the mixed type. In thefollowing tabulation we have given the words in each seriesin which the imagery ought, apparently, to be predominantlyauditory.

The time required to give reaction-words to these " auditorywords " is the same as the normal rate in Series II (p. 360) andlonger in Series I, III and IV, but the difference is negligiblein III and IV. In fact, the median (4.2) for the auditory

Series ISmgScreamTalk

Series IIScreamSwear

Senes IIIMusicWhistleBarkingCallingRattlingCrySingingStampingNoiseThunder

Senes IVDarnDam

11 We have found peripheral methods more successful The methodof contracting the muscles of the lower jaw, with blow, deliberatespeech, and sometimes with contraction of the hands, works fairlywell with some cases, while the method of muscular relaxation and men-tal sangfroid gives fair results with others


TIME FOR REACTION-WORDSAverage.. 10.8 5.6 6 2 5.0

TIME FOR REPRODUCTIONSAverage 4.2 3.8 6 4 4.2

words in Series III , which contains the largest number, isslightly smaller than the median for all the words in III. Thetimes for the reproduction of the reaction-words are all shorterthan the normal rates in all the Series except III. Seven ofthe seventeen reproductions were wrong, but the time was notabnormally long in these except in one instance. We cannotconclude from the association experiment that for this subjectany special significance attaches to auditory words, that hesuffers from auditory amnesia or that auditory amnesia hasaught to do with his stuttering. While we do not considerthe reaction experiment as absolutely conclusive on this point,the words on which the subject stuttered the worst (p. 364)were not auditory in character. Moreover, we explained clearlythe theory of auditory amnesia and told the boy that his stutter-ing was due to his inability to get auditory images, and thatit would disappear after he had learned to think of how thewords are going to sound before he attempts to speak them.He said he thought he had been able to get auditory imagesof words. Nevertheless we asked him to practice daily athome (during the last three weeks) on imaging the soundsof words. In our daily exercises we also had him spend a cer-tain amount of time in the effort to get vivid auditory imagesbefore he attempted to utter words on which he had frequentlystuttered. He was frequently told to close the eyes and keephis mind on the sound of the word. If he was unable mentallyto hear the sound, he was told to whisper the word When hefelt that he had a clear image of the sound he was asked tospeak the word and was assured that he would be able to doso without any difficulty. These exercises seemed to lessenthe tendency to stutter at the moment—possibly due to theconfidence we instilled in him—but the subject continued tostutter on the same words on other occasions, and we saw nopermanent improvement from the employment of these exer-cises within the time limits of the experiment. We felt thatthe subject obtained more benefit from our physical-relaxationand mental-composure exercises than from the "auditory"exercises. From our own experience with stuttering cases wefeel that much more work of scientific caliber must be donebefore the newer theories of the affliction can be accepted asproved. This work will probably have to be done by men whocome to the problem without prepossessions.

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