The views expressed in the book are those of the author and not

of UNESCO

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

A. RAHMAN

UNESCO REGIONAL OFFICE 15 Jjbrbagh, N e w Delhi-110003

The author is

M e m b e r , Academy of Science (Berlin)

Fellow, Science Policy Foundation (U.K.)

Fellow, Operational Research Society of India President, International Council Science of Policy Studies

Vice-President, Research Committee of Science & Politics,

International Political Science Association

President, R & D Planning & Management Study

President, Forum for Science Technology & Society

Printed by I N S D O C , Hillside Road, N e w Delhi-110012.

P R E F A C E

This study has been undertaken within the framework of U N E S C O under the theme:

"Expression of knowledge of the condition enabling Science and Technology to take roots and development of the socio-cultural and ethical implications of Scientific and Technological Progress"

to provide interaction between science, technology and society, and empha­sis would be placed on inter-disçiplinary approach taking into account cultural and social sectors within the framework of evolution of civilization.

I was invited by U N E S C O to study in depth the basic philosophy of science and its application to the development of science and technology. Fhe scope of the study.covered:

i. Conceptual framework ii. Growth of Science in terms of development of education R & D

system and the scientific community, iii. Application of philosophy and its impact on: Import, adapta­

tion and development of technology and their impact on indi­genous innovative system; and the utilisation of indigenous R & D system to national development,

iv. Impact of technology in different strata of society and social

development v. Promotion of scientific outlook as seen from its impact on

attitude and behaviour of people. vi. Cultural changes as a result of scientific knowledge and techno­

logical innovation vii. Future possible directions. A study of the available literature suggests that the development of

science and technology was guided by an underlying philosophy. It would, therefore, be necessary to clearly spell out the basic philosophy and examine the developments in its light.

In the Plan of the book, two possible courses could be followed. Firstly, each of the issues could be isolated and discussed and supported with quantitative data. Secondly, the issues could be discussed as a part of the social problems as a whole in the context of objectives and goals, policies and programmes and the results. Since a large number of papers, reports and books have been written following the former pattern, as would be evident from the bibliography at the end, an attempt was made to follow the second approach. In the presentation of the material, an effort was to pose isssues and problems to provide an overall perspective. This approach m a y be of some use in developing a perspective of science policy and appreciation of science and society interface.

A . R A H M A N

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge with gratitude the help of m y former colleagues Sarvashri

M . A . Qureshi and S.P. Gupta for their help in processing some material

and statistical data, Shri R . P . Thakral for typing the script and Shri A .

Wahid for his help in various ways, and Sarvashri V . Ramachándran and

Banerji and their colleagues for layout and printing.

I a m thankful to Unesco Regional office, Dr. Derkatch thlp Director

and Shri R . P . Gulati for providing m e the apportunity of undertaking the

work and their various helpful suggestions.

I a m also indebted to Director, N I S T A D S for permitting rrie to use

the material from m y book: "Science & Technology in India".

C O N T E N T S

Preface

1. Introduction 1

2. Some Basic Features and Assumptions 7

3. Development of Infrastructure

(i) Education 15

(ii) Organisation of Research Systems 27

4. Science Policy and Planning of Research 39

5. Feedback Mechanisms 65

6. Scientific Outlook — Popularisation of Science 79

7. N e w Perspectives and Possible Lines of Action for the Future 87

8. References 99

9. Bibliography 101

10. Appendices

(i) Scientific Policy Resolution 131

(ii) Technology Policy Statement 133

INTRODUCTION

The course of the Second World War , as it came to be increasingly deter­mined by technological innovations and use of science in its conduct, bro­ught to surface the possibilities which science and technology engendered in the reconstruction of society at the end of the warl. One book, and the ideas it contained, played a major role in crystallising and organising opinion towards that end. It was J .D . Bernal's Social Functions of Science2.

During the war, besides major innovations, like nuclear fission, which unleashed untold possibilities of release of energy, the discovery of anti­biotics and the possibilities it opened in the treatment of infections, and the development of disciplines like Operational Research 3, created the possibility of use of science in management and development.

At the end of the war, when Europe and other countries, which were affected by it, got involved with the problems of reconstruction, the role of science and technology came to be considered as crucial. The general thinking of the period could be understood — the possibilities and hopes — through such publications as Science and the Nation^.

While war was raging in Europe, two parallel developments were taking place in India. The first of these was the promotion and develop­ment of science and technology for meeting the needs of war, particularly in the Eastern sector. This latetf led to undertaking of industrial research, as well as establishment of industries to meet the immediate needs of1 war and opened up the possibilities of use of science and technology for develop­ment of the country5. The British Government initiated the development of science and technology institutions at the end of war.

The second development was the national movement which while fighting for independence was also planning for the future development of the country. A national planning committee was organised under the chairmanship of Nehru°\ The committee had a number of scientists as members, w h o contributed in two ways:

i. the development of science and technology itself, ii. the latter's use in the development of industries.

Indian national movement, though united for the political purpose of achieving independence, was not united ideologically. It represented diverse views, often pulling in opposite directions. This was also reflected in the attitude of people, w h o constituted the national movement , towards science and technology.

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There was the Gandhian stream. Though Gandhi himself was open-minded, m a n y of his views were medieval and were not in consonance with the existing knowledge. With regard to technology, he was for the promotion of handicrafts, artisans, village and cottage industries. Through his ideas and his insistence on the use of products of cottage industries, he had brought artisans and craftsmen within the fold of the national movement . Though he did not rule out completely large scale organised industry, he reacted against the exploitation and dehumanisation which accompanied it. Further, in the context of India, with its tradition of crafts and its vast population, he felt that cottage and small scale industries could not be done away with for a long time to come and would be able to provide useful work and employment to people. In addition, in his concept of state, Pan-chayat Raj, the decentralised production system based on small and cottage industries had a vital role to play.

The second stream was represented by socialists. The socialist thought also presented a wide spectrum. Those w h o believed in socialist ideology combined in them scientific ideas and rationalism. They believed that only socialist system, in contrast to capitalism, would provide possibilities for development of science, realisation of technological potential and help in creating a n e w society based on equalities and justice and providing opportu­nities to all. Their views with regard to the extent of state control and centralised planning were varied.

Nehru's thinking about the future social set-up and the place of science and technology is reflected in the blueprint prepared for the future of India, under his chairmanship, by the national planning committee of the Indian National Congress. Nehru believed in centralised planning, and the use of the latter in giving the desired shape and proper direction to social development. H e was also convinced that the latter was not possible without the proper development of science and technology and their effective use as an instrument of social change. His model was similar to that of the Soviet Union. These ideas, modified suitably in the context of the situation, he endeavoured to put into practice w h e n he became the Prime Minister. O n e of the first things he created in the government was to a Department of Scientific Research and Natural Resources, followed by the creation of the Planning Commission. In addition, he endeavoured to create the nece­ssary infrastructure for science and technology.

The third stream was represented by the then emerging industrialists. They were essentially financers, with a few exceptions. It were the latter w h o in the teeth of opposition of the British had endeavoured to create in­dustries. These industries, however, were not developed on the basis of either upscaling of the crafts—based industries or through indigenous research effort, and using available raw materials. The industries were built up by and large around imported technology or knowledge acquired in Europe. The Indian industrialists had prepared a plan for the future development of

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India, which came to be popularly k n o w n as Tata-Birla Plan7. The blueprint only covered the industrial development and its pattern, in contrast to the social context of planning which was being undertaken under the chair­manship of Nehru. There was the need for import of technology for indus­trial development, but- no place for research, other than what was required for trouble-shooting at the factory level.

The industrialists had supported thé national movement in a substan­tial manner and had kept close contact with the national political leadership. They, however, believed in free enterprise, were against government regula­tion of industry and wanted free import of technology. In fact, in a m e m o ­randum to Nehru they had even opposed the creation of indigenous R & D system — the CSIR — on the plea that it would c o m e in the w a y of free import of technology8.

The last stream was represented by foreign interests, which had m a d e investment in India; they wanted to expand and had an eye on the future market possibilities. They had built up linkages with the local financiers, in­dustrialists as well as political leadership to promote their interests and keep their control over the market.

The interest of the last two groups was-not in science but only in technology, to m a k e the products which had possibilities in the market, or develop the market for the goods they produced. Their vision of a future society was one in which they could expand their industry and market their goods.

The development which took place in India was a result of the inte­raction of these four trends of thought and the pulls and pressures these exerted at various levels and through different forums. However, one person w h o shaped and guided the development of science and technology, in the context of the situation and despite various pressures, sometimes giving in and on m a n y occasions having his w a y , was Jawaharlal Nehru.

Nehru had scientific training, and despite his involvement in the poli­tical struggles he had retained his interest in science and had tried to keep himself abreast of developments through his readings as well as his friend­ship with leading scientists. Nehru accepted the prevalent basic philosophy of science as was advocated by those scientists of Europe w h o believed in different hues of socialist ideology, considered that capitalistic system was misusing science for profit instead of solving social problems and meeting h u m a n needs. H e thought and endeavoured to promote science and techno­logy, organise it effectively and channelise its use in a definite direction for meeting national needs as well as h u m a n requirements.

W h e n he came to assume the strewardship of the country, he kept in close touch with the developments of science and with leading scientist from all over the world. H e attended and addressed the annual sessions of the Indian Science Congress Association and use the occasion to meet scientists, discuss with them problems of science and its future develop-

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ments and possibilities, its organisation as well as its utilisation for national development.

While Nehru implemented his ideas, ideas about science and techno­logy underwent a slow but definite change. The euphoria created and hopes engendered soon petered- out. The increasing misuse of scientific knowledge and technological capabilities for purposes of war and exploitation on the one hand and the h u m a n and social problems engendered by techno-indus-trial complex on the other; increasing control of resources in a few hands, created the need for critical analysis to understand the nature of science and technology and its interface with society. As a result of this thinking and the studies carried out, n e w perceptions emerged.

These perception were the result of two-fold experiences. It was expressed that as science would grow and technological capabilities would develop, m a n y problems faced by society — of poverty, food and nutrition, health-care, housing and other basic needs — would be solved. This had not happened. Not only that these problems continued, but m a n y more arose, as a result of the adoption of n e w technologies. Science and technology, instead of bringing about an equitable and just society, had created greater inequality among nations on the one hand and among different sections of society on the other. Ir was also realised that as a result of the development of the industry and the practices it had .followed, causing heavy pollu­tion of land, water resources and atmosphere, the environment was being threatened seriously.

Secondly, it was noticed that though the spread of scientific k n o w ­ledge had widened the horizons of a few, it did not bring about a major change in the outlook and attitude of people. In fact, scientific knowledge came to be utilised as an instrument of power — to continue an unequitable and unjust society as well as ruthless and wasteful exploitation of natural resources in the pursuit of immediate and limited gains. This was done without any consideration for the future. It was particularly so in the area of nonrenewable resources.

These realisations posed a number of questions: What is the purpose of science and the objective for which it is utilised? Should technology be allowed to determine the lives of people and shape h u m a n relations? Should technology be given a free hand to shape society as well as the future?

Until these questions were raised, the prevailing ideas had put forth the concept that science and technology had their internal logic of develop­ment and that they were socially, cultrually and ethically neutral. In other words, their advance could only be judged by the factor of sophistication. The n e w experiences and the questions which were raised created a n e w per­ception on science, changed the ideas of people and brought back all those considerations which were considered to be extraneous in the judgement of science and technology — social, cultural and ethical factors came to be

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used increasingly in the understanding of science and technology, in the evaluation of their progress and in their utilisation to meet social require­ments.

It came to be suggested that instead of giving a free hand to techno­logy to shape society, social needs should determine the evolution of techno­logy and its utilisation be subjected to social, cultural and ethical considera­tions.

This trend of thinking gave rise to two n e w disciplines related to the interface of natural science and technology with social sciences — Techno­logy Forecasting and Technology Assessment. The studies carried out, it was expected, would be fed into the decision-making system with regard to choice of research problems and the utilisation of technology.

In looking at the development of science and technology in India, the three features briefly indicated above, viz. perception of science, inter­national trends and various trends in the national movement , have to be kept in mind. The philosophy of science, the policies of science, the orga­nisational structure, and the latter's functioning arose out of the pulls and pressures exerted by them.

O n e more dimension is required to be kept in mind — the policies and programmes as they were formulated, and the transformation, if any, occur­ring during implementation. The latter is particularly important in view of the differences in ideologies of those w h o formulated the policies and programmes and those w h o implemented them. Finally, the differences in results expected and those realised in practice have to be kept in view.

Development of science has often been examined in terms of different branches of science, and within the latter, as development of ideas, theories, concepts or techniques and methods. While viewing the problem in such a manner two vital dimensions are lost sight of. The first of these is the deve­lopment of science as a part of social perception and political objectives. Plato's works and Diderot's encyclopaedia clearly bring out the latter di­mension of science. Further, scientific developments also generate n e w social perceptions as well as political ambitions. The former would be evident from such literature as Saint Simon's work, or H . G . Well's book. The political dimensions would be evident from a study of the efforts m a d e by U S A to control atomic energy in a manner in which her o w n war-time allies were exclüdedl2.

The second dimension which is left out in such a treatment is the relationship between science and technology. Till recently, it was technology which was posing problems for science and this led to a whole series of developments. It was the steam engine which led to the development of thermodynamics, and the problem of alcohol manufacture which led to the development of fermentation and microbiology. The relationship has rever­sed n o w . It is science which is creating n e w technologies — in such areas as microprocessors, bio-technology, etc.

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These dimensions are important if one tries to raise basic questions and search for answers for them: W h y does political leadership support science? What is its objective in doing so? What does it want to achieve through it? Answers to these questions can be sought from a study of the relative emphasis a branch of science receives in preference to others. For instance, the emphasis on nuclear energy and space in U S A was designed to meet the requirements of control for political purpose as well as demonstra­tion of leadership position. Equally important is to consider the w a y science is organised and institutions are built and lastly the w a y science is used in changing society — its structure and values.

The question that naturally arises is: H o w do w e evaluate the progress of science — in terms of science itself or in terms of objectives and goals? Ever since the acceptance of Cartesian concept of science, in contrast to the Galilean concept, the only factor which was used to evaluate the progress of science came to be the factor of sophistication. It had its advantages. This is n o w being questioned seriously, and factors which were considered outside the frame of science are being brought in to evaluate the development of science. These factors pertain to social, cultural and ethical and philosophical areas.

Another aspect arising out of the second look at science and its characteristic features is the reconsideration of development, nature and content of science of the preindustrial period, particularly of the non-Euro­pean culture area. Joseph Needham's work on China 1 ' opened a n e w win­d o w . Later studies on Japanl4, West Asial5 and Indial° not only created a n e w awareness about the development of science in Asia, but raised m a n y questions about the linkages of science and society, and social, cultural and ethical dimensions and prompted reconsideration of the conceptual frame­work of European sciencel7. This is an important element in the understanding of science and its development in contemporary India, since it raises the question of the linkage of contemporary science with that of the earlier tradition. Asian cultures, India included, are facing a number of problems as a result of contemporary developments. There is a pull of the past, based on the understanding of earlier civilisations, and there is a push to the future, which is generated by the development of science and technology. These opposite pulls are tending to tear the society apart.

The policies evolved for the development of science and technology and applied to the latter's promotion, have to take these factors into account as a part of the change in ideas about science itself as well as the social ethos in which the policies were evolved and programmes organised and imple-mentioned. A reflection of these could be found in an admirable and historic development* the Scientific Policy Resolution passed by the Indian Parlia­ment on 4 March 1958, twenty-six years ago.

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SOME BASIC FEATURES AND ASSUMPTIONS

Philosophical concepts, implicit or explicit, are abstractions of reality and when found valid tend to assume universality. Furthermore, they are often believed to be without social and historical linkages, and hence are consi­dered valid for all times. Historical studies of science and technology would, however, indicate that philosophical concepts do undergo changes as well as evolution as a result of new knowledge gained, newer perspectives developed, and the n e w technological capabilities acquired. These are, in turn, deeply influenced and affected by the social organisation, economic struc­ture, political objectives and cultural ethos of a society. All these factors operate in a system which is in a state of unstable equilibrium. A n y change in one disturbs the state and initiates changes in others, and the latter continue till another state is established. In other words, as an ancient Greek philosopher, Heraclitus, had said, everything is in a state of flux Consequently, one has to study each of the factors, not in a state of isola­tion, but as an interplay of forces within a complex system in a state of flux.

Philosophy of science, as an abstraction of ideas and knowledge, is not likely to be of m u c h help in understanding science as a social movement . T o understand science as a social movement , it would be desirable to study the perceptions and visions philosophy of science engenders, h o w these are translated" into policies, and their various dimensions, which become the guiding spirit in the organisation and promotion of science, development of an area of research or specific programmes. It is equally important to study the w a y it guides the establishment of institutions, and the purposes the institutions are expected to serve. The guiding philosophy determines the relationship of one set of institutions with others, such as agriculture and industry and those of the government. In addition, it also determines the relationship of these with other social institutions, such as those connec­ted with culture, social traditions, religion and the practices relating to them.

Further, philosophy of science which emerges in a period of time is also a product of the socio-economic system of the society and the prevailing cultural ethos. In other words, philosophy of science is not merely a product of internal development and growth of scientific knowledge.

The change in educational system from the medieval period to that after the industrial revolution — from a generalised form of education for gentlemen of leisure to specialised education to produce skilled workers for factories, and for research brought about the development of new educational

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institutions for the latter. Besides the changes in the structure of university through creation of research facilities, creation of institutes of technology is worth mentioning. In addition to research in university, it also led to the creation of specialised R & D institutions. The latter are another dis­tinguishing feature of industrial society, to pursue goal oriented research. Investments in these laboratories and research programmes were m a d e in the hope of expected returns from these. A n d scientists became scientific workers.

H o w culture, social traditions and religion affect the philosophical framework and practice of science has been brought about in a number of studies. Rashedl9 has indicated as to h o w the need for working out prayer times and direction of Kaaba in Islamic civilisation gave an impetus to astro­n o m y and geography. Kewal R a m ' s work and Nilkanth's work, in trying to find commonality between astronomical observations and those mentioned in Puranas also illustrate the point20. The evolution of science in Japan after the Meiji revolution, particularly the role of Samurai class, whose privileges were withdrawn, in giving a specific framework to technological developments for specific purposes, illustrate the cultural and social dimen-sions21. H o w political linkages and the political ethos could give shape to a particular school within a branch of science has been well illustrated in the institutionalisation of social science by Burke in the rise of Durkheim school in France22.

Philosophy of science, in other words, has to be taken as a philosophy engendered by the interaction of n e w knowledge and ideas generated by scientific discoveries with society as a system in all its complexities and interconnections.

The study of the philosophy of science and its application to scientific and technological advance in India would also necessitate a study of the perceptions of science and technology and the purposes for which it was sought to be promoted. These have also to be studied in the context of a society which has emerged from colonial rule, through the trauma of parti­tion, and as it endeavoured to achieve the objectives and goals set before it by the national movement .

At the time of independence, India was faced with serious próbelms of considerable immensity like those of illiteracy, poverty, lack of food and health, and a host of other problems. In addition, there were the pro­blems of outlook and attitude of people, the social and cultural ethos generated by colonisation and the ruthless exploitation of the resources and the people of the country. In addition, the consequences of nearly a hundred years of colonial education, the intellectual outlook of inferiority and dependence it generated, the disruption of culture arising out of the destruc­tion of scientific and technological tradition and the destruction of indus-ties, have also to be taken into account.

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In this context, it would be worth while to mention that the coloni­sation of the country had resulted in the delinking of the past scientific and technological traditions with the later developments. In addition, European scholars had tried to paint a picture of Indian culture and civilisation as purely religious, based .on mystical and mythological ideas and spiritual values. They also endeavoured to m a k e out that science and technology was a product of European mind and culture, which was their gift to countries of Asia. Indians could acquire it only through cultivating and imitating the British23.

The political leadership took upon themselves the task of transforming this backward country to a well-developed country in the shortest possible time. They hoped to do so by mobilising the people and resources with a view to meeting the basic needs of people and by changing their outlook and attitude to m a k e development a self-sustaining process. Science was considered a key instrument in this process.

This effort, apart from the development of educational infrastructure, and a massive effort at mass education, also required a two-fold strategy, as the experience of other countries had shown. Firstly, it required political intervention and mobilisation of administrative machinery in the implemen­tation of the programme. For the latter to be effective, the administration was required to be in sympathy with programmes and to share the value systems, objectives and purposes as enumerated by the political leadership. Secondly, it required mass mobilisation of people, by inspiring them with a net oudook and attitude and by promising them the fruits of development. The French revolution developed an ideology well illustrated by the E n c y c ­lopaedist movement , and by mobilising scientists and other sections of society in the service of the revolution, mobilised people by inspiring them with a n e w hope and faith in future. The same purpose and role in U S S R 2 4 , socialist countries and China were achieved through a more institutionalised approach. The cadres of the Communist parties in thse countries performed a dual role; they were checking the administrative implementation of the programmes as well as persuading the people to accept the value system, objectives and purposes as enumerated by the political leadership and mobilising them for achieving them.

The credit for evolving a philosophy and perspective and developing machinery and procedure for policy-making in India goes to Jawaharlal Nehru, w h o was one of the few, if not the only one, of the political leaders of the world in his time, to have an abiding faith in science and the role which technology could play in national resurgence. H e went so far as to say that future belongs to those w h o cultivate science and befriend scien­tists.

Nehru's philosophy could be inferred from his strategy for the promo­tion of science and technology and the role he envisaged for their develop-

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ment. This could be summarised as follows: a. Creating social consciousness amongst scientists, by posing

social problems before them and asking them to try to find answers. This he did at various meetings he addressed, parti­cularly at the annual sessions of the Indian Science Congress Association, which he m a d e it a point to attend regularly;

b. Making administrators conscious of the utility of science, by involving scientists in various committees;

c. Involving scientists in the decision-making process; d. Using scientific knowledge in the reforms he proposed to under­

take, as, for instance, in the use of metric system and the pre­paration of an Indian calender;

e. Giving support to science and technology; he spent a great deal of time and effort in creating a base for scientific and technological research, against the opposition of industrialists, administrators and some of his partymen; and

f. Promoting scientific temper. Nehru k n e w that science could not flourish merely by creating an infrastructure in a society which was steeped in superstition; he, therefore, m a d e considerable effort himself, and repeatedly pointed out to the scientists the need for the popularisation of scientific outlook amongst the people. H e wanted to m a k e science and technology a part of Indian culture. H e thought this to be a critical factor in the development of science and technology in India2 5.

Promotion and utilisation of science is, therefore, to be seen in the context of social, cultural, economic and political goals set by the political leadership, all of which has been so eloquently summarised in the text of the Scientific Policy Resolution. The document not only states the social, cultural and economic goals, but clearly enunciates a philosophy, a perspec­tive of science and the purposes for which it is to be promoted and utilised. Science was to be cultivated and promoted as a part of country's tradition, to solve the country's problems, since it could m a k e up for deficiencies of resour­ces, and for diffusion of culture. A few passages, as given below, bring out the philosophy of the Resolution.

"The dominating feature of the contemporary world is the intense cultivation of science on a large scale and its application to meet country's requirements. It is this, which, for the first time in man's history, has given to the c o m m o n m a n in coun­tries advanced in science, a standard of living and social and cultural amenities, which were once confined to a very small privileged minority of population. Science has led to the growth and diffusion of culture to an extent never possible before...

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"It is only through the scientific approach and method and the use of scientific knowledge that reasonable material and cultural amenities and services can be provided for every m e m b e r of the community

""The use of h u m a n material for industrialisation demands its education in science and training in technical skills....

"Science and technology can m a k e up for deficiencies in raw materials by providing substitutes

"It is an inherent obligation of a great country like India, with •its tradition of scholarship and original thinking and its great cultural heritage, to participate fully in the march of scie­n c e . . . . ' ^

The basic philosophy inherent in these statements gives an impression of science affecting society always in a beneficial manner and the relation­ship between science and society as linear and unidirectional. The growth of scientific knowledge and technological capabilities was seen to continuously affect society by modifying and changing it. The Resolution did not give any hint on h o w m a n and society reacted to these changes in the scientific and technological system, or h o w science and technology was misused for destructive purposes or pursuit of profit, or h o w these reactions or pursuits affected the trends and growth of science, or its character or nature.

The faith in science, that its growth would set right the prevalent conditions and the euphoria created, at the end of the war, by the rapid developments of science and the possibilities it engendered for a complete restructuring of the society, m a d e m a n y eminent people to overlook the nexus between knowledge and power and the w a y this nexus had worked to help colonial powers in the domination and exploitation of the colo­nies, and in making technology as a powerful factor for promoting in-equality27. it was because of such views that the emerging nexus bet­ween military, industry and science was overlooked as also the w a y science and technology by providing new and even more destructive weapons gave dominant role to those countries which were advanced in science and tech­nology.

It is not that the framers of the Resolution were not aware of these developments. In fact, they were, but their contention appears to be that, the use of science yvas decided and controlled by the political leadership and the socio-economic set-up of society. India, wedded to the use of science for social progress and justice, for meeting the needs of people and for social and cultural advancement, was to use science and technology for beneficial purposes only. This guiding philosophy needs emphasis in exa­mining the impact of the use of science and technology in the country and the results it produced.

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Further, since the use of science was to be directed and controlled by scientific knowledge and the rationality it engendered, and for beneficial purposes, the question of its misuse did not arise. It was expected that the deleterious effects would be controlled through judicious use of k n o w ­ledge. Such an approach necessitated a scientific outlook and rational ethos of society. The latter was sought to be promoted.

A closer and critical look, however, also reveals prevalence of the belief that scientific results and technological advances being in the interest of so­ciety, and being of help in social, economic and cultural advancement, would be acceptable to m a n and society. In other words, the basic philosophy which guided the use of results of research and scientific knowledge gene­rated appeared to be: if it is good or useful it would be automatically used. Such an approach also implied that any change and modification which is considered in the interest of the growth of science or for the development of society would be automatically accepted, or accepted without m u c h opposi­tion or resistance. These assumptions appear to ignore the need for genera­ting a n e w ethos which would be conducive to the growth of science and products of indigenous technology. Further, it also tended to minimise the role of market factors (in a free economy or semi-controlled economy which India had adopted) and the dimensions of innovation chain and policies, prac­tices and controls required at various points. Last of all it also ignored the role of international forces, represented by the scientific and technological domi­nation of Europe and U S A and their interest in India's economy and market. Such an assumption also ignored the possible opposition to change. A n y change affecting the existing relations between institutions and m e n was likely to be, and often was, resisted by those w h o were likely to be, or had the fear of being, adversely affected. Further, since unanimity or even consensus between the political and scientific leadership, or within each of these communities on various issues concerning the growth of science and its likely impact on society might not be possible, every decision was likely to generate controversy and opposition. Hence, m a n y changes could not onlV be resisted, but they could be allowed to create unforeseen tensions and consequences. Development is not an objective but a process, and as a pro­cess it is one of the conflicts between forces which are for status quo and those which are for change.

Considering science as a key to the process of development, the poli­tical leadership set upon itself the task of consciously organising science and integrating it with the planning process. A n d science was organised through the' expansion and development of the education and research systems, by creating the necessary infrastructure and by providing necessary resources for their rapid development. In order to achieve the objective of rapid deve­lopment, infrastructure framework and institutional structure were imported from the advanced countries. The concept of universality of science was extended to infrastructure as well as institutions.

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Facts of science are universal, but institutions and organisational structures are created to meet specific social and political needs in a defined economic structure and cultural ethos. These institutions with their linkages with other institutions, and being a part of a defined economic system and having specific roles, respond to changing needs as well as to the develop­ment and growth of other institutions. Consequently, the transplant of institutions, which had grown and developed in a historical context in a given social and economic framework, to another economic, social and cul­tural ethos, is difficult. The implied acceptance of the concept of universa­lity of institutions, however, prompted seeking the advice of scientists of the advanced countries, and the creation and transplant of institutions on the pattern of those in the advanced countries — the latter, often with the financial support of one or the other advanced country, as well as the borrowing of faculty from the specific countries, or through recruitment of nationals trained in those countries. Each of these institutions thus be­came an outpost of the institution of an advanced country.

The philosophy which guided the creation of a few advanced centres of education and research in India had three basic considerations. The first of these was paucity of resources, which came effectively in the w a y of up­grading and developing the existing institutions. It was also thought that the effort to change the existing institutions would take considerable time, which also the country could not afford. Secondly, in order to overcome this limitation, n e w advanced institutions were created to act as models and catalytic agents of change for the existing institutions. The high level of their standard and attainments, it was thought, would act as a motivation for change and achievement of excellence in the existing ones. Lastly, to catch up with the most advanced countries in the shortest possible time, the country, it was thought, needed highly trained and specialised scientists and technologists. The n e w institutions were also expected to meet the urgent national needs in the shortest possible time.

Science cannot grow in a society which is inimical or indifferent to science and its values. India, with its illiteracy, prevalent superstitions and fatalistic outlook at the time of independence, needed a change in outlook of the people and the soical ethos. Education in science and the outlook generated through the dissemination and popularisation of science were expected to bring about the promotion of "scientific temper". It was a major feature of the guiding philosophy, later to be incorporated in the constitution of the country as a duty of every citizen.

The basic philosophy and the approach to the development of infra­structure and m a n p o w e r were sound. Once a strong infrastructure was deve­loped and a large body of scientists came into existence, they could fruit­fully interact with the society, to shape policies and give direction to further growth; what, however, was lacking was a well-defined programme, like the one which was formulated to promote scientific outlook amongst people, to

13

m a k e them realise' the importance of science and technology as a strong instrument In their hands for the transformation of their lives, and to pro­mote their faith in their o w n future being in their o w n hands. Such a pro­g r a m m e was particularly needed in India, in view of the social and cultural ethos created by years of colonisation and British policies in the field of education. In the absence of a well-defined programme and machinery to implement ft, it became the most neglected aspect of scientific development. S o m e of the consequences of this neglect were:

1. Scientists came to be solely interested in institution building or preoccupied with research projects.

2. Isolation of science and technology from c o m m o n people increased, and in the absence of its linkage with the science and technology of the past, it remained for most people an alien system. The problem of language added to itç isolation.

3. The ideological vacuum was filled by medieval concepts and philosophies. These became popular with educated elites and

even scientists became victims of anti-scientific ideas or views. 4 . Science and scientific activity confined itself to limited objec­

tives, as stated above, and the results of research did riot reach the people and did not benefit them; they started looking else­where for the solution of their problems.

It was the realisation by Mrs. Gandhi of the possible consequences of isolation of people from science and technology that prompted her to raise this issue at the Science Congress Session at Waltair. She also pleaded for pro­motion of scientific temper as one of the duties of the Constitution. Her efforts like the earlier ones were not institutionalized; nor were social and political forces mobilised for working out and implementing a well-defined prog­r a m m e . Scientists themselves were not attracted to this programme, as it was to bring them in conflict with social forces and was likely to jeopardise their careers.

The study endeavours to examine the operation of the basic philo­sophy, as indicated, and its impact on the evolution of science and techno­logy in India and its utilisation for achieving the stated objectives.

14

DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE

(i) Education

The problems faced by the country at the time of independence in the field of education can be briefly summarised as:

1. Large scale illiteracy; 2. Limited facilities for school, college and university level edu*

cation, particularly in the field of science and technology; 3. Hardly any facilities for training of technicians-, 4 . Limited facilities for professional education in such fields as

engineering, medicine; and 5. Absence of facilities for research at all levels.

The national movement , from the very beginning, had been concerned with the problem of education, in terms of expansion of facilities as well as changing the content. It experimented with a number of ideas. The chief amongst the latter was mixing of the traditional education with the contemporary developments in knowledge. As a part of the boycott of English education, educational experimentation and such institutions as Jarnia Millia Islamia at Delhi, and Kashi Vidyapeeth. at Varanasi were established, where knowledge was imparted in Urdu and Hindi respectively. In addition, such schemes as Wardha Educational Scheme and Basic 'Edu­cation Scheme were also developed which covered technical dimension at an early stage of education.

It m a y be worthwhile to mention in this context that educational institutions established and the experiments carried out ignored the scientific and technological developments which had taken place and the possibilities they had opened. In the absence of emphasis on science and technology, a considerable content of the education system, which was termed as natio­nalistic education, was revivalistic. Those w h o came out of these institutions, by and large, looked to the past and tended to pattern the future in the light of the past. The emphasis on craft education also did not aim at the use of latest technology, but on the "traditional technology", which had been in use in India since time immemorial. There was no attempt to undertake research to improve and further develop the technology.

Under the concept of developing national education, a large number of schools, colleges and universities have been created, given the status and

15

recognised and provided with resources. These institutions are associated with different regions or different sects of a religion, they teach in classi­fied languages and their system of education and course content is medieval; at least it does not take into account contemporary development in science and technology and its implications.

It is difficult to say whether these institutions are a result of the growth of revivalism and'fundamentalism, of obscurantism and irrationalism, and the spread of practices such as those connected with astrology, tantrism and belief in magical occult happenings or they have promoted these. They, in fact, nourish and reinforce each other.

The growth of such tendencies requires serious attention and study in the context of the philosophy enunciated by the Scientific Policy Reso­lution. The Resolution had placed faith in science and social transforma­tion through it. What does this revival imply? Does this m e a n rejection of science-technology model of social transformation? Is it a reaction to the inadequacy and lack of utility of the education imparted to a vast majority of students? Or is it due to the failure to impart systematic education in science and generation of scientific outlook? The present situation m a y be the result of all the factors combined. .

At the time of independence, highest importance was given to edu­cation and there was the Constitutional directive for the removal of illiteracy and providing free and compulsory education up to the age of fourteen. In addition to the above, the government set upon itself the task of expanding the existing facilities, creating institutions for those areas where there were gaps and creating facilities for the development of education in newer areas, particularly in the field science and technology, train personnel at various levels and of different categories to meet the demands for trained personnel, for education, undertaking scientific and technological research, to m a n industries and to provide n e w inputs to agriculture. The scale of deve­lopment would be evident from the increase in literacy, increase in the number of students, institutions and scale of investment. The progress m a d e towards the removal of illiteracy would be evident from the fact that only 16.6% of the people were literate in the country in 1951, while at the time of 1981 census the proportion of literates was 36.23%. The increase in literacy in three decades, it m a y be noticed, was 20% and did not meet the requirements of the Constitutional directive. Further, due to increase in population, the total number of illiterate persons increased from 37.23 crore in 1971 to 42.45 crore in 198128.

Government's effort in the area of universalisation of education, however, fell far short of the target. For instance, during the Fifth Plan, it was expected that in the age group 6-11 years covering Classes I-V, 95% of the total population would be covered. The actual achievement in 1980-81 was 83%. In the case of girls, the actual achievement was even less; it was almost half of that in the case of boys. For the age group 11-14 years cove-

16

ring the VI-VII classes, the total population covered was only 40% and in the case of girls it was m u c h less29. in other words, the target of free and compulsory education up to the age of 14 years is far from being achieved.

In the field of technical education, to provide for technical manpower at the middle level, a. large number of polytechnics were opened. At the present m o m e n t , 400 polytechnics are functioning with a capacity for enrolment of about 65,000. For higher level education leading to bachelors degree in engineering, 214 colleges are working, the enrolment capacity being 39,000. 96 institutions offer post-graduate training facilities. In addition, five Institutes of Technology and the Indian Insitute of Science, Bangalore provide training and research facilities O.

Though technical education over the last three decades m a d e consi­derable contribution to national development, the outturn of graduates and diploma holders was not keeping pace with the admission. The shorfall was due to different backgrounds of students, inadequate utilisation of instructional facilities, lack of adequate departmental operating costs, and motivation of staff and students, amongst others.

T o improve the quality of technical education, the government ini­tiated, in 1970, 'Quality Improvement Programmes' for engineering facul­ties. In 1976-77, the Directorate of Central Assistance Scheme was started to extend special direct assistance to selected engineering colleges and polytechnics for development of identified laboratories relevant and impor­tant for improvement of quality and standards of technical education. Under a scheme started in 1978-79, 35 polytechnics were selected for deve­lopment as 'community polytechnics' to act as focal points to promote the transfer of technology to the rural sector. Under the 'Advanced Technicians Course', three polytechnics in three different regions have been conducting courses in specialised fields. Four boards of Apprenticeship Practical Trai­ning carry on the relevant programmes.

For the university level education, at the m o m e n t , 120 universities and 13 institutions deemed to be universities provide opportunities for higher education.

The plan outlay for education was 2.6% of the total plan outlay, i.e. Rs.2,524 crores. During 1982-83, the total expenditure on education of the Centre as well as the States was Rs.5,251.44 crore, i.e. 9.6% of the total budgeted expenditure'1

The number of doctoral degrees awarded in the field of science increased from 1,516 in 1975-76 to 2,261 in 1979-80. In 1963-64, the University Grants Commission initiated a scheme of recognising certain departments as centres of advanced study with the objective of strengthening post-graduate teaching and research and channelling available resources effectively for this purpose. CSIR, since its very inception, followed a policy of supporting research in the universities. It offered a large number of

17

fellowships and research grants to the universities. These sustain m u c h of the research at the universities.

The Department of Science and Technology (DST) also provides funds for scientific research in the country through schemes. The Scie­nce & Engineering Research Council (SERC) was set up in 1975 and a General Research Fund was created. The S E R C promotes frontline research in newly emerging fields of science and engineering. The General Resea­rch Fund ( G R F ) supports time-bound projects usually for three years. There are a number of specialised agencies and departments responsible for R & D in individual sectors of science and technology as well. In addi­tion, various economic ministries of the Union Government also provide grants for investment and production in various sectors and research and development in areas related to their activities.

Several scientific institutions have developed facilities for research and training in specialised fields.

A s the frontier of knowledge in science and technology is expanding, n e w areas of study are also emerging. The U G C through its specialised science panels has identified such areas in various branches of science and has organised refresher and specialised courses in a variety of these fields. Through the S E R C scheme, the D S T also organises training programmes in identified 'Thrust Areas' for young scientists.

The growth of science education in the country can be judged from the number of students enrolled, their outturn and the overall growth in different areas of science and technology given in Table 1. The outturn is given in- Table 2 and other data in Tables 3 and 4 .

Faced with the backwardness of the country and the limitation of resources, both in terms of manpower and finance, a development strategy was evolved which aimed at creating an institutional infrastructure, equal to the best in the world, to produce the necessary manpower, in the shortest possible time and to undertake the numerous tasks of development. In order not to lose time, to ensure easy access to advanced knowledge and techno­logy, and their transfer to the country, English was retained as the language of science and technology.

The policy for education recognised the dual need of new and emer­ging areas of science and technology and expansion of the existing areas. N e w institutions were established to train scientists and technologists in newer areas which had emerged since the Second World War and to develop the highest level of proficiency and standards to further train scientists and technologists in these areas, to undertake research and development, and to help the development of science-based industries. The need for an ever-increasing number of scientists and engineers at the second level, to back up the front-level scientists and to undertake the manning and development of the existing industries, was to be met by the existing institutions. T o meet the demand for second-level scientists, the existing facilities were expanded

18

by increasing the number of institutions as also their capacities to enrol a large number of students.

As a result of this policy, an infrastructure was created and scientific, technical and engineering m a n p o w e r developed. This infrastructure was extensive and created a base for scientific and technological education and produced, as stated earlier, the third, quantitatively largest scientific and technical manpower . The latter took upon itself the responsibility of m a n ­ning research and development institutions arid of running the industry. The latter, it m a y be stated, hardly existed before independence, but soon India became one of the major industrialised countries.

Has this dual policy produced the results expected of it? Have the results brought about the necessary transformation and the developments which were expected of them? Has the subsequent experience shown the validity of the assumptions m a d e , strategy evolved, the conclusions drawn and forecasts made? These are the questions which should be addressed n o w .

A critical look at the educational structure would reveal that it was not a unified system; in fact, three systems were operating simultaneously. Firstly, there was the traditional system of education around Gurukulas and Madrasas, with their emphasis on a classical languages (Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic, Persian), religious teaching and medieval philosophy, logic and other areas covered by it. Most of these institutions were ill-equipped, though a few got government grants provided to them under various considerations. Those students w h o joined such institutions did so, since they could not afford the other education, or due to ideological and religious reasons. Those students w h o came out of these institutions were employed in temples and mosques, besides being needed to perform duties at birth, marriages and deaths on the one had and at other religious functions on the other.

The second group of institutions were those which were created during the British period. The increase in the number of students, due to ex­pansion of departments and creation of n e w ones, without additional resources in consonance with the needs, led to the deterioration of facilities and conse-

• quently of standards. In addition, large scale unrest, due to politicalisation of the education system and its division through the organisation of unions — Technical staff, Administrative staff, dass-IV staff and the students — led to further deterioration of conditions and virtual collapse of the educational institutions.

The third group of institutions were those which were created after independence, such as the Institutes of Technology, Regional Colleges and Advanced Centres.

A distinctive feature of some of these institutions was high invest­ment per student and very high level of facilities. These dimensions earned them the n a m e of elite institutions. The IITs were an institution apart. They were established with foreign collaboration, where the initial facu­lty was also from the donor country. The syllabus, method of teaching and

19

courses, as well as the textbooks recommended were similar to those in the donor country. Instead of being evolved from the experience of the country and the needs and requirements such institutions became the outposts of European and American institutions in India.

These institutions were created under the idea that since these were responsible for the phenomenal growth of science, technology and industry, resulting in the rapid growth and prosperity of European and American countries since the Second World W a r , these institutions, w h e n replicated in India, would produce the same results as in advanced countries.

Further, these institutions and the advanced centres created in the universities around distinguished scientists were to act as models. It was expected that with these nuclei, rapid developments would take place in two directions. Firstly, they would attract talented scientists and techno­logists, w h o would m a k e these centres as good as those anywhere else and would m a k e major contributions to science and technology in frontier

areas and also towards the solution of problems facing the country. Secon­dly, they would act as catalytic agents for the transformation of the edu­cational system and the research activities in other academic and educational institutions. Their example and attainments, it was hoped, would be e m u ­lated by others and their influence would permeate throughout the system, thus bringing about the necessary and desired transformation.

In addition to the trichotomy, another element which is worth noting was the growth of denominational institutions. Such institutions had their beginning during the British period, and had aimed to promote education amongst a religious group or a particular caste. In addition to this, they also had aimed at providing some religious education to students, which was not part of the education system in the then government-run institutions. They were created by reformers, w h o had aimed at combining European education with the traditional one.

The growth of such institutions after independence, both at school and college levels, was also due to the fact that the founding and runn­ing of such institutions became commercially profitable for the foun­ders. Most of the m o n e y came from the government, but the institutions were controlled privately. In addition, these institutions also provided to those w h o controlled them, social status as well as some political power. These institutions became, under these pressures, a nucleus for promoting narrow loyalties on the one hand and obscurantist ideas and revivalist tendencies on the other.

Another reason for the development of such tendencies was the nexus between these schools and colleges on the one had and the textbook indus­try on the other. This was dominated purely by commercial concerns. M a n y of the textbooks, inaccurate and badly printed, written by people with litde understanding of recent developments in science and technology and their basic trends, became the main vehicle for antiscientific attitudes and irrationalist outlooks amongst the students.

20

There appeared to be a lack of consistency in the implementation of stated goals and policies. There was, for instance, m u c h talk about patriotism and nation building. This was not reflected in the content of education, which tended to generate narrow loyalties and spread prejudices and super-stitutions or to create European and American ethos, as was the case with elite institutions. There was considerable emphasis on science and techno­logy as well as scientific outlook, but in actual practice, education being a state subject, the content of education displayed considerable regional, religious and caste prejudices.

Lastly, owing to the absence of social dimensions of science and technology and historical perspective of the development of science in India, of science and technology education, scientists were not able to appreciate and consequently play their social role effectively. Scientific temper ten­ded to be a casuality, reducing the impact of effectiveness of science and technology in social transformation.

The elite institutions produced an ethos amongst their students which generated West European and American values of consumerism and cultural values which supported it. Students w h o came out of these insti­tutions having absorbed the value system and goals and aspirations generated in West Europe or America, found themselves as aliens in their o w n country. Unable to share the general ethos generated by the other educational insti­tutions — of revivalism and medievalism — they got involved in, discussed and debated issues which were relevant only to European and American culture. Unable to find a suitable career and adjustment to the prevalent conditions, they tended to migrate, and, in fact, did in large numbers, as soon as they finished their education in India.

Those w h o came out of indifferent schools created another set of problems. Their influx in the universities on the one hand and their incompa­tibility with university standards on the other led them to create considera­ble unrest. They protested either against stiff papers or out of course content of examination papers. In order to have a degree, they also resorted to unfair practices of copying, impersonation, leakage of papers, and such other malpractices. This further lowered educational standards and vitiated the educational ethos.

The above-mentioned developments generated an ethos which was not only not conducive to the cultivation of science but was also a hindrance in the w a y of achieving excellence. As a result, model institutions, which were created to nucleate sophisticated science and technology and catalyse the old institutions, got increasingly isolated, and became mere outposts of European and American institutions. "

The policies evolved and practised, instead of organising and develop­ing the educational infrastructure directed to specific goals of develop­ing scientific and technological capabilities were bifurcated in terms of the level of education, the type of students it trained and economic

21

criteria. As the number of dropouts at each level from primary to gra­duation level was high, the system became expensive in terms of invest­ment per student and the returns. The dropouts ranged from rural, urban slums to, urban middle class, and were from government — state and central — private and public schools. The policy went in favour of the affluent and tended to produce an elite class. Though the number of students going in for science and technology increased vastly in terms of absolute numbers, the increase was not in proportion to other areas of study. In the absence of any scientific content in education and a defined effort for promoting scientific attitude and outlook, most of those educated developed a duality of outlook and approach. In laboratory, they tended to follow scientific method of observation and experimentation, while outside the laboratory they tended to have attitudes and beliefs which could not be sustained on the basis of scientific knowledge or were clearly contrary to science and its value system32.

Those students w h o came out of indifferent institutions and were unable to find suitable jobs swelled the ranks of the unemployed and tended to remain.in the university system as P h . D . scholars. As a result, the research programmes got saddled with a number of students w h o had no interest in research and only marked time till such time as they get some permanent job. Those w h o were trained in n e w institutions and those which had better facilities tended to migrate, instead of contributing to national development programmes, to advanced countries for personal advanement, and for better facilities for work. This brain drain, as it came to be called, deprived India of the fruits of investment in the higher education system with which it had sought to meet the immediate needs. It only served the manpower needs of the advanced countries w h o had helped develop these institutions.

Those w h o came out of the elite institutions, instead of setting stan­dards, taking issues with medieval outlook and attitudes and generating a scientific ethos and a climate conducive to science and technology, isolated themselves. Instead of taking up a stand on social issues, they either ignored them, or imported Western ideas and concepts and tried to apply them to the Indian situation, where they did not fit in. Their main concern came to be only to acquire scientific and technical competence so as to migrate to advanced countries. As a consequence, they reinforced the appeal of those w h o were propagating anti-scientific ethos.

In the absence of a well-defined and directed effort to implement the broad objectives of promoting scientific outlook, financial support was provided for the promotion of anti-scientific ethos. The institutions which imparted religious instructions went back to the past in terms of outlook and philosophy and created a cadre which, thought not adverse to techno­logy and its use for its o w n purpose, was inimical to the basic values of science and outlook promoted by scientific knowledge. They appealed to past tradition and social practices and advocated bifurcation of outlook — for

22

material benefit science and technology, but for values and wisdom and spiritual values the philosophies of the past. The latter was soon to be mix­ed up with astrology, tantrism and other such pseudo-sciences and m e ­dieval practices. These people got an added fillip with the economic and social crisis in Western Europe and U S A . They developed larger clientele in these countries, and with organised and high pressure salesmanship built up their prestige and political linkages in India.

Those w h o came out of those institutions which did not have ade­quate facilities, were, in fact, technicians, capable of undertaking those jobs in which they could be guided to do routine work. They neither possessed scientific outlook nor had innovative capabilities to contribute effectively to the generation of science and technology. Their sole aim in life appeared to be to have a career which could provde them security and the basic c o m ­forts of life. W h e n unemployed, they performed rituals to secure employment and w h e n employed, they tended to propitiate various gods to help secure rapid promotions, to mollify superiors and to ward off the evil effects of enemies. They became staunch traditionalists and adopted m a n y medieval attitudes and practices uncritically with a veiw to evolving a distinctiveness of their o w n as Indians. Those w h o came out of religious institutions and propagated the so-called spiritual values, astrology, and other such pseudo-knowledge, found a fertile ground in them and built up a rich following amongst them.

The net result of these developments was that India had a technical cadre at the sophisticated level as well as at the technical level, which effecti­vely met the requirements of industry, research and the education. This cadre was, however, not an effective instrument in undertaking the broader task of intervening in and directing the social situation, to bring about social transformation, as was envisaged in the Scientific Policy Resolution.

Consequently, contrary to what was envisaged and hoped, even though India had the third largest scientific and technical manpower , the latter could not become a social force and its social role, if any, contrary to what was envisaged came to be extremely limited. The"role, which should have been that of scientists, came to be repeatedly played by political leadership, which in a number of critical situations came forward to direct the scientists.

Another impact of the creation of institutions on the model of Europe and United States was the reinforcing of the idea that science was a Euro­pean phenomenon and a gift of these nations to the developing countries. This led to the neglect of critical study of the scientific and technological tradition of Indian culture before colonisation. The ' scientific and techno­logical tradition, as it existed in India, came to be considered as irrelevant to contemporary science and technology. Consequently, the linkage between the past and the present could not be established. History of science could not develop as a branch of study in India. Hence, the dichotomy of Indian

23

culture and science and technology continued, providing an opportunity and a ground for linking pseudo-sciences with sciences and culture of India. It was also responsible for two major trends. The first of these was represent­ed by endeavours directed towards finding ideas, concepts and justifications for contemporary scientific ideas in the literature of the past, as if every n e w phenomenon and concept was predicted by the sages in the past. Secondly, it led to the continued import of ideas and concepts from Western Europe and U S A , and their uncritical acceptance and propagation. Both these trends tended to isolate science as an instrument of social transformation and reduced scientists to the level of technicians without developing in them a social consciousness necessary to enable them to play their social role.

This brief discussion of the unintended consequences of the philo­sophy of education and its practices necessitates a critical look at the edu­cation system, with a veiw to evolving a major programme to further develop education, its integration with science and cultural transformation, as envisaged in the early stages of India's development.

24

Tabid 1 Breakdown by Scientific Disciplines of Enrolment of Students in Higher Education

Discipline '50-'51 '64- 'S* '68'69 '70-'71 '80-'81

Science Technology Medicine Agriculture

36,194 12,094 15,260

3,131

4,78,702 78,114 61,742 59,939

8,02,369 1,01,589

90,470 59,710

4,43,013 1,00,400 1,31,151

31,860

11,14,417 1,28,937 1,10,020 39,231

Source: (i) University Development in India (ii) UGC Annual Report, 1980-81

Table 2 Outturn of Science & Technology Personnel in India, 1950-80

Category

Science

Agriculture

Engineering & Technology

Degree

B.Sc. M . S c . P h . D .

B.Sc. M . S c . P h . D .

B . E . / B.Tech. M . E . / M.Tech. Ph. D .

1950

9,628 1,425

100

1,000 154

4

2,198

55 10

1960

22,693 5,282

361

1,700 488 11

5,703

606 18

1970

83,610 16,578

1,212

5,809 1,670

217

17,768

1,972 98

1980 (estimated)

113,000 20,000

2,000

4,000 1,700

450

21,000

2.600 350

Medicine M . B . B . S . 1,557 M . D . 88

3,378 397

9,582 1,266

Total 16,219 Source: UN Yearbook

40,736 139,782

14,000 2,500

169,750

25

DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE

(ii) Organisation of Research System

Research system, as a part of the development of science and technology infrastructure received considerable attention, and made rapid progress. The R & D infrastructure could be grouped under two categories. The first one comprises institutions which were created during the colonial period. Consi­derable R & D capabilities were developed in them and they had a large number of scientists with international reputation. The second group con­sists of institutions which were developed after independence and covered those newer areas of science and technology which had emerged since the Second World War . Scientists and Technologists in these areas had to be trained. The institutions were built, by and large, around imported techno­logy. The first category of institutions was concerned with such areas as health, agriculture, and industrial research. The second category related to such areas as atomic energy, electronics and space.

There was considerable experimentation in building the R & D infra­structure, which covered five major dimensions:

i. Firstly, the research system was provided functional autonomy, free from bureaucratic control, so as to enable the R & D insti­tutions to undertake bold and imaginative programmes on the one hand and to cover a certain degree of risk and to be able to take chances on the other,

ii. While allowing them functional autonomy, provisions were made to ensure accountability, covering both the utilisation of resources and the fulfilment of the objectives of the scientific and technological programmes,

iii. There was provision to enable them to evolve proper policies and machinery for recruitment of scientific and technical personnel, their career development, promotion and recogni­tion of merit,

iv. Provision concerned with the producer-user relationship. S o m e R & D institutions produced results for the unknown user, while others were themselves users of their o w n R & D output, i.e. the research, development and production systems were all within the same organisation.

v Lastly, these organisations also had different arrangements with regard to import of technology. Those organisations which were built up around established research groups and did not control the utilisation of results of research had no control over the

27

import of technology, while those organisations which were built around newer areas of science and technology and had con­trol over utilisation of results of research took decisions about policies as well as about the technology to be imported.

The R & D system today comprises 130 national laboratories under various agencies and government departments, 120 universities and 5 Insti­tutes of Technology, 800 engineering and technical colleges, 106 medical institutes and colleges and 500 ( R & D ) units of the industry.

the institutions employ a large number of scientists and technologists. The major R & D agencies employ over 15,000 scientists and technologists. The distribution of the employment of scientists and technologists in the Central agencies and State Governments and in the private sector is given in Tables 5 and 6.

The data show that as on 1 Aprils 1980, 1.84 lakh personnel were employed in R & D institutions, about 35% directly in R & D , 32% in auxi­liary activities, and the remaining 33% in administrative and other non­technical supporting activities.

About 75% oí the total S & T manpower is employed in the central sector, 12% in state governments' institutions and 13% in the private sector. Further, for every 100 R & D personnel, there are 171 auxiliary staff in ^ , A E 134 in CSIR, 103 in D R D O , iOl in I C A R , 182 in I S R O , 9\ m c e n t r a J ministries, 5>1 in state governments, and 44 in private ^ c C t o r industries. The variations in the ratios of scientific, technical a_£¿ a' iliary staff m a y be due to the nature of research activity ar.d differences m thejj- categorisation.

In the main, R & D agencies employ, - o î ^ e total R & D personnel, 14% Ph Ds , 36% postgraduates, 27% grP¿ u a t e s > aná 2 3 % with other quali­fications. The structures of the qua> : ; x i c a t i o n s o f R & D personnel in major scientific research agencies are gi''cn m Table 5.

Table 6 gives the qy^fication mix of R & D personnel in central and state governments

T u e tot?! number of personnel engaged in R & D activities in the Central plus state sector is 0.43 lakh. Out of this, 13% are phDs , 36% post­graduates, 27% graduates, and 24% with other qualifications.

The preceding account does not include technology and research staff and research scholars in the university sector.

There are n o w nine distinct categories of organisational pattern in the country. Each of these categories has its o w n distinct procedures regar­ding project selection, planning, resource utilisation, recruitment and m a n ­power development, and mechanism for using results of research. The follo­wing are the broad, categories:

i Automous Research Councils These include Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Indian ÇquacjJ, of

28

Mediecal Research, and four Central Councils for Research in (a) Ayurveda and Siddha, (b) Unani Medicine, (c) Homoeopathy and (d) Yoga and Naturopathy.

Special Commissions These are headed by eminent scientists, and were created to cover new and emerging areas of science and technology: Atomic Energy, Oil and Natural Gas, Electronics, Space and Additional Sources of Energy, besides Khadi and Village Industries C o m m i ­ssion. Institutions under Ministries The old pattern of ministries having institutions under them to carry out research in specific areas was continued, like those in defence, health, education, industry and railways, etc. Their scope was, however, enlarged in the context of new demands and requirements, and greater resources were made available to them. N e w additions to these were the Departments of Science and Technology, Departments of Scientific and Industrial Research, Energy, Environment, and Ocean Development. These were established to coordinate research spread over different agencies and departments, and to take n e w initiatives where found necessary. Industrial R & D Establishments Industry was encouraged to establish captive research insti­tutions to meet the day-to-day requirements of production and technological improvements both in the public and private sectors. Government gave tax concessions to industry making investment in research. A number of industries, both in the public and private sectors, have taken advantage of incen­tives provided by the government to establish R & D centres within the industry. The nature of work done by them varies from outline, quality control to R & D . One interesting feature of these developments is the advantage taken by R & D units established by the multi-national corporations. Cooperative Research Associations Government shares 50% of the expenditure where industry came forward to establish cooperative research associations. They cover the areas of textiles, including m a n - m a d e fibres, cement, rubber, paint, plywood, jute, tea, electricals, and automotives. In some cases, government levied cess on the industry and receipts were used for funding research for the industry, such as in the case of cement. The universities in India have been centres of learning and are mainly concerned with the advancement of knowledge rather

29

than development of marketable technologies. A number of centres for advanced research were established around distingui­shed scientists or around departments which had established their reputation. The Institutes of Technology and Centres of Advanced Studies in Science and Technology have initiated marketable research aimed at technological development,

vii Public Sector About 52 public undertakings and various centres under minis­tries in the state governments are engaged in R & D activities,

viii Private Industry There is a growing trend of establishment of in-house R & D units in private industry. According to the information availa­ble, there were 450 private industries having in-house R & D units,

ix Private Institutions The government provides incentives to people to invest in research by allowing tax exemption if the m o n e y was to be invested for educational purposes or for research. As a result of this policy, a large number of societies, foundations, and trusts were established. These provide fellowships or grants for research or establish educational or research institutions with specific objectives.

The R & D infrastructure built up in a short period of a little over 40 years to help attain independence both in terms of size and capability is remarkable. Furthermore, a number of achievements stand to its credit and can be the pride of any country.

The change in the Government in 1977 brought about a change in the organisational structure. There was considerable discussion on the organisational structure of R & D institutions. One particular agency, the CSIR, came under sharp scrutiny. It was felt that its limited effectiveness in generating results which could be used by the industry was due to lack of its interaction with industry on the one hand and the government depart­ments on the other, leading to lack of appropriate choices in the selection of research projects. T o remedy the situation, it was felt that the various laboratories of the CSIR m a y be attached to the concerned ministries, so as to have greater interaction with the concerned government departments and the concerned industry.

This organisational concept, it m a y be noticed, was contrary to the basic principle which motivated the government to create CSIR as an auto­n o m o u s society, free from bureaucratic control of administration.

The major problem of CSIR was that it had no say, unlike the Atomic Energy Department, or the Space Research Department, in the import of technology. Instead of involving CSIR in the plans of the industry, in

30

the choice of the technology to be imported or developed, in its adapta­tion, and its further development, the suggested remedy would have disrup­ted the working of this national agency and the role it played in national development.

The m o v e generated considerable debate in the country among both scientists and the public. As a result of the opinions expressed and the pressures exerted on the government, the proposal to break up the C S I R was given up. Only cooperative research associations, m u s e u m s , and four laboratories were detatched and tagged on to the ministries. The latter came back to the fold of CSIR after the change of "the government in 1980.

There are, however, a few disconcerting aspects arising out of the implementation of policies which deserve special attention.

Firstly, even though the basic philosophy was to provide functional autonomy, the central financial control restricted the operational freedom of institutions as well as project leaders. Considerable time was often lost in completing research projects, thereby increasing costs, as a result of delays in according financial approval and sanctions. Further, in the absence of a proper appreciation of risk and failure as an essential element of R & D , scientists and technologists tended to shy away from bold and imaginative programmes.

Despite the provision for functional autonomy, scientists in R & D institutions.are governed by civil service conduct rules. The operation of conduct rules and prevalence of feudal attitude combined with a bureau­cratic approach created an ethos which was not conducive to the spirit of doubt, enquiry and freedom of expression, so necessary for creative work and scientific advancement. The result was absence of the critical approach and a tendency of subservience motivated primarily by ambitions of career development In addition, scientists shied away from taking a stand on social issues and debates and controversies regarding policies, programmes of science and technology.

Secondly, those agencies which did not control the utilisation of results of research and depended on other agencies or industrial units to utilise results of research also did not have any participation in the deci­sion-making process relating to import of technology. They could not, therefore, be effective, since import of technology nullified m a n y of their efforts. In other words, while the infrastructure was created and the nece­ssary capabilities were developed, proper attention was not given to coordi­nation of the policies of different departments, covering policy-making, re­search and production units. The requisite machinery for building up ade­quate linkages between these was also not evolved. In other words, the research system was considered in isolation and this hampered the develop­ment of organisational productive capabilities in a very large area covering heath, agriculture and industry.

31

Thirdly, the delayed recognition and creation of R & D units in the industry burdened the national laboratories with day-to-day and routine problems of industry and seriously affected long-term, innovative research, which alone could lead to the development of n e w technologies.

Fourthly, the university system was not brought within the fold of the national R & D system.

Fifthly, the necessary organisational linkages between the various types of R & D institutions and agencies necessary for ensuring opt imum utilisation of the capabilities developed were not created. This hampered the development of the spirit of collaborative effort on the one hand and promotion of diversified capabilities and specialisation at various levels on the other.

In the absence of organisational collaboration for generating national capabilities, rivalries and unhealthy competition for resources developed. Another unhealthy consequence was duplication of uncritical facilities and programmes.

Lastly, an effective machinery for evaluating organisational producti­vity and efficiency was not developed. In its absence, m a n y vestigial organi­sational features taken over from the past or from administrative and finan­cial procedures continued and got accumulated over the years; this increa­singly reduced organisational efficiency and productivity. In some of the institutions, evaluation was internalised and very often even the internal assessment was not m a d e . In some other institutions, evaluation-was exter­nalised. These institutions were often subjected to too m u c h of unsubstan­tiated and oft-repeated criticism, affecting seriously the organisational morale.

The organisational philosophy, as is evident from the precedings description, was both bold and imaginative. It took into account the n e w functions and the needs emerging from the implementation of policies. It was based on the objective of creating research institutions around specific industries and fields of specialisation in science and technology. It also took into account science-based industries where it created both basic and applied research institutions as well as the production system. The basic limitation of this philosophy appears to be the absence of intra-institutional and agency linkages and an intra-departmental machinery to evolve coordinated policies and programmes.

It m a y be worth while to have a brief look at the development of R & D system abroad in order to have a balanced view. Institutions created to undertake research — to advance knowledge or to meet the needs of industry — have had a long history. They initially evolved as a result of the discovery of the method of discovery, later, their main aim became meeting the industrial needs, which necessitated organised research conducted to achieve specific goals. With increasing investments m a d e on research, the latter got converted into an organised industry and research and develop-

32

ment came to occupy a distinctive position. In Western Europe and United States, irrespective of the fact whether R & D institutions were created by the government or sponsored by the industry, they came to be a link bet­ween the university system and the industry. Irrespective of their o w n contribution or sponsorship, their linkages with the universities and the industry gave them a vitality.

The overall role of R & D institution varied, depending upon their character, sponsorship, resources available and their linkages. These institu­tions played a vital role in generating basic knowledge, by undertaking fundamental research; they also tended to develop new technologies, by utilizing fundamental knowledge for specific purposes. Further, technolo­gies were linked to the productive systems. They also worked for achieving the limited and specified goals of upgrading the productive system, impro­ving its efficiency, productivity, and quality of products. They also worked for improving the processes by undertaking research on saving raw materials, finding substitutes, saving energy, making use of byproducts, etc.

Their organisational pattern, functions and role evolved through inte­raction with social and industrial needs, in the framework of the social and economic system of the country.

In India, R & D infrastructure was created on the lines and pattern of institutions abroad under the belief that R & D institutions would generate research, the results of which would be utilised by the industry. CSIR, for instance, was created on the lines of the organisational structure developed in U . K . I C A R and I C M R were also patterned on the structure of similar organizations in U . K . Later, some elements from U S A were introduced in I C A R . In the newer areas of science and technology, like atomic energy, the organisational patterns as they emerged in Europe and U S A were incor­porated along with some experience of the other R & D organisations which had developed in the country.

The major organisational limitation of the R & D system in the country was the absence of linkages with the university system on the one hand and with the industry on the other. In the latter case there was a duality. The organised industry built on import of technology had linkages with industry abroad, while the craft-based or cottage scale industry was not looked into by the organised R & D system.

Due to lack of linkages of the R & D system with universities and industry, it got isolated. In fact, its creation generated a sense of antago­nism in the universities, which felt neglected and deprived of resources for their development. The industry on the other hand felt that creation of the R & D system would come in the way of free import of technology.

Another major limitation of the R & D organisations, as they were conceived and developed, was that they were meant to interact with orga­nised industry only. A large part of the Indian industry, particularly the consumer industry which met the basic needs of the people, utilised indi-

33

genous materials and was part of the culture of the country and was on a cottage scale or small scale in the unorganized or semi-organised sector. Consequently, the organisational R & D structure which was built up by­passed this sector. Unable to gain access to n e w knowledge and R & D inputs for upscaling, this sector of industry could not grow further.

The organisation of R & D system, as exists today, is given in Chart 1.

34

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37

SCIENCE POLICY AND PLANNING OF RESEARCH

The basic philosophy which guided science policy formulation has been discussed earlier. In its application, there was m u c h pragmatism. Consi­derable expectations were raised as a result of projection of science and the possibilities offered by technological developments in the solution of social problems, in the early decades after independence. W h e n these expectations were not met, and also as a result of certain vested interests which were not in favour of the policies followed by the government with regard to the development of indigenous R & D infrastructure, questions were raised about the utility and performance of the R & D establishment. As a consequence of these questions and debates in the parliament'6 and controversies at different platforms, different policies were adopted to meet various re­quirements.

The evolution-of science policy in India is interesting from still ano­ther angle. At each stage of development of India since independence, specific goals were set. W h e n these were attained, or partially attaind, or when they posed n e w sets of problems, they were reviewed and a n e w direction was given. The economic and political developments also brought to surface a set of needs. Science policy evolved as a result of interaction of the two, i.e., internal development of science and technology and the eco­nomic factors; the political leadership played a decisive role in assessing the development of science and technology and in directing it into clear-cut and defined channels to meet a set of social, economic and political objectives. The active involvement of political leadership, its faith in science and techno­logy and appreciation of its role in development is a significant factor in the development of science in India. This interaction also brought the poli­tical leadership and the scientific leadership of the country together; they came to share c o m m o n interests, goals and objectives. This interaction played a vital role in the evolution of government policies, particularly in the n e w and emerging areas of science «md :cciinology, which required a far-sighted and imaginative approach on the one hand and long-term and heavy investment in research on the other. It wss a result of this interac­tion that a major thrust was provided right from ü,t beginning in such areas as atomic energy, electronics, space, and later in are^ of environment, ocean development, etc.

There are some interesting features of the development of machinery for evolving science policy, particularly with regard to the emergence a

39

consensus to the extent possible among the scientists. Another important feature is concerned with the provision of a feedback mechanism. In the former case, to begin with, besides the assessment of the implementation of the Scientific Policy Resolution, efforts were made to arrive at a general agreement on the plans and programmes adopted by different agencies. The plans and programmes underwent a major change during the Fifth Five Year Plan, w h e n the, document, 'Approach to Science and Technology37

outlining the philosophy and policies to be adopted in respect of different fields of science and sectors of technology was adopted. Additionally, discussions were organised on the document, in different parts of the coun­try in which large number of scientists were involved. This marked a depar­ture, insofar as the discussion and adoption of policy was not limited to heads of agencies or senior scientists alone. Involvement of a larger number of scientists in the discussion on the approach paper was also a major effort in organising a discussion on science policy and plan priorities. A similar discussion was organised at the time of finalisation of the Sixth Plan. In the latter case, meetings of eminent scientists were organised in different parts of the country and their opinions and ideas were taken into account in the formulation of the policy as well as the plan.

Looking at the evolution of science policy, w e diseern five discrete phases through which goals of R & D in the country have evolved:

(i) Creation of infrastructure for research;

(ii) Promotion of research aimed at import substitution and export promotion, to solve the economic problems of the country;

(iii) Attainment of self-reliance; (iv) Promotion of science and technology to help rural areas; and

(v) Promotion of basic research and internationalisation of Indian science.

Chronologically, there is no clear-cut demarcation. However, the period beginning with independence to the end of the fifties could be regarded as the period of building infrastructure; the decade beginning with the sixties is the period during which a policy of promotion of research aimed at import substitution and export promotion was evolved, leading in the early seventies to the formulation of the Fifth Plan and the evolution of the policy concerning attainment of self-reliance. Evolution of policies and programmes of science for the people and for the development of rural areas was taken in hand in the middle of seventies and acquired à clear-cut shape at the 1977 session of the Indian Science Congress Association. The phase of promoting basic research began with the Sixth Plan in 198038. This also marks the beginning of the phase in which Indian science began to have an international impact through space programmes, exploration of the ocean, and expeditions to the Antarctica.

The first phase of the development of science and technology was the establishment of infrastructure for research and development. The rapid

40

development of different branches of science and emergence of n e w areas like nuclear energy, electronics, space, etc. during the War , created the need to develop suitable agencies to develop these branches. Bhabha's letter to Nehru on the need for creating the finest institutions in India comparable to those anywhere else in the world, which led to the establishment of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, clearly indicates the goals set during this period. Under the same objectives, a chain of Institutes of Tech­nology on the model of M I T in U S A was created.

The three basic assumptions under which these institutions were created were:

(i) The benefits from science and technology are self-evident and hence it must be supported;

(ii) Once the infrastructure is created, it would produce results for the benefit of society; and

(iii) Science being international, the establishments created as a part of the infrastructure should work in areas which are under study in Western Europe and America in order to keep abreast of them and catch up with their development.

As was to be k n o w n later, these assumptions were not valid insofar as the results of researches would not be automatically utilised. The problem of development, as experience revealed, was more complex than was initially appreciated. Similarly, it was also discovered later that both technology and science have to have deep social roots in order to be fully integrated with society and it requires a major effort to change the outlook of people.

The policy of import substitution and export promotion was adopted during the early sixties, w h e n India faced a severe crisis in the form of acute foreign exchange deficit. In such a situation, questions relating to contributions of R & D institutions were raised in the Parliament^. The scientific community reacted to this by reorienting their programmes to suit the goals of research, and to meet the needs of the economy. As a result of these questions and debates, a major shift in the thinking of the scientists became evident and was reflected in the R & D programmes. More and more scientists started talking about and working on research programmes aimed at import substitution or export promotion.

Further development along these lines led to a well-defined policy aimed at achieving self-reliance. A clear-cur expression of these requirements and policies was available in the document 'Approach of Science and Tech­nology Plan', referred to earlier, prepared by the National Committee on Science and Technology as a basis for the preparation of the Fifth Five-Year Plan.

The period of the Fifth Five-Year Plan was also a period of intense political changes in the country. It was marked by the struggle between the more conservative and radical wings of the ruling political party. This political struggle was reflected in science policies of various political parties

41

as revealed in their election manifestoes for the 1971 election. As the poli­tical activity sharpened, the role of science came increasingly under discus­sion, leading to such searching questions being asked as: Science at what cost? For whose benefit? A n d for what purpose? These, in turn led to consi­derable debate on the nature and character of science and technology. The debate was initiated by a paper on 'Alternative Technology* presented to One-Asia Assembly40. The debate on the document 'Approach to Science and Technology Plan' also raised some questions pertaining to priorities for science and technology. The ideas generated by the debate paved the w a y -for a number of n e w experiments. At the initiative of the Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, the. Indian Science Congress Association devoted its 1976 session at Waltair to the problems of rural technology. The discussions laid empahsis on the problems which concerned the less privileged sections of society4l.

Thé experience of using science and technology for rural development and as a tool for the uplift of the down-trodden brought to surface the fact that problems of the down-trodden and rural areas could not be solved through the use of outdated science and technology. These problems, it was realised, require the use of sophisticated science and technology. It was further realised that in addition to finding technical solutions, S & T requires to be integrated with the social conditions and the economic system, besides developing a proper delivery system, Consequently, the need for long-term and basic research and interfacing of natural and social sciences was felt42.

The change in government in 1977 brought to surface a n e w pattern of thinking. The value of science, particularly the advanced science as well as technology, came to be questioned in terms of specific programmes requiring high degree of investment. The craft-based technology, which had existed in India from time immorial was given a high priority and it was advocated that keeping in view the level of development of India the need for generation of mass employment opportunities and other related factors, it has to be given high priority. The policy aimed at providing inputs for the generation of labour intensive technologies and such technologies as promote the growth of rural industries and use materials available in rural areas43.

The change in the perspective of political leadership, their questioning of some of the assumptions regarding utility of science, support to research effort, came as a traumatic shock to the scientific community and initiated considerable discussion and debate among the scientific community as well as with the political leadership and public at large, on the type of science to be patronized and its role in society. As a result of this debate, the scienti­fic community itself got divided between proponents of high technology on the one hand and those w h o believed in low level technology on the other. The latter formed a definite movement for the development and application of technology for rural development^. Considerable degree of inspiration for these groups came from the ideas generated in China duting and after the

42

cultural revolution, as well as the Gandhian approach to technology . A number of voluntary organisations were formed to work in rural areas to learn from the people and to develop science at the grass-root level.

The impact of these developments was, however, limited on the poli­cies evolved with the change of government in 1980. This can be seen from the areas of research chosen for special emphasis in the Sixth Five Year Plan.

The Sixth Plan for science and technology laid considerable emphasis on fundamental and basic research besides giving attention to immediate problems and finding solutions for them, making use of the available k n o w ­ledge.

In recent years, three new aspects have gained" prominence as á result of past experience, n e w needs and n e w perceptions: (i) realization of the need to safeguard the environment^, (ii) giving adequate attention to the problems arising out of the interaction of science and technology with society and (iii) proper development of the information system and its use in decision-making. Consequently, major changes were effected in the infrastructure of science and technology. N e w agencies and departments were created to undertake and promote research in these newer areas, greater resources were allocated to back up research, and time-targeted ob­jectives were set.

As a result of the development of R & D capabilities, a n e w direction was given to science and technology, viz. of becoming international, through the space programmes and ocean research. Space programmes and sea-bed mining and expeditions to Antarctica not only proved the capabilities developed, and their potential, but from the point of view of policy it meant that India would from n o w on be effective internationally, and would be effective in shaping policy alternatives, distinct from those of advanced countries. Further, policy for science and technology in India would from n o w on take into account its international role.

A look at the manner in which R & D policy evolved in India reveals two things. Firstly, the goals set for society conditioned the R & D goals. Secondly, the imjpetus for changed goals was provided not only by the inter­nal development of science, but also by its interaction with society and it was the political leadership which took the necessary initiative.

Evolution of the process of Planning

Science, in w d e r to play an effective role in social development, has to be planned; therefore, its planning has to be integrated with the overall planning process. The political leadership from the very beginning made efforts to initiate a process which would lead to the organisation of R & D activities in such a w a y as to achieve specific goals. The philosophy of planning, implicit in policies and programmes, was not one of control but that of effecting choices in order to give direction to S & T development

43

and its integration with the programmes of other sectors — agriculture, industry and social development. India was perhaps the only country out­side the socialist world which adopted a planned approach to the develop­ment of science and technology. In doing so, it evolved its o w n model of R & D planning. This approach can be seen from the policies evolved, as described earlier, and the thrust provided in different Five Year Plans.

T w o features of the planning process as it evolved in India are worth noting:

(i) the machinery evolved to undertake planning, involving insti­tutions and the scientists, and

(ii) the actual plans themselves, in terms of priorities and sectoral allocations and the relationship of the two with the priorities fixed for other sectors and the national goals.

Planning Process and Machinery

The planning process adopted in India is a two-way process — giving broad policy guidelines from above and interaction at national, agency and labo­ratory levels with the scientists. A s a result of this interaction, while a plan was being formulated, it was discussed with scientists at various levels, and was finalised taking their reaction into account. The process is remarkable, if one considers the number of scientists involved and the size of the coun­try. This democratization of decision-making and involvement of working scientists ensures the latter's effective participation and adds to the vigour of science in the country.

The democratization of decision-making with regard to the formula­tion of national science and technology plans for science and technology was not achieved in one step. It was a part of the evolution of scientific tradition in the country since independence. T o begin with, as in any other country, the task of formulating the plan was limited to a few top scien­tists — directors and heads of agencies and officers of the Planning C o m m i ­ssion and ministries. However, as a result of the experience gained and

pressures exerted by working scientists, the machinery for the formulation of the R & D plan acquired its present structure. The formulation of the Fifth Five Year Plan marks a real milestone in the process of democratization of planning.

The process could be briefly stated as follows: (1) The Government declared its policies, guidelines and thrusts,

which were communicated to research agencies and institutions. (2) Specialised panels, covering different branches of science, areas

of research and development and sectors of industry were set up to prepare plan documents for the respective areas.

(3) The heads of agencies and directors-of laboratories were reque­sted to prepare their plans taking into account the guidelines and reports of the-specialised panels.

44

(4) The directors, in turn, requested the working scientists and specialists in different branches of science to prepare the plan of work.

(5 ) The plan of work prepared by different scientists and specialists was coordinated at the laboratory level, and discussed by scien­tific advisory panels of the respective laboratories comprising scientists and technologists from universities, industry, other research institutions and officials from the concerned ministries.

(6) The laboratory-level plans were coordinated at agency level and were subjected to furrier scrutiny by expert panels.

(7) The agency plans w«tre coordinated and scrutinised at the Planning C o m m i ^ ' l o n level and finalised and resources were allocated.

The entire pror£ss t o o k a o o u t six months.

Science in National Plans

All the plans (six]r$7 have given a significant place to science and technology. The First Five-Yelir Plan, which began in 1952, gave importance to the establishment of scientific infrastructure. It provided funds for promotion of scientific and industrial research in the existing institutions; building of n e w laboratories; installation of necessary equipment to enable the labora tories to function; exploration and survey of resources-, utilisation of by­products and local resources; introduction of the concept of standardisation; and improvement of techniques in industry.

The most significant development during this period was the establish­ment of a chain of national laboratories and research institutes in essential disciplines, located in different parts of the country.

In addition to the objectives indicated in the First Plan, in the Second Plan, efforts were sought to be directed towards the strengthening of the existing research facilities; coordinating the research programmes of various national agencies; linking up the research work at the national level with that at regional and state levels; and training and generating scientific m a n ­power in sufficient number and utilising them.

During this period, the (Indian) Scientific Policy Resolution was adopted (1958). The resolution laid emphasis on the objective to accord a prominent place and priority to science in the national plans.

The emphasis in the Third Plan was on encouraging basic research in universities and on training research personnel; expanding the programme of research fellowships and scholarships; development and manufacture

45

j

of scientific and industrial instruments; and investment in pilot plant tnais and full-scale field experiments.

During this period, scientific and technological research began to m a k e a perceptible. contribution to the development of the country. The growth and development trends were perticularly manifest in the methods of improved farming; better health and speedier transport facilities; fruitful use of land and water resources-, and increased generation of energy for industrial use.

A large number of management problems had c o m e up during the Third Plan and subsequently most of the problems remained incognizable, as the visible return from R & D was not considered a criterion for invest­ment . This attracted considerable public attention. The fact that only a small proportion of the scientific result obtained were finding application, commercial exploitation was seriously looked into, with a view to iden­tifying the causes for the state of affairs. The efforts in the Fourth Plan were directed at integrating industrial research with the programme of industrial development and reviewing research programmes periodically at different levels.

The Fifth Plan, in terms of the formulation of the machinery, m a d e a major departure. As stated earlier, the document 'Approach to Fifth Five-Year Plan' provided a sound base for discussion at various levels and incor­poration of n e w experiments at the level of the Planning Commission.

The attitudinal change of the government formed in 1977 forms a vital part of the experience of scientists in understanding the political linkages of science. Indian scientists had taken for granted the political support for continued development of science and had not been asked any critical questions, nor were they questioned about the utility of their work. This they n o w had to face and try to answer, and the result was a certain degree of social and political understanding of issues underlying science and technological development. For instance, the utility of space programmes was compared with that of tubewells. Scientists began to examine the rele­vance ot their work to socio-economic objectives, as well as to broader problems. The ensuing discussion and debates centred on a number of poli­cies and programmes — not only in relation to the scientific and technologi­cal feasibility of such programmes, but also to their relevance to the existing socio-economic problems. They also covered the relative emphasis on pro­grammes of scientific and technological significance, relevance to under­privileged people and problems of rural India.

Formulation of the Sixth Plan followed a different procedure. The draft plan was prepared on the basis of the election manifesto of the Con­gress Party which w o n the elections, and wide ranging discussions with scientists all over the country. The draft document was circulated widely and was discussed at a conference of 300-400 eminent scientists and technolo­gists from different disciplines and different walks of life. The document as

46

finalised by a panel of experts formed by the Department of Science and Technology, was then discussed by the Planning Commission and a modi­fied document was included in the Sixth Five-Year Plan. The S & T Plan which is integrated with the national socio-economic development plan has been formulated with the objective to subserve the objectives of the corres­ponding national plan.

Whereas the main thrust of the Fifth Plan was on removal of poverty and attainment of self-reliance, that of the Sixth Plan was on growth, moder­nisation, self-reliance and social justice.

The investment m a d e in different fields of science and technology is indicative of the emphasis given to different areas and the relative priori­ties. The data are given Table 7-17.

Some Issues Arising out of Implementation of Policies

1. Scientists and Social Understanding After this brief discussion of the evolution of science policy and the

planning process, it m a y be worth while to look at some of the basic issues which came to surface as a result of the implementation of the policies and plans formulated.

The problems which emerged as a result of implementation of policies and building up of the infrastructure in the field of education have already been mentioned. It would be worth while to discuss some of the problems arising in respect of policies and the functioning of the infrastructure.

Firstly, the mechanism of planning and the allocation of resources, it m a y be seen, is closely linked with the plan prepared by agencies and the institutional framework which had come into being. This creates a major difficulty in the promotion of research in newer areas of research, as they emerge at the frontiers of science, unless they are picked up by the exis­ting agencies, or special agencies are created for them. The process be­comes time-consuming, as would be evident from the case of environ­ment and ocean development. However, the difficulties become even greater in the case of hybrid sciences, where jurisdictional approach of different agencies leads to either non-development of the concerned science or its being attached to an institution which covers only a few sectors of the area.

Secondly, the problem of translation of socio-economic goals and programmes into concrete plans of research and development and the latter's linkage with policies and programmes, particularly in industry, was not given due attention. The perceptions of scientists and technologists differed from those of the political leadership, planners and industrialists. Consequently, a number of R & D programmes were based on the capabili­ties of scientists, their interest and what they considered of relevance and importance in the development of science and technology. The scientists'

47

perceptions were based on inferences they derived from the literature pub­lished abroad. In this, the underlying philosophy of the universality of science played an important role. This also was reflected in lack of under­standing of linkages of scientific and technological problems with the social, economic, political and cultural dimensions of Indian society. This shortcoming became particularly evident in the phase of science policy in which the use of science and technology for the under-privileged and rural areas and for meeting the basic needs of the people was emphasized.

The sharp division between natural and social sciences, an offshoot of the Anglo-Saxon concept of science, has also effectively c o m e in the w a y of building up the interface between the two areas and formulation of the requisite programmes of research in this growing field, training personnel and allocation of necessary resources for its development. Consequently, in the planning of research and choice of research problems only the scienti­fic and technological dimensions were taken into account to the neglect of economic, social, cultural and ethical factors.

Thirdly, a study of literature from the mid-seventies to the beginning of eighties would reveal a wide gap in the understanding of the natural and social scientists. The literature produced by the natural scientists puts forth two sets of ideas: (i) scientists did not k n o w their o w n tradition of science and technology as understood and practised by the masses and they must learn from them and provide them n e w knowledge to improve their conditions; and (ii) if only the knowledge which was available was applied, all the problems of underprivileged, rural areas would be solved and basic needs would be met. A large number of research programmes were organised on the basis of this philosophy.

The social scientists, on the other hand, highlighted the complexity of the problems concerning the under-privileged and rural areas, and the factors responsible for not meeting the basic needs of a vast majority of the people. Economic structure, social organisation and political set-up were considered responsible for the state of affairs, and unless these were changed, no input of science and technology was considered likely to bring about a substantial change. In fact, it was pointed out that such factors were more likely to aggravate the conditions of the under-privileged in both rural and urban areas. The debate on green revolution, for instance, brought forth contrasting points of view and generated m u c h heat.

Fourthly, the discussions and debates on science policy, which were carried on during the period (1977-80), began to question the policies initiated earlier, i.e. the Nehru model, with emphasis on the creation of an infrastructure, investment in core industries and creation of an industrial base. There was considerable literature on as well as a large group of expo­nents of the Chinese model of development, making reference to and defen­ding such models as walking on two legs, small is beautiful, intermediate and appropriate technologies* learning from the masses, grass-root scientists,

48

and bare-foot doctors. The sudden shift from European models to the Chi­nese model is an interesting study, and reflects lack of social understanding of science and political framework of science policy as well as lack of critical analysis of science and the role it had played till them. In the absence of these, a mechanism of internalised evaluation of policies, programmes and their impact could not be evolved and efforts were made to apply ideas, concepts and theories developed elsewhere.

Fifthly, the machinery of planning and funding was based on the programmes and projects submitted by the agencies and institutions. A s a result, a major part of the investments was directed towards their develop­ment and extension. This reduced the possibilities of resources being made available for n e w projects and areas of research. Within the institutions, the same situation prevailed — most of the resources being absorbed by the projects and programmes which were already under w a y over the years, reducing the possibility of initiating work on n e w problems and projects.

Lastly, the jurisdictional approach of agencies and institutions had a great drawback. W h e n other institutions developed interesting ideas or got promising leads in the course of work in an area which fell within the juris­diction of another, it was not possible to pursue the idea into development. This was because the latter set of institutions could not get resources and inter-agency or inter-institution collaborations; mobility of persons was also not possible. Even where measures were suggested to overcome these draw­backs, it was not possible to implement them because of administrative, financial and social constraints and attitudes of those in control of insti­tutions and agencies. These factors had considerable impact on the imple­mentation of policies and plans by way of undermining progress towards achieving set objectives and maximising the efficiency of resouce utilisation.

2. Integration of Science witb Plans of Other Sectors

The major limitation of science policy, as followed over the years, lay in the absence of coordination between various sectors of R & D , from the uni­versities to industry, to develop a national network to work on specific problems. Further, as has been stated earlier, besides single objective agencies like atomic energy, which were the generators of knowledge as well as the users, and also had control over import of technology, specific national projects were not identified; nor were agencies and institutions brought to­gether to work on them.

Another limitation of the policy lay in lack of coordination on indus­trial policies pertaining to the import of technology and the development of industry, and those of R & D institutions. R & D institutions were not linked to industry, including those in the public sector. In the absence of linkages, the industry, in consultation with the concerned ministry, imported technology, under terms and conditions which were not conducive to its

49

further development, adaptation or modification, as a result of indigenous R & D efforts. Had the R & D laboratories been associated, the quality of tech­nology imported might have been better, with the possibilities of its further development through their involvement. As a result, the country was a.Idled with a number of outdated technologies, a number of technologies being imported in the same area and successive import of technologies. Repetitive import of technology from different countries and firms came in the w a y of standardising parts, and the possibility of their large scale production and achieving economy of costs; it also hampered the development of R & D pertaining to the concerned industry.

A second dimension of this lack of coordination between industrial development and R & D policies and plans emerges from a look at the invest­ment pattern in industry and industrial R & D . In most cases, the quantum of investment in R & D was inversely proportional to the overall investment in that sector of industry.

A look at the pattern of R & D investment in various sectors reveals that as far as health and agriculture are concerned, the priorities of research were directly related to the objectives and goals. In the case of industry, however, there was considerable mismatch in the priorities of research. A number of sectors of industry, such as engineering, energy (particularly hydro and thermal), textile machinery, food processing, development of materials (steel, aluminium and others), the investment in R & D was negli­gible, if at all, in relation to investment in import of technology or the over­all investment in the concerned industiy. As a consequence, dependence on imported k n o w - h o w continued. The reasons for this, as pointed out earlier, m a y possibly lie in compartmentalisation of the decision-making system and the jurisdictional approach with regard to utilisation of research results. This was also implicit in the belief that Indian industrialists would rather use indigenous R & D results than build up linkages abroad and import techno­logies from other countries. These hopes were belied, as can be seen from repetitive import of technology in preference to indigenously developed one. Technology was imported under the plea that this was necessary to gain time. This m a d e m u c h of the R & D effort infructuous and led to serious doubts being raised about the utility of indigenous R & D infrastructure.

O n e consequence of this practice was that through import of techno­logy, and building up of linkages with foreign industry, the Indian industry subsidised R & D in foreign countries and got isolated from the national R & D system. Without putting pressure on the R & D system to undertake research to meet industry's needs, the industry marginalised the role of R & D system as it developed in the country.

In the absence of public debate on science policy, the promoters of science in a particular area also became the decision-makers through the linkages built with the administrators and the political leadership. This also created a degree of lopsidedness in investment in different areas of R & D .

50

In the absence of a clearcut policy for utilisation of results of resear­ches carried out in different R & D institutions, adequate funds needed for upscaling the results from bench scale to pilot plant or semi-industrial level were not made available. In fact, there was considerable debate on the question of national laboratories undertaking pilot plant researches. Conse­quently, in the absence of pilot plant experimentation, the processes deve­loped in various laboratories were considered not suitable for industrial use and remained unutilised. This became an element in the criticism of labora­tories in regard to their utility and contribution to national development. Such processes were released to the industry without large scale trials and had m a n y teething problems. A number of them proved unsuccessful and reflected badly on the quality of indigenous research. The industry, not having its o w n R & D facilities to upscale bench-scale results and carry out large scale trials, and also having no risk capital to invest in developing a process, shied away from the indigenous research results. What was really required was a technology policy which could guide the import, adaptation and development of imported technology and at the same time promote the utilisation of indigenous efforts. This was not achieved till 1984. The achie­vements in this respect fell far short of requirements.

•

51

able 6

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF PERSONNEL ENGAGED IN R&D AS O N 1.4.1985

Disciplines Sectors

1

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6. "7.

s! 9. 10

B.

1. 2.

2

A Institutional

Sector D A E CSIR

D R D O ICAK ICMR DST SPACE E N V I R O N M E N T Other Insn. Under the Central Govt State Govts.

Industrial. Sector

Public Sector Private Sector

Total

Nat.

Sc.

3

617 1448 194 474

113 248

155 193 361 82

343 678

4908

1

Agri.

4

3 55

2

893

— 1 7

— 23

332

9 42

1367

Ph.Ds

Engg.

5

14 288

53 81

— 3

80

— 61

5

210

245

1040

Med.

6

12 6 1

— 22 4

— — 4

—

5 11

65

Soc. Sc.

7

— 6

11 64

8 14 2

— 19

2

— 5

131

Total

8

646 1803 261

1512

145 270 244

193 468 421

567 981

7511

Nat. Sc.

9

1292 1452 508 637 105 241 394 141

1434 261,

1198

1399

9062

Agri.

10

9 52

23 678

— 2

12 1

59 843

10

45

1734

Post Graduates

Engg. Med.

11 12

99 128 587 18 505 10 146 1

1 44

23 31 624 6

— — 390 —36

82 17

1188 2 1160 43

4805 332

Soc. Total Sc.

13 14

1 1529 138 2247 46 1092

115 1577 29 179

146 443

117 J153 ."'— 142

90 2003 12 1215

7 2405 15 2664

716 16649

Graduates Diploma Holders Others Total

Nat. Agri. Engg. M e d . Soc. Total. Engg. M e d . Total Nat Agri. Engg. M e d . Soc. Total Nat. Agri. Engg. M e d . Soc. Total Sc. Sc. Sc. Sc. Sc. Sc.

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

804 10 777 117 — 1708 425 — 425

899 68 682 10 117 1776 355

554 117 849 8 55 1583 949

12Î 59 50 1 51 284 14

40 1 1 18 21 81 1

7 — 63 5 57 132 2

410 3 1201 9 140 1763 1166

139 — 1 — — 140 — -

571 33 1032 10 22 1668 540 —

20

1

2

1166

41

1

12

— 5

340 198

3 179 13 — 215 2733 25 1494 270 1 4523

9 364 355 68 291

1 950 65 56 966

— 14 367 66

169 253 184 15 — 621 571 — 571 70 176 28

2 340 1036 4154 243 2203 45 601 7246

3 302 1592 1321 198 3322 23 614 3478

1 — 352 786 1601 1696 292 2 582 4173

— — 1

- 15 -3 2420 —

5 959 4 26 1192 2564 120 2982 48 157

95 137 301 1 3 85 153 543

48 64 497 3 106 40 265 911

24 2459 971 25 5491 15 283 6785

— 5 478 1 1 — — 480

5871

279 582 1604 870 37 14 3107

1,263 6 2637 - 24 3950 1137 - 1137 180 5 774 — 158 1117 2984 30 5966 7 189 9176

1800 57 2740 40 36 4673 1631 13 1644 524 69 2030 9 118 2750 4401 213 7806 118 174 12712

6779 60710237 233 52318379 6791 23 6814 1838 431 7663 37 16631163222587 415930536 6903033 61005

Source : Data Compiled by DST.

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56

Table 11

R & D EXPENDITURE BY PUBLIC/JOINT SECTOR UNDERTAKINGS, 1984-8;

SI. N o . N a m e of Ministry N a m e of Undertaking R & D Expendi­ture (Rs lakhs)

R & D Expendi­ture as per-

centage of Sales

10.56 203.00 631.86

28.07 90.0S 35.19

169.28 5.50

21.45 15,76

121.30 1670.47

19.62 14.34

919.99 1815.00

83.00 2909.30

0.69 30.31

248.81 42.96 20.15 18.00

2623.00 423.05 200.15

1.80 0.73

16.87 4.10 2.30

725.00 53.77

140.93 12.00

195.00 2.50

102.28 8.00

13.20 1.66

11.00 590.00 462.09 312.00 52.20

4777.96 338.96

5.60

turnover

0.79 2.58

24.77 0.09 1.70 0.53 139 0.02 0.05 1.44

N . A . 7.38

163.50 1-97 2.18 9.75 0.95 6.36

0.004 1.78 11.4 0.13 0.08 0.43 1.70 0.97 0.97 0.03 0.0J 0.5> 0.21 0.20 1.51

— 1.78 1.20 1.92

— 1.57

0.009 0.33 0.32 6.21

13.96 0.04 0.64 0.57 5.10 0.61 0.06

1. Atomic Energy

2. Chemicals & Fertilisers

Communication

Defence Production

Electronics Energy (Coal)

Heavy Industry

8. Industrial Development

9. Petroleum

10. Textile

Uranium Corporation of India Ltd. Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. Fertiliser Planning & Development India Ltd. Fertiliser & Chemical Travancore Ltd. Hindustan Insecticides Ltd. Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd. Indian Drugs & Pharmaceuticals Ltd. Madras Fertilisers Ltd. Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilisers Ltd. Smith Stanistreet Pharmaceuticals Ltd. Hindustan Teleprinters Ltd. Indian Telephone Industries Ltd. Overseas, Communication Services Bharat Dynamics Ltd. Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. Bharat Electronics Ltd. Garden Reach Shipbuilders Ltd. Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. Mazagaon Docks Ltd. Praga Tools Ltd. Computer Maintenance Corporation Neyveli lignite Corporation Ltd. Singareni Collieries C o m p a n y Ltd. Bharat P u m p and Compressors Ltd. Bhatat Heavy Electricals (Corporate) Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd. Heavy Engineering Corporation Mining & Allied Machinery Corporation Ltd. Richardson & Cruddas Ltd. Scooters India Ltd. Triveni Structural Ltd. Tungbhadra Steel Products Ltd. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., Trichy Lagan Jute Machinery Corporation Ltd. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., Ranipet Burn Standard Company Ltd. Hindustan Photo Films Mfg. C o m p a n y Ltd. Hindustan Salts Ltd. Instrumentation Ltd. National Instrument Ltd. National Newsprint and Paper Ltd. Tannery and Footwear Corporation Bharat Opthalmic Glass Ltd. Engineers India Ltd. Indian Oil Corportion Indian Petrochemicals Ltd. Lubrizol India Ltd. Oil and Natural Gas Commission Oil India Ltd. National Textile Corporation (Gujarat) Ltd.

57

Sl.No.Name oí Ministry N a m e of Undertaking R & D Expendí- R & D Expendi­ture (Rs lakhs) ture as per­

centage of Sales turnover

11. Steel

12. Mines

13.

14.

17. 18.

19-20.

Department of Scientific & Industrial Research Gujarat

15. Karna talca

16. Kerala

Maharashtra Punjab

Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

Steel Authority of India ( R & D Centre) Steel Authority of India Rourkela Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Ltd. Bharat Aluminium Company Ltd. Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. Hindustan Zinc Ltd. Hindustan Copper Ltd. Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd. Central Electronics Ltd.

Gujarat State Fertilisers Company Ltd. Gujarat Communications & Electronics Ltd. Gujarat Agro Industries Ltd. Karnataka Soaps & Detergents Ltd. N G E F Ltd. Kerala State Electronics Corporation Kerala State Drugs & Pharmaceuticals Ltd. Maharashtra Electronics Corporation Ltd. Electronics Systems Punjab Ltd. Pun/ah Wireless Systems Ltd. Semiconductors Complex Ltd. Punjab Recorders Ltd. Punjab Tractors Ltd. U.P . Electronics Corporation Ltd. Webel Business Machine Ltd. Westing House Saxby Farmer Ltd. West Bengal Electronics Corporation

1262.26 204.02

2.05 74.00 53.84 84.00

213.03 4.56

644.00

115.82 197.55

10.00 2.25

12.93 254.88

8.12 10.00 37.00 20.87

9.19 26.00 65.30 83.50 20.00

4.37 12.16

— 0.27 0.02 0.31 1.99 0.70 0.94 0.18

135.57

0.50 7.59 0.31 0.10 0.16 5.90 1.75 1.39 8,91 2.82 5.19

52.00 0,77

163.72 36.36

1.45 6.98

Source: Data compiled By D S T .

58

Table 12

R * D EXPENDITURE B Y INDUSTRY G R O U P S F O R PRIVATE SECTOR INDUSTRIES

(Re. Lakhs)

51. Industry Group Number of Total R & D Expenditure K & D Expenditure As % of S .T .O

SJo. Industries 1982-81 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 1984-85 1982-8} 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 1984-85

I

Î

1

1

> i J

1

) 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

¡8

19

!0

!1

!2

Î3

!4

>•>

!6

17

!8

'.9

•0

,! a • l

,4

-5

6

.7

3

Metallurgical Industries

Fuels

Boilers fit S team Generating Plants

Prime M o v e r s (other than Electrical)

Electronic Ac Electrical Equipments

Telecommunicat ion

Transportation

Industrial Machinery

Machine Tools

Agricultural Machinery

Earth M o v i n g Machinery

Misc. M e c h . engineeiing Industries

Commerc ia l , Office, Househo ld E q u i p m e n t

Medical fie Surgical Appliances

Industrial Instruments

Scientific Instruments

M a t h , Surveying & Drawing Instruments

Fetilizers

Chemicals (Other than fertilizers)

Photographic R a w Film AE paper

Dyestuffs

D r u g s * Pharmaceuticals

Textiles (Dyed, Printed & Processed)

Papers & Pulp (including paper products)

Sugar

Fermentation Industries

F o o d Processing Industries

Vegetable Oils fit Vanaspati

Soaps, Cosmetics, Toilet Preparations

R u b b e r G o o d s

Leather, leather G o o d s , & Pickers

Glue fie Gelatin

Glass

Ceramics

C e m e n t fit G y p s u m Products

T i m b e r products

Defence Industries

Miscellaneous Industries

51

8

3

4

120

17

29

59

5

7

1

5

7

1

27

10

1

2

124

2

11

62

27

17

7

7

9

3

10

13

I

2

4

9

4

2

0

11

8 9 5 . 6 2

142.47

119.26

158 .57

2782 .66

146 .17

1604.71

1841 .62

12.35

361 .09

2.45

76 .44

138.45

10.08

180 .24

137.19

14 .94

31.67

2439-02

12.09

. 2 1 6 . 3 7

1852 .10

882 .82

286.41

57 .67

54 .42

133-33

5.19

596 .57

56fc--40

1.14

7.98

22 .66

332 .68

372 .16

17.27

# 0 0

1 8 1 . 1 4

1095 .02

109.51

75.95

211 .44

2 8 2 8 . 1 0

164 .39

1434 .02

2 1 3 6 . 5 0

16.01

389 .70

2.81

67 .83

117.58

24 .67

205 .04

150.46

16.19

9 4 . 7 4

2 6 3 3 . 1 2

15 .24

2 6 5 . 8 0

2217 .67

601 .56

301.93

77.16

54 .02

1 58 .92

3.73

584 .76

687 .22

1.63

1464

33.40

209-1 i

430 31

17.67

0.00

184.56

1222.04

92.27

51.28

309.02

3310.02

169.72

1903.90

2160.03

17.73

443.01

3.70

60.98

149.47

28.21

209.14

163.36

4.01

130.40

3074.17

20.65

289.81

243796

882.42

374.27

123.37

36,02

174.77

9.73

567.57

760.42

1.79

11.08

40.31

144.28

497.67

33.33

0.00

198.74

0,19

0.16

1.67

0.84

1.06

2.42

0.67

1.22

0.30

0.49

0.50

1.14

0.90

1.15

S.76

1.28

3.49

0.07

0.85

1.01

0.02

2.02

0.38

0.50

0.33

0.38

0.34

0.06

0.72

0.42

3.00

0.88

0.43

1.97

0.57

0.44

0.00

0.19

0.47

0.13

0.93

0.99

0.99

2.75

0.65

1.30

0.44

0.47

0.69

0.72

0.59

2.25

1.81

1.34

3.75

0.33

0.70

1.01

0.0}

2.26

0.24

0.42

0.39

0.27

0.44

0.04

0.65

0.49

3.20

1.11

0.59

1.29

0.57

0.41

0.00

0.21

0.46

0.08

0.58

1.28

0T99

1.74

0.66

1.11

0.34

0.47

0.98

0 5 8

0.66

2.51

1.70

1.33

0.69

0.25

0.63

1.66

0.0}

2.04

0.33

0.50

0.66

0.21

0.43

0.21

0.57

0.51

3.20

0.76

0.59

0.88

0.58

0.66

0.00

0.19

Total 682 16695.40 176Î2.42 20106.67 0.50 0.52 0.52

wira-: Data Compiled by DST.

59

Table 13

R&D EXPENDITURE BY INDUSTRY GROUPS FOR PUBLIC SECTOR INDUSTRIES

51- industry Group

No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 s 9 I 1 1 t

! 1 1 1

I t 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

> i 3 3 3 3

> 3 3

Metallurgical industries Fuels Boilers i£ Steam Generating Plants • Prime hSov&s Electronic « Electrical Equipment

Telecommunication Transportation Industrial Machinery Machine Tools

0. Agricultural Machinery 1. Earth Moving Machinery 2. Misc. Mech. Engineering Industries 3. Commercial, Office, Household

Equipment 4. Medical * Surgical Equipment 5. Industrial Instruments 6. Scientific instruments 7. Math, Surveying 4t Drawing

Instruments 8. Fertilisers 9. Chemicals (Other than Fertilisers) 0. Photographic Raw Film « Paper

I. Dyestuf is 2. T»tvgs ¡¿ Pharmaceuticals 3. Textiles (Dyed, Printed Processed) 4. Paper Sc Pulp 5. Sugar i>. Fetrofti\tat\ot\ Industries 7. Food Processing Industries 8, Vegetable Oils & Vanaspati 9. Soaps, Cosmetics, Toilet

Preparations

a. Rubber Goods 1. Learher, leather goods * Pickers 2. G l u e * Gelatin 3. Glass Á. lf*ramtCQ • . ., _ .— *t» 1^-C^l.iL t a i l e d *' ~ — i i^ -— • ~ • •*- • — — — *^-——

5. Cement it Gypsum Products 6. Timber Products 7. Defence Industries 8. Miscellaneous Industries

Total

N u m b e r of Industries

J* 3 0 0 15 6 1 4 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1

5 7 I 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 2

0 1

• 0 1 0 0 0 7 2

80

Total RftD Expenditure

1982-8 Î

1646.80 1771.31

0.0Q 0.00

2847.57 1*65.43

12.36 U2.2<¡ 29378

34.49 0.00 0,00 0,00

0,00 68.55 0.00

18.69

583.50 546.18

88.44 0.00

148.70 5.04 6.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

10.00

0.00 1.15

o.oo o.oo o.oo 0.00

o5o 2495.90

69.81

12246.30

1983-84

1972.71 3749.J4

0.00 0.00

3479.34 1880.05

15.20

9939 352.54

59.72 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 36 26 0,00

7.62

692.35 483.11

96.62 0,00

125.33 5.13 6.90 0.00 0.00 0,00

0.00 3.48

0,00 1.3S 0.00 1.00 Ó.00 0.00 0.00

2958.31 139.68

16165.50

(Rs. lakhs)

1984-85

1922.62 5642.12

0.00 0.00

5050.40 2034.18

16,87

218,55 423.05

65.30 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.00 102.28

0.00 8.00

802.70 671.22 19500

0.00 23.88

560 1320 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.30

0.0O 1.66 0.00

11.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

5772.63 590.73

23575.50

1902-83

0.66 0.16 0,00 0.00 1.61 7.30 0.44 0.53 0.97 0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 1.07 0.00 0.04

0.7V 0.77 1.06 0.00

3.05 0.05 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18

0.00 0.28

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.78 1.01

0.61

l & D Expenditure A s & o i S . T . O 1983-84

0.67

0.31 O.OO 0.00

V.75 8,11 0.57 0.35 097 0.78 0.00 0.00 Q.O0

0.00 0.54 0.00 0.01

0.6% 0.61 i.n 0.00 2.74 0.06 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08

0.00 0.30 0.00 0.58 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.80 1.65

«.74

1984-85

1.21 0.43 0.00 0.00 2.16 7,75 0.56 0.68 0.97 0.78 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00 1.57 0.00 0.01

069 079 1.93 0.00 1-54 0.06

0.33 000 0.00 000 0.00 0.11

0.00

0.33 0.00 6.21 0.00 0.00 0.00

4.39 6.67

1.04

Source : Data Compiled by D S T .

60

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61

Table 15

R & D E X P E N D I T U R E B Y OBJECTIVES F R O M 1982-83TC 1984-85

Central Government State Government

SI. No.

Objective 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85

7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13.

Exploration and Assesment of Earth. Seas, Atmosphere Space Development of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Promotion of Industrial Development Production, Conservation and Distribution of Energy Development of Transport and Communication Development of Education Services Development of Health Services Social Development and other Socio-Economic Services Protection of the Environment General Advancement of Knowledge Other Aims Defence

9549.71 9136.68

13283.08

12740.80

13731.53

3803.43 64.74

3499.38

630.35 109970

3266.95 3383.83 15009.92

7331.95 10231.50

14688.34

15057.61

17562.28

4512.87 62.86

4004.02

768.10

1638.77

5932.33 3832.54

19713.55

8011.25 16610.70

17210.74

19981.59

27141.15

676996 89.22

4294.64

891.07

2292.73 7635.51 5215-08

27361.94

71.96

—

9486.44

26.90

23.09

4.89

— 2912

43.92

— —

16.57

—

70.21

—

11748.70

33.99

23.46

3.97

— 43.38

43.77

— —

16.15

—

31.61

18.67

Total 91200.10 105336.72 143505.58 9704.89 11989.63 14251.48

Private Sector Total

J!,

I ' J O .

Objective 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85

7. 8. 9.

10. 1 . 12. 13.

Exploration and Assesment of Earth, Seas, Atmosphere Space Development of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Promotion of Industrial Development Production, Conservation «sd Distribution of Energy Development of Transport and Communication Development of Education Services Dc ^elopment of Health Services Social Development and other Sctio-Hconomic Services Protección of the Environment GeneiiJ Advancement of Knowledge Other Aims Defence

— —

516.01

9685.47

2372.54

2116.52

— 1862.18

— 6.42

0.21

136.05

—

— —

551.98 10270.00

2390.73

2057.95

— 2242.34

2.45 0.32

116.67

—

— ~

611.02

11601.71

2751.98

2514.48

— 2466.17

10.00

0.52 150.77

—

9621.67 9136.68

23285.53 22453.17

16127.16

5924.84

64.74

5590.68

676.27 1106.12 3267.16

3536.45 15009.92

7402.16 10231.50

26989.02 25361.60

19978.47

6374.79 62.86

6291.74

813.87

1641.22

5932.65 3965.36

19713.55

8094.36

16610.70

31821.26

31614.91

29913.62

9288.66 89.22

680901

936.75

2302.73 7636.03 5384.52

27361.94

Total 16695-40 17632.44 20106.65 117600.39 134958.79 17786371

Source : Data Compiled by DST.

62

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i 63

Table 17

R & D E X P E N D I T U R E B Y FIELD O F SCIENCE

(Ha. Lakhs)

Central Government State Governments

1982-83 1983-84 1984-8} 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85

1. Natural Sciences 2. Engineering & Technology 3. Medical Sciences 4. Agricultural Sciences 5. Others

38086.25 38567.59

3769.79 10491.70

284.85

43258.51 45340.84

4762.84

11650.13 324.37

57780.79 66943.30

5048.30

13280.57

452.53

265.56 111.14 23.60

9304.61

—

304.32 102.18

32.23 11550.90

—

317.96 102.44

28.23 13802.80

Total 91200.18 105336.69 143505.49 9704.91 11989.63 14251.43

R A D EXPENDITURE BY FIELD O F SCIENCE

(Ra. Lakhs)

Private Sector Total

1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85

1. Natural Sciences 2. Engineering & Technology 3. Medical Sciences 4. Agricultural Sciences 5. Others

4648.36 10320.29

1408.70 317.95

5160.26 10502.87

1622.55 346.76

6017.23 11926.62 1810.43

352.33

43000.17 48999.02

5202.09 20114.26

284.85

48723.09 55945.89 6417.62

23547.79 324.37

64115.98 78972.36

6886.96 2743570

452.53

Total 16695.30 17632.44 20106.61 117600.39 134958.76 177863.53

Source : Data Compiled by D S T

64

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

The expansion of facilities, the rapid development of scientific and techno­logical infrastructure, and the increase in the number of scientists and technologists and the major areas of research, trends of R & D and the relative investment in different areas of science and technology necessitated an appraisal of the actual situation, the impact the policies had created, as well as that of the development and implementation of different programmes.

Normally, two methods are followed. Firstly, eminent scientists, peers as they are called, are asked to review and recommend measures for further development of an area or to give suggestions for the overall develop­ment or of any particular dimension. Secondly, temporary or permanent (being for a period till they are changed) committees are constituted to evaluate the situation, on the basis of information m a d e available to them or on the basis of their personal expertise and experience. Both the methods were followed in India.

For various reasons, the one method which had emerged as a major analytical tool for decision-making in science and technology, ije. science policy studies, was neglected in India. Studies in this area were carried out by a group in CSIR in the early sixties, i.e. at the same time as it was develo­ping in Europe. The possible reason for the opposition to science policy studies, despite major input by the group in collecting and providing basic data on R & D system, lay in the, sharp division between natural and social scientists, with the former not recognising the latter as science. Further, it was thought that the conceptual framework, methodology and technique did not conform to the objectivity of the tradition of natural science. A n o ­ther possible reason lay in the fact that quantitative analysis demystified scientific research on the one hand and brought into the open the various decisions taken by peers for debate and discussions on the other. A n d in doing so, it tended to undermine their authority.

W a s there a clear-cut philosophy and its application for the develop­ment of policies, which were integrated with the planning process? W a s a feedback mechanism available? The latter, in fact, was provided at two different levels. O n e of these was the institutionalised mechanism of advi­sory committees at various levels — from the level of a laboratory to national level. The national-level committees underwent m a n y changes in n a m e , organisation and functions. The second mechanism was in the form of special meetings and conferences called from time to time to have a book

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at the implementation of the Scientific Policy Resolution and also to review the developments. This was in addition to the institutional reviews or eva­luations undertaken by committees specially constituted for the purpose.

Review of Scientific Policy Resolution

The adoption in March 1958 of the Scientific Policy Resolution was follo­w e d by convening of a Conference of Scientists and Educationists by the Government on 19 July 1958 to identify the tasks involved in the imple­mentation of the Resolution and to work out a plant of action. This was followed by two more conferences held in 1963 and 1970. A Round-Table of Y o u n g Scientists was called in 1967 by the Prime Minister to discuss critical issues relating to the development of science and technology in the country. The salient points of these conferences are presented and are indicative of the type of feedback provided.

The conference, organised under the auspices of Minstry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, m a d e the following recommendations:

(i) The scales of pay and service conditions of scientific and technical personnel employed in various R & D and teaching establishments should be rationalised. The service conditions should be m a d e comparable to those in the superior adminis­trative services, so that the best brains are attracted to the pro­fessions of scientific research and teaching,

(ii) The search for scientific talents should be started at the higher secondary school level through a suitable machinery to select and place bright students in appropriate institutions. Fifteen to twenty per cent of the deserving students admitted to universities should be given scholarships,

(iii) Adequate equipment, apparatus and other assistance, such as laboratory, library and clerical facilities, should be provided to research workers,

(iv) A large number of fellowships at postgraduate and doctorate levels should be instituted to encourage talented scholars to take up research as a profession,

(v) Trained scholars should be absorbed in suitable jobs and posi­tions,

(vi) Close collaboration between the R & D and teaching institutions should be encouraged,

(vii) Rapport should be built up between industry and government departments to draw upon the technical and scientific talents available with the teaching and research organisations, for employment as consultants without taking them away from their parent organisations.

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(viii) Suitable machinery should be evolved to enable young research workers to be transferred from one institution to another in order to m a k e use of their expertise.

(ix) Measures should be taken to intensify popularisation of science through various audio-visual means.

(x) Efforts should be m a d e to provide facilities for the manufac­ture of instruments and scientific apparatus required by schools and colleges.

(xi) A central institute should be set up to serve as a clearing house for scientific and technical information from all the sources — national and international.

The Second Conference

The Second Conference of Scientists and Educationists was organised during August 1963. It further reviewed the implementation of the Scientific Policy Resolution as also the progress of the tasks identified in the first conference. The review revealed that the tasks indicated were completed since the first conference.

The scales of pay in the universities, technical institutes, and scientific departments were enhanced. The scheme of merit promotion and advance increments was introduced in a number of scientific departments for out­standing research workers. Six eminent scientists were appointed national professors in geology, medicine, physics and biology. The implementation of the scheme of search for scientific talents at the school level by the state governments was, however, not successful, in view of the shortage of funds. The National Council of Educational Research and Training initiated this scheme in the Union Territory of Delhi and intended to extend it fo other states gradually.

The University Grants Commission enhanced the grants-in-aid to various universities with a view to providing them research and library facilities. Similarly, financial support to scientific institutes and societies was increased considerably. A large number of research scholarships and fellowships instituted by the C S I R and U G C at the universities provided considerable resources to the universities by w a y of project grants to under­take research. The Scientists' Pool was created in CSIR for the temporary placement of highly trained scientists in India or those w h o were working overseas to enable them to work in the universities or national laboratories until such time as they were able to find suitable employment. Supernume­rary posts were created in scientific research institutions and public under­takings to absorb such scientists in these institutions.

In the rural areas, Vigyan Mandirs (Science Centres) were set up to popularise science among the people. These mandirs, with a nucleus of libra­ries and science m u s e u m s , were also provided with projectors, slides and

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other simple scientific apparatus and equipment to demonstrate to the villagers the benefits of scientific methods in their daily life. Science clubs were also arranged through such mandirs. In all forty Vigyan Mandirs were established.

S o m e of the tasks, could not be undertaken owing to the scarcity of resources and foreign exchange.

The exchange of scientific personnel a m o n g the research institutions, universities and industry for a limited period could not be accomplished. This was because of difficulties in reformulation of rules and regulations in matters of leave salary, provident fund, pension, and other related prob­lems, such as seniority and other benefits, as well as in providing certain basic facilities, such as housing and education — factors which have to be considered for encouraging exchange or mobility of personnel.

Scarcity of textbooks and their low standard affected the quality of education. Further, no serious attempt was m a d e to produce books in diffe­rent languages of the country. This hampered the dissemination of science a m o n g the people.

This conference noted that the progress m a d e was far short of the goals set in the Scientific Policy Resolution. Financial allocations for scienti­fic research and technical education were found inadequate. The scientists were equally disappointed with the provision of meagre foreign exchange for equipment and books. There was an expression of dissatisfaction with regard to the cooperation between the universities and national laboratories, mobility of scientists and application of the results of scientific research, and the organisational environment for creative research. In conformity with the spirit of the Scientific Policy Resolution, the conference m a d e the following recommendations:

(i) Allocation for scientific research should be roughly 1 per cent of the total national income;

(ii) The research work should be project-oriented and measures should be taken to ensure the economic utilisation of the research results,

(iii) Priorities in scientific research programmes should be related to

the industrial priorities; (iv) Postgraduate departments in various universities and Centres

of Advanced Study in various fields of science and technology should be established to ensure adequate supply of scientists;

(v) The structure of scientific services should be simplified to en­sure greater mobility and internal democracy promoted to achieve opt imum conditions for creative work;

(vi) Efforts should be m a d e to maintain collaboration between the laboratories and users to encourage greater exchange of per­sonnel between them. The users should be associated with the laboratory from the very beginning of formulation of the prog­rammes; and

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(vii) Indian processes should be given preferential treatment by being provided greater scope for indigenous design and fabrication of equipment and development of consultative industrial advisory services. In areas where indigenous k n o w - h o w did not exist, the imported processes should be utilised to build up and develop indigenous k n o w - h o w .

Round Table of Scientists & Technologists

Around 1966, most of the infrastructure for scientific and technical research was completed. Indian science had reached a level from where it could begin to contribute substantially to socio-economic development. Though scientific research became a significant sector claiming financial and m a n p o w e r resour­ces, its activities could not respond to meeting the socio-economic needs, as was expected of it. The consequence was inability of the indigenous R & D institutions to have an impact on the performance of science in the country. Questions pertaining to management of research, availability of résources and their utilisation, research environment, commitment of scientists and technologists to the application of indigenous research, import of k n o w - h o w , linking of scientific research programmes with social needs, organisation of science and the government policies, were debated by the scientific c o m m u ­nity as well as the public.

A s stated earlier, the Prime Minister called a R o u n d Table Conference of Scientists and Technologists in September 1967 for discussions on scie­nce, with a view to identifying problems and finding possible solutions. Fifty scientists and technologists were invited from different agencies, universities, industry and government departments. The overwhelming view of the participants was that very little had been done to implement the Scientific Policy Resolution. The major issues discussed related to creation of scientific temper, planning of science and dissemination of information. The conference m a d e various recommendations to overcome the problems in these areas, the chief amongst them being:

(i) Scientists in universities and laboratories should take part in school science education. They should establish contacts with the local educational authorities in advisory capacity;

(ii) A n important step in developing scientific temper in the coun­try would be the rationalisation of "national decisions based on available information and taking into account economic, social and technological factors rather than parochial or other pressures;

(iii) Efforts should be m a d e to disseminate and popularise science through documentary films, radio, television, popular science journals, magazines, etc.;

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(iv) The universities should build viable groups in selected areas. Scientific personnel and equipment, whether located in univer­sities, laboratories or industries, should be available freely for teaching, research and other scientific activities irrespective of their location. N o institution should have a static staff structure insulated from the outside environment. Provision of joint appointments for national laboratories and universities should be encouraged;

(v) Every possible effort should be m a d e to induce Indian scientists to return to India. Efforts shoulc be m a d e to spot out scientists of excellence, and those w h o really want to return. Conditions should be created to osorb them in worthwhile scientific activity in the country;

(vi) A machinery for the planning of science and technological efforts should be developed ;

(vii) The Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet should be continued but it should \,i strengthened through the induction of a full-time chairman and a small permanent supporting staff;

(viii) A National Council for Science and Technology should be set up to perform the overall function of coordination and planning of scientific research at national level;

(ix) Suitable machinery should be set up to pursue the implemen­tation of Scientific Policy Resolution;

(x) Special efforts should be m a d e to recognise scientists and technologists making contributions to applied sciences.

(xi) Etforts should be m a d e ; to build up rapport between industr and national laboratories till the industry starts its o w n research facilities, and national laboratories m a y help in nurturing such research; and

(xii) In cases where k n o w - h o w of a high standard could be developed within the country, foreign collaboration was undesirable. Foreign collaboration m a y be resorted to for the purpose of gaining lead time.

The Third Conference

The Third Conference of Scientists, Technologists and Educationists was organised under the auspices of the Committee on Science and Techno­logy in November 1970. The principal objectives of the conference were to m a k e a comprehensive review of the progress m a d e in the implementa­tion of Scientific Policy Resolution; to suggest, in the light of this review, measures to remedy any lacunae observed in its implementation; to consider whether there was any need for restatement of the Resolution in order to incorporate policy for technology, and if so, to suggest necessary modifica­tions.

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The progress report on the implementation of Scientific Policy Reso­lution during the ten-year period 1958-68 was presented by the Committee on Science and Technology ( C O S T ) . The report showed that the expenditure on R & D had increased from 0.21 to 0.43 per cent of G N P during the period under review. More importantly, the report showed that (i) the facilities for R & D had been strengthened in the scientific institutions-, (ii) n e w insti­tutes, laboratories, centres and stations had been established under various scientific agencies and departments; (iii) the activities of the Scientific Surveys had been strengthened and expanded; (iv) there was considerable expansion of facilities for higher education in science, agriculture, techno­logy and medicine, besides a four-fold increase in enrolment in science courses at university level; (v) the outturn of scientific and technical per­sonnel at graduate and postgraduate levels for different fields of science had increased (three-fold); (vi) the number of scholarships and research fellowships in science and technology had been increased to encourage students to undertake advanced studies and research; (vii) training courses had been started by the Department of Atomic Energy»Ministry of Defence, and Research Design and Standards Organisation, etc; and (viii) to encou­rage and foster inventive talents, the government set up a n e w organisation — the Inventions Promotion Board.

S o m e of the old problems, however, continued. For instance, the extent of utilisation of the indigenously developed k n o w - h o w had not shown any upward trend, and the import of technology, which to begin with was undertaken to gain time, became a continuing and a disconcerting feature. Industry continued to show lack of interest in indigenous research capabilities, even where the contribution of indigenous scientific research to the industrial sector could have been considerable. Further, because public and private production units did not take advantage of national R & D capabilities, their production efficiency remained low. Units in mining and production and utilisation of minerals, including coal and oil, thermal power, production of iron and steel, fertilizers, heavy equipment, synthetic chemicals and polymers, etc. were working far below their rated capacity and suffered successive and serious breakdowns. CSIR laboratories had faci­lities for basic-oriented and applied research, but not for developmental research. Pilot plants, design, fabrication and engineering facilities, being critical factors in technology transfer, could not be developed to the desired extent. Their development would have been possible only if the industry had a commitment to utilise the results of researches and had shared sub-'-stantial part of the developmental expenditure. There was m u c h to be desired in the creation of conditions for useful c o m m u n i ­cation between the R & D system and industry.

There was need for a uniform recruitment policy as well as service conditions in all the scientific institutions. The factors inhibiting the mobi­lity of the scientists continued to operate. In addition to the problem of

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mobility, non-utilisation of results of research by the industry, which conti­nued to import k n o w - h o w and technology, created considerable pressure on the academic and research systems for employing scientists, and also led to their unemployment — a problem which got magnified with the passage of time.

Furthermore, the non-employment of scientists by the industry, and lack of their mobility between the academic and research institutes and indus­try, stood in the w a y of their gaining experience about and having apprecia­tion of industry's problems. Consequently, both education and research remained academic and isolated from the problems of development and hence increasingly chose models, courses and topics of research from West­ern Europe and U S A .

T o ease the unemployment situation, two steps were suggested. The first of these was to fill up the large number of posts lying vacant in the research, academic and technical institutions. The second step suggested was to encourage self-employment of technically trained persons. These sugges­tions, it m a y be noted, left the basic question, that of unemployment of scientists and technologists by the industry, untouched.

The conference made certain recommendations to remove the bottle­necks in the implementation of various measures arising out of the SPR. The important recommendations were:

(i) A National Council of Science and Technology ( N C S T ) should be set up to formulate a science plan, and to establish firm links with the Planning Commission. The national plan for science and technology should be integrated with the economic plan;

(ii) Planning and programming units should be set up at various levels with experts in planning, programming, systems analysis and operational research;

(iii) Evaluation of the national science efforts should be undertaken at all levels and should include assessment of costs and benefits. Scientific programmes should be evaluated or reviewed perio­dically, so that the priorities are always current.

(iv) The existing system of selection through Union Public Service Commission should be abolished and a system of recruitment based on talent hunt should be evolved by the agency or labora­tory. The salary structure for scientists should be commensurate with their responsibilities and also adequate to attract the best available talent in the country. The service conditions, including retirement benefits, should be uniform;

(v) A suitable policy for import of technology should be evolved. Policies to encourage R & D in the industry and its greater utili­sation should be formulated.

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(vi) The distinction between scientific and technical personnel should be removed to encourage scientists to undertake applied engineering, pilot plant, techno-economic, manpower survey and liaison work and to promote mobility among different kinds of activities; and

(vii) Manpower planning should be integrated with the overall national planning of goals and priorities. Exchange of personnel between universities and national research establishments should be encouraged and the possibilities of joint programmes between universities and national laboratories should be ex­ploited.

The setting up of the National Committee on Science and Technology (NCST) in 1971 was an important step towards systematic planning of science and technology for development.

From the proceedings of different conferences and committees, it would be evident that the emphasis was by and large on the problems con­nected with the promotion of science and the steps to be taken to remove bottlenecks. This was rather a limited view and arose from a framework of science in which it was considered as a discipline of knowledge, and not as a social movement, with deep interface with social and political factors, and a well defined role in bringing about a change in society. This limitation came effectively in the w a y of studying such problems as those of transfer of R & D results from laboratory to industry, factors which accelerate or hamper transfer of technology, effect of import of technology on indigenous R & D system and employment of scientific and technical personnel, etc.

Looking back at the recommendations of these conferences, three features become apparent: (i) correct diagnosis of the situation and suitable recommendations to correct the situation; (ii) repeated reiteration of these recommendations from one conference to another; and (iii) limited success achieved in implementation of the recommendations. Further, not m u c h effort was made to identify the factors preventing implementation of the recommendations. As a consequence, not only were the obstacles in the implementation of programmes not removed, but responsibility for non-implementation could also not be fixed. Factors which affected the growth of science and technology and its application in the process of development could not be removed, and with the passage of time these factors assumed serious proportions. Lack of rigorous efforts to implement decisions and inadequate machinery to do so have been responsible for only partial effec­tiveness of scientific and technological effort being achieved.

This indicative review of the feedback mechanisms also brings to surface a number of additional features which are worth considering. Firstly, the effort at getting the feedback was not consistent. There was also lack of consistency on the part of the scientists responsible for implementing the programmes. Such a system could only give an idea of the additional require-

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ments or further extension of what was already existing. It is surprising that despite the well-defined policies and organisation of science and their inte­gration with planning, the need, even though expressed at the first confere­nce, did not lead to the establishment of a well-organised information system. In* the absence of data, the necessary information on resource utilisation and progress of projects was not available and the necessary knowledge could not be generated and utilised at the time of plan formulation. Further, even the detailed and specific information on the degree and manner of implementation of various recommendations and the problems arising out of it was not available. Hence, there was no assessment of implementation of various recommendations. In the absence of a well-organised machinery, the data could not be collected and updated continuously. Only w h e n needed, efforts were m a d e to collect data, but it was so outdated by the time it arrived that it was practically of no use.

The absence of a properly organised information system also affected the development of analytical studies so vital for the assessment of prog­rammes and critical inputs to both policy makers and planners. In the ab­sence of analytical and in-depth studies, based on up-to-date, accurate and comparable data, the discussions on policies, plans and evaluations of results remained at a very generalised level. Further, the correlation of develop­ment and performance of one sector with other related sectors could not be m a d e .

Secondly, there was excessive compartmentalisation of decision­making and internalising of the evaluation within each agency and insti­tution. This was the result both of a jurisdictional approach and absence of accurate, comparable and up-to-date data. The sub-goals set by each agency and their pursuit without their correlation in the context and framework of overall national goals led to m a n y parallel developments. These develop­ments were not complementary in regard to industrial research and import of technology, and hence reduced the quantum of input which science and technology system could provide to national development.

The major shortcoming which stood in the w a y of R & D meeting specific social and economic needs of the country was the lack of linkage of the R & D institutions with industry. In the import of technology, insofar as the choice, terms and conditions and further development of technology were concerned, the R & D institutions were neither consulted nor involved. Efforts were m a d e , from time to time, to develop a clear-cut policy—a techno­logy policy — without success. These fructified only in 1983. The efforts to build up linkages and to involve the laboratories in decision-making regarding import of technology were also nullified because of certain pre­ssures.

Another major factor affecting the situation to a large extent was the attitude of scientists themselves — their preoccupation with their research problems, without taking wider issues into consideration. Their isolation

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from industry as well as from other sectors involved in the decision-making system made them ineffective ás a factor which could influence the general trend. Hence, the scientists could generate, at no point of time, sufficient pressure on the decision-making system in favour of their point of view against indiscriminate import of technology.

Lastly, there was the major porblem of the utilisation of scientists and technologists. The rapid growth of science and technology had brought forth a larger number of new areas' of science and created a number of hybrid fields of specialisation, and younger scientists had taken up these areas. This created a sort' of a dilemma. If the newer areas and the younger scientists had to be promoted, then the resources had to be diverted to them from the already established areas. The other problem was that of the scien­tists whose specialisation had no longer the priority or w h o had become out of date, and obsolete. These problems were compounded by the fact that old scientists were occupying vantage positions and had a say in plan­ning, programme selection, resource allocation and decision-making at various levels. In the absence of sociological studies on science, technology and analytical studies on programming, planning, resource utilisation, manpower utilisation and results of research, the necessary insights into the sociological structure of S & T and its efficiency, could not be m a d e and the information needed to develop and improve the system could not be generated. A s a result, there was considerable uninformed debate and discussion, airing of personalised problems and lack of productivity, all of which could have been avoided.

Manpower Utilisation

The first concern which emerged in this direction was with scientific and technical manpower , and a Register for Scientific and Technical Manpower Was created. Later, concern was expressed about brain drain and measures Were taken to bring back scientists and technologists working abroad.

Measures were taken by the government to get a feedback and evolve policies on different dimensions of the problem. In the case of manpower , th£ policy of expansion of infrastructure to have a large manpower resource had yielded results and had at the same time created a number of problems.

T h e mismatch in policies on the development of manpower resources an<jl their utilisation is glaring. It appears that the policies dealing with the employment of scientific and technical manpower were left at the mercy of the market phenomena. It was presumed that India lacked scientific and technical manpower and whatever would come out of the university system wo|uld be automatically absorbed. That was not to be. A number of social, culhiral, regional and linguistic factors came in the w a y of proper employ­ment of manpower besides the attitude of the industry, which due to its pojicy of showing preference for imported technology only needed techni-

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cians. The chances of remaining unemployed^ under-employed, lowly paid or of not being able to w o r k in a conducive atmosphere m a d e scientists look at other countries, both advanced at developing. The large-scale unemploy­ment of scientists and technologists was also due to lack of interaction of the R & D system with industry.

The major problem which faced the country was the migration of a large number of well-trained scientists and technologists to advanced coun­tries and later to other developing countries, particularly the Arabic speaking countries.

A significant number of Indian scientists and technologists were work­ing abroad. According to one estimate, this number was about 30,000 in 1971, composed of 15,000 engineers, 9,000 doctors and 6,000 scientists. The figure has increased substantially since then; it m a y even have doubled. Though better financial prospects are one of the major reasons for brain-drain, factors like lack of facilities and employment opportunities for scientists, the feeling of isolation from which they suffer and the sense of being cut off from the world scientific community are also responsible for this phenomenon. The setting up of the 'Indians Abroad Register' in 1957 within the 'National Register of the Scientific and Technical Personnel' marked the beginning of organised efforts to utilise the expertise of Indians w h o were abroad for study, training and employment. The experiment does not appear to have been effective for the purposes for which it was established.

As part of the strategy to check brain drain, a 'Scientists' Pool' was constituted. It provided temporary placement to highly qualified scientists and engineers. There was a pronounced feeling in the scientific community that the "number of Indians included in the Pool was too low and people of high quality and calibre was not attracted. It was not enough merely to attract scientists working abroad to return to India to remain in the country.

With the increase in the number of trained scientists, technologists and technicians, the level of unemployment also increased. This helped to further increase the migration to other countries. The reasons for unemploy­ment have not been fully investigated, but are related to a number of factors ranging from indifferent training to procedures of selection and certain social and m a n y other factors, such as attitude of industry, particularly towards highly qualified personnel, absence of design and engineering and fabrication facilities and import of technology.

A study of various factors reveals the following: (i) The stock of scientific and technical personnel increased mani­

fold, while the number of S & T personnel employed in research and development increased by only 55% during the same period-,

(ii) There was a dichotomous situation insofar as the employment of scientists and engineers was concerned. O n the one hand,

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there was an unfulfilled demand for scientific and technical personnel, and on the ether hand there was large-scale u n e m p ­loyment among the educated, particularly among the scientifi­cally trained persons; and

(iii) Despite large scale unemployment, a large number of posts were lying vacant in almost all the research and academic institutions.

The situation, as indicated, also suggests that there was some misma­tch of the fields in which scientists and technologists were required, and the fields in which they had been trained and were available. Further, even in specialised fields in which they were available and required, the type of training and the level of training imparted was not necessarily the one required. This necessitates a second look at the university system, with regard to fields of specialisation and type of training to be given. Since it takes anything from 5 to 10 years to train specialists, a major effort would be required for forecasting the possible needs and taking advance action.

In addition, there was a need to evolve a comprehensive policy on manpower utilisation which would require a critical study of all the factors, correlation of policies and programmes of different sectors and overcoming of social, cultural, regional and linguistic barriers. In advanced countries, about 70% of scientists and technologists w h o came out of the university system go into industry and the rest 30% to government, R & D system and education. In India, on the contrary, scientists and technologists depend largely on universities, R & D system and government for employment. The employment opportunities created could not cope with the increased out­flow of S & T manpower from the universities and hence the figure of un­employed grew, as is evident from Table.1.

The number of educated unemployed has increased at an alarming rate. The unemployment rate in the age group 15-29 years is the highest, and in this age range, it is highest with people possessing only schooHeaving certificates. Though educated manpower currently accounts for just 10% of the total labour force, because of considerable financial investment by the society this problem has received a lot of attention. At the graduate level, the percentage of educated unemployed was 9.4. In 1980, the un­employment percentage was estimated at 6.2 for medical graduates, 4.9 for science post-graduates and 7.1 for engineering graduates. The figure was very high for engineering diploma holders (19.9%) and for science graduates (20.6%).

Apart from the problem of unemployment, in m a n y cases, there was a drastic mismatch between the nature of employment and educational qualifications; there was a huge body of under-employed as well. Barring those w h o pursued higher education in science or worked as laboratory tech­nicians, or as teachers, a major chunk of science graduates went in for clerical jobs which do not need m u c h scientific knowledge. A survey under­taken during 1975-79 jointly by D S T and the Institute of Applied M a n p o w e r

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Research ( I A M R ) , covering 98 universities, su industrial establishments and 26 public sector corporations showed considerable under-utilisation of qualified scientific and technical manpower in the country.

The most important requirement for reducing the unemployment of science and technology manpower is a high rate of industrial growth. T o take care of the existing stock of unemployed, industrial growth rate should be stepped up by 12-14% per a n n u m . Vocationalisation of education, greater interaction between industry and technical education, expansion of rural infrastructure and social services, promotion of R & D activities in the small-scale industries sector and in n e w areas of development, are some of the ways and means for tackling this problem. It is estimated that in the coming years, the level of unemployment will be higher for engineering diploma holders and general science graduates. There is considerable scope for gain­ful employment of those having scientific and technological qualifications in a wide variety of occupations, viz. electronics, rural technology, addi­tional sources of energy, export-oriented industries, and above all, in meeting a wide range of requirements in the industrial, agricultural and domestic sec­tors. In India, only one out of 40 qualified scientists is engaged in research and development. This is an activity which should be viewed as a catalyst for generating knowledge rather than as an instrument for providing employ­ment.

In addition to unemployment, there has been a large-scale migration of scientific and technical manpower to advanced and other developing countries, in particular to the Gulf countries. The migration, termed as brain drain, has also seriously affected the development of the country. The fac­tors considered to be responsible for the phenomenon are: the climate pre­vailing in universities and R & D institutions, which tend to be authoritarian-, lack of encouragement for innovative work; lack of recognition of merit; and absence of suitable facilities. Other factors, though of secondary impor­tance, are low salary scales, wide diversity in grades, high rate of inflation, and lack of housing and educational facilities.

Secondly, though efforts were m a d e to collect quantitative data on the manpower produced, total stock, employment patterns in different sectors, viz. education, research and industry as well as migration, and unemployment, no organized attempt was m a d e to conduct analytical and critical studies to look into various factors which were responsible for a specific situation, such as migration or unemployment or the manner of utili­sation. In the absence of such studies, specific and satisfactory measures to improve the situation could not be adopted. Whatever measures were taken, not being based on analytical and critical studies, were based on personal conclusions rather than on analytical and critical studies. Consequently, they did not yield the desired results.

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SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK - POPULARISATION OF SCIENCE

Major efforts were made by scientists, as science was emerging as a n e w body of knowledge and eeveloping a systematic methodology, to sift facts from fancies and ideas, and an approach through experimentation to varying facts, to take the message of science to the people. Scientific approach to phenomena of nature was different from the medieval outlook and intellec­tual framework, and came in direct clash, causing hardship to m a n y a scien­tist w h o took up cudgels like Giardano Bruno, Galileo and others. There were heated debates on sucn issues as helio-centric svstem.

In the context of their social role, scientists, besides undertaking re­search, also undertook to enlighten people about n e w facts, as were dis­covered by them, as well as new ideas and theories which they developed. In Britain, France and Germany, a number of leading scientists played a significant role in what came to be called popularisation of science.

In contrast to what happened in the countries of origin of this move­ment, in India no such effort was made . Science, as introduced in India by the British, had no such role. It was introduced as a discipline and was pro­moted as such. Very few scientists saw its social role and made eïforts to popularise science.

Popularisation of science remains neglected even n o w .

In the context of the developments since independence, four areas have emerged which require attention: (i) providing people with new k n o w ­ledge; (ii) explaining to them its social, cultural and ethical implications, (iii) informing them of scientific and technological developments of the past, linking them with contemporary developments and integrating them with culture; and (iv) informing them about the contributions made in India and the developments which are taking place currently.

Providing people with new knowledge is necessary to replace old knowledge and widen their horizon, to make them aware of n e w possi­bilities, and to enable them to participate in their development.

Explaining to them the significance of these developments is also vital to enable them to understand the nature of these developments and the manner in which they are going to affect their lives and society, and what they should do to avoid deleterious effects. It is also necessary to make

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people participate, with sufficient knowledge, in discussions and debates on policies and programmes, and through these, in the decision-making process.

Science, as it has developed in India, is considered by the vast majo­rity of people as a western phenomenon. In order to m a k e them feel that it is as m u c h a paft of the Indian tradition, it is desirable to write histories of scientific contributions by Indians to world science. Further, by linking the past developments with contemporary developments, the possibilities of in­tegrating them with contemporary culture also increase.

Dissemination of information on development of science in India and the contribution which it is making to world science is necessary for creating confidence in people about Indian science, and persuading people to look to science for the solution of their problems.

The efforts m a d e towards the popularisation of science in India, a brief description of which follows, have to be seen in the context of the framework outlined above.

Popularisation of Science

CSIR, through popular journals in English, Hindi and Urdu, has m a d e some efforts to reach the people. It has also been supporting journals published in other languages of the country aiming at disseminating scientific knowledge. The mass media, the press, radio and television have also of late increased the space ami time given to science and science-related subjects.

In addition to the efforts of CSIR, there have been a number of voluntary organisations and associations, mostly functioning since the late sixties or early seventies, which have also played some role in selected areas. These include: The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad and Karnataka Rajya Vijnana Parishad in popularisation of science; the Bangalore Science Circle in science education at school level; the Science and Society at Patna; the Assam and Orissa Science Societies-, a large number of small organisations and societies in Bengal; the A c a d e m y of Y o u n g Scientists which originally started functioning in the field of medicine an3 later dealt with questions of policy and organisation; and the Forum of Science, Technology and Society, which organised a series of conferences and seminars on science policy, problems of freedom of scientists, use of science for national development, the problems of technology transfer, and the values, ethics and other related problems.

The impact of these efforts on the enhancement of knowledge con­tents and awareness of people about the current developments in science and technology has not been evaluated. However, a few impressionistic comments , based on a cursory glance at the material produced and pro­grammes organised, can be m a d e .

Firstly, very little effort appears to have been m a d e to portray the achievements of science and technology in India. In fact, the press has

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given more space and prominence to achievements of science and scientists of advanced countries, while minor shortcomings and failures of science in India have been highlighted. A s a result, confidence in Indian science and scientists has not beei> generated.

Secondly, in the dissemination of knowledge, very often mytholo­gical and mystical elements have been introduced. These have, instead of creating a new outlook, reinforced some of the antiquated ideas and con­cepts. As a result, the ethos of the society which has developed is not con­ducive to creating an outlook of confidence in science and scientists, as was envisaged by the Scientific Policy Resolution.

Thirdly, the attempts to disseminate scientific ideas have been limited to describing n e w knowledge without any major effort to explain its impact on m a n , society and environment. A knowledge of science, society and environment is vital for any informed discussion and debate on matters concerning science, technology and development and evolution of policies.

Fourthly, appreciation and adoption of n e w ideas and use of n e w technology, of labour-intensive technologies, continued to prevail; access to work experience. The Indian peasant w h o was considered to be highly conservative and backward readily absorbed n e w ideas of high energy agri­culture and effectively used them in bringing about the green revolution. Unfortunately, this approach was not followed in other areas, e.g. in the case of artisans and craftsmen, or, for that matter, even in the field of adminis­tration and management. In these areas, the philosophy of intermediate technology, of labour-intensive technologies continued to prevail; access to the n e w and most sophisticated technologies in these areas was denied and people were not encouraged to adopt them. This backwardness affected considerably the outlook of the people.

The same is true in the field of primary and secondary education, where the age-old practices continued with the prevailing attitudes and outlooks. Occasionally, as in the case of television, w h e n a set was intro­duced in selected schools, it was more of a showpiece than an instrument of educational value.

The problems and handicaps facing attempts to popularise science are m a n y :

(i) Literacy level of the total population is low, and scientific literacy level is even lower. Very few people are available for popularising science. In addition, formal training for promotion

of popularisation of science as a profession is desultory; (ii) There is insufficient financial support for popularisation ot

science; (iii) Because of lack of financial support, not m a n y audiovisual

material and equipment have been prepared. A n d w h e n pro­duced, the quality of such materials and equipment and their relevance to the local environment have been sadly deficient;

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(iv) Popularisation of science is not linked with the overall develop­ment programme for science and technology;

(v) Inability to popularise science in regional and national lan­guages continues to be a major problem and has resulted in communication difficulties, particularly with the traditional craftsmen and the uneducated skilled workers engaged in modern production and service sectors. Further, in the trans­lation of English words, often mystical elements were intro­duced, which, apart from creating confusion, helped only to perpetuate anti-scientific outlook; and

(vi) Not m u c h attention was paid to the introduction of n e w technologies as a part of work experience so as to m a k e people understand both their scientific meaning and technical c o m p o ­sition and functioning.

Promotion of Scientific Temper

The underlying ethos of the Scientific Policy Resolution is promotion of scientific outlook, or what Nehru called., the scientific temper. The use of scientific and technical knowledge in social transformation and of infor­mation and knowledge in decision-making was basic to the spirit of the Resolution. It was for this reason that the Resolution spoke of involving scientists and technologists in the vital decision-making process. This was both a complex and a difficult task in a society where a large number of people were illiterate, steeped in ignorance and superstition and with a fata­listic outlook, and what is more disconcerting, those w h o were educated did not fully realise the social and cultural values of science and technology.

Science and technology which were a part of the Indian culture and tradition were delinked from it as a result of colonisation. The introduction of science and technology by the British as an instrument of domination and exploitation and the teaching of science in English language further widened the gulf between the n e w knowledge and the people. The,' gulf persists. N o major effort has been made to discover the scientific and technological dimensions of our culture and to link them with the contemporary develop­ments. A s a result, science and technology remain activities of a small section of the educated soceity which shares the value system, aspirations and goals of the Euro-American culture area and has greater interaction with these people. The large majority of people, as a result, continue to look to and have faith in non-scientific systems for the solution of their problems. This does not augur well for the future of science, particularly in view of the growth of revivalism and fundamentalism within the country and in the neighbouring countries.

F r o m a cursory look at the literature generated since the adoption of the Scientific Policy Resolution, one m a y notice that there have been very

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few people, and very few occasions when members of the third largest community of scientists of the world have taken steps to provide knowledge and scientific explanations for natural phenomena and events against the prevailing superstitious ideas and traditional practices. Not only have the scientists failed to play their role as leaders of enlightenment, they often have been a party to believing in and propagating superstitions and obscu­rantism.

It is necessary for the further development of science and technology as well as of the country that the isolation of the scientists and technologists from the people be removed and scientists take upon themselves the res­ponsibility of an avant garde, as fighters against superstitions and anti-scienti­fic cults. T o do so, they would require to research and unearth the scienti­fic and technological tradition of the country and link it with the contempo­rary developments.

Public Debate

It would be correct to say that there is no well-informed debate on prob­lems of science and technology and their interface with society. A n y in­formed debate depends upon the information m a d e available to people, about development of science and technology in the country as compared to other countries, and on h o w it is going to affect the lives of people, various strata of society and environment.

W h e n the Scientific Policy Resolution talked of involving scientists in the decision-making system, it implied the use of scientific information, methodology and outlook to be part of the decision-making system. There appears to be considerable inadequacies in this regard. Though it is true that â few scientists have been appointed as Secretaries or as Technical Officers in various ministries, there appears to have been little impact on the system. W e do not appear to have developed a well-organised machinery for continu­ous collection of information and its analysis and feeding it to the decision­making system-, nor has any feedback system been evolved. Further, infor­mation on h o w policies are evolved, programmes formulated, their imple­mentation, progress and success or otherwise, is not m a d e available either to persons within the system, or to academics w h o wish to study them. There is no healthy and well-informed discussion or public debate on the issues involved. This inadequacy has often been felt and discussed at various conferences concerned with science policies and plans at various levels, but without any concrete steps being taken for implementing them to remedy the situation.

Public debate has become an essential instrument in advanced coun­tries for evolving policies and choosing major programmes, monitoring their implementation, and evaluating the achievements. T o do so would require a major effort in the dissemination of scientific knowledge and in creating

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scientific outlook amongst people. Small groups of enthusiastic young scientists have initiated public debates on national science and technology policies, their relevance to transfer of technology, and the general, environ­ment for research. These should be encouraged to provide a platform for a healthy debate.

Language of Science

The adoption of a foreign language as the language of science has m a d e scientific knowledge inaccessible to the people. Foreign language is one of the most effective means of dominating the socio-cultural milieu of a country. It creates a favourable atmosphere for the reception of foreign products, foreign technologies and above all for colonising the minds of the educated people.

The repercussions of the use of foreign language are m a n y . First, knowledge is confined to small groups of elite because of the language barrier, the majority of the people being unable to participate in the process of generating and acquiring n e w knowledge. Secondly, the overwhelming influence on the elite of the ideas, concepts and values of the west causes virtual dependence on alien culture. Thirdly, the languages of die country have not been enriched to absorb modern science and technology. Not m a n y eminent scientists and technologists can write effectively in their mother tongues. The application of S & T is also hindered because of lan­guage barrier between the traditional workers and the potential users of scientific knowledge.

Scientific and technical books are not generally available in regional languages. Publishing of scientific and technical literature in these languages is largely uneconomical owing to the limitations of market and purchasing power of students and people. There is urgent need for a programme of pub­lishing and distributing scientific material in regional languages on subsi­dized basis.

Scientific Community

The Scientific Policy Resolution aimed at developing scientific and technical manpower , and, as a result, envisaged the establishment of a large-sized, socially conscious scientific community full of vitality and capable of interacting with the community at large. India today has the third largest community of scientists in the world. However, a study has indicated that the scientists c o m e from low-income groups with non-scientific background and choose science only as a career without commitment to the high ideals of S & T , appeal of research or acceptance of its value system. A s a result, neither are norms and values being generated by scientists, setting a standard for themselves and for society at large, nor is a culture being developed

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which would be conducive tó the growth of science. There is hardly any interaction with people to help solve their problems.

In the past, in the developed countries, professional scientific societies played a critical role in voicing the opinions of the scientific community at large. These societies could act as vital conduits and exert influence, both formally and "informally, on the policy-making system, oh aspects pertaining to priorities in research, choice of technologies and organisation of research and development as well as on the impact of S & T on society and environment. They could also act as effective levers for creating social ethos for science.

There has been an increase in number, since Independence, of scienti­fic societies in the country. Their concern, however, has remained limited to the professional interests of their respective disciplines. They have not been encouraging public debates on those scientific issues which have long-term socio-economic effects.

Parliament and Science

The role of Parliament as a forum for discussion and debate on science and technology policies and in shaping them is critical. It is also vital in subjec­ting major research programmes to scrutiny with a view to explicating their impact on other branches of science and technology, programmes of natbnal development and on the society as a whole. However, this role depends upon the availability of information and .technical assistance to the parliamen­tarians. M a n y parliamentary institutions like the Public Accounts Committee, Estimates Committee, and Standing Committees provide formal and'infor­mal links. The Parliamentary Science Committee also acts as a platform for informing the parliamentarians about the developments in science and technology. However, such activities are few and far between.

The effective links among these institutions depend upon the percep­tion by the parliamentarians of the role of science and technology in na­tional development, and the interest they take in science and technology. A recent study of the questions and issues raised in the (Union) Parliament on science and technology reveals, that most questions pertain to issues not concerned prima facie with S & T , but rather with irregularities in appoint­ments, expenditure or some minor aspects of management, etc. Such vital problems as the policy issues relating to the impact of science and techno­logy on society, technology transfer, utilisation of indigenous technology and resources or problems connected with the impact of harmful techno­logies, role of multinational corporations or scientific temper, receive scant attention, if at all.

This m a y be due to lack of information or of perception of the role of science and technology in development and brings to the fore the need for dissemination of information about policies and major programmes and

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achievements, or otherwise, of Indian science. This also brings to focus the need to generate public debate, by science critics, through the mass media. A consequence would be that parliamentarians would take greater interest in science and would discuss such issues in the Parliament.

The report published by the Department of Science and Technology gives a bird's eyeview of the developments in India. However, what is re­quired is a more analytical report, discussing both policies and programmes as well as their implementation, monitoring and evaluation. It should also aim at focussing the attention of the parliamentarians on the major thrusts and developments in other countries in contrast to those in India. A re­commendation to this effect was made at one of the conferences, but it does not seem to have been implemented. The Parliament, having passed the Scientific Policy Resolution, was expected to follow it up with conti­nued interest, in terms of both the policy and its implementation. This would be possible only if the Parliament were to be provided with a white paper on the state of science and technology every year.

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NEW PERSPECTIVES AND POSSIBLE LINES OF ACTION FOR THE FUTURE

N e w perspectives can emerge from the analysis of developments which have taken place so far in science and technology in the country. However, if science and technology is only one dimension of h u m a n activity, the other being social, cultural, political and religious, then the need for looking at scientific and technological developments in relation to these other activi­ties becomes necessary. In the case of developing countries, particularly India, the social and cultural dimensions, religious beliefs and attitudes and political aspirations are extremely significant for two reasons.

Firstly, social traditions, culture as itexists, and religious beliefs and attitudes are ingrained in the psyche of individuals and deeply affect social, action. Political aspirations arising out of the struggle against colonialism and fight for independence have given rise to the desire to m a k e the future of their societies different from those of Europe. In doing so, these societies also look to their past.

Secondly, in contrast to social and cultural traditions and religious beliefs, science is a recent implant in these countries from Europe or U S A . It represents the domination of the latter societies over the developing coun­tries. A n d m a n y see science and technology only as an instrument of exploi­tation and domination and alien to their culture and reject it. The developing countries are neither fully aware, nor have they tried to explore the scientific and technological content of their ;cultures and civilisations. Therefore, they have not looked into the causes of decline of science and stagnation of technology in their countries in the past. Consequently, they are unable to look at science and technology as a part of their tradition, as an instrument of regeneration of their culture and social life and of achieving their political aspirations.

These perceptions have created a certain degree of alienation and also an element of antagonism against science. The situation has been further compounded by the fact that science is isolated in the uppper strata of society and scientific vistas are not shared by the people-, nor has any effort been made to promote scientific outlook in them. They have been left to themselves. Gains from technological develojamçnts and industrial products m a d e through n e w innovations have also gone to a small section of society. In fact, these have adversely affected a large section of the

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society, particularly the artisans and craftsmen, w h o were making goods n o w being made through n e w technologies and organised industrial systems. This dualism has sharply divided society, which is being pulled in opposite directions — by science .and technology and the elite around it in one direc­tion and by tradition and a vast majority of the people w h o adhere to it in the other. The pulls and pushes of opposite forces m a y lead to the rupture of society, as it has happened in some countries recently, and overthrow of scientific rationalism and its replacement by irrational beliefs, politicalised religious ideology and growth of mysticism and rise of cults around the latter.

These features of society, and the historical dimensions of science and society dynamics are often ignored by scientists. They see the future possi­bilities m terms of the development of science and the technology capabili-tiesv The possibilities engendered by science and technology are an impor­tant factor. Their realisation, however, depends upon the culture of a so­ciety, the social tradition, prevalent religious and other beliefs, and the poli­tical system. It is these that in the ultimate analysis determine the rise of science.

The beliefs are held by people, social and cultural traditions are observed by people and it is the people w h o operate the political system, and unless they are educated in science, made to understand the implica­tions of scientific and technological advance, and an effort is made to promote scientific outlook, or inculcate scientific temper in them, science would remain an isolated activity, which could be wiped off by other move­ments. Consequently, antagonism between science and tradition would continue.

The basic philosophy evolved 30 years ago and its implementation over the years has made India one of the leading scientific and technolo­gical nations. The policies evolved over the years as a result of this philo­sophy have helped the country in achieving m a n y of the objectives set.

The gains have been particularly noticeable in terms of creation of infrastructure, number of scientific and technical personnel and development of expertise in a large number of areas, including some of the newer areas of science and technology. The quality of work undertaken, though not uniformly so, has been of high quality. However, the objective of using science and technology for improving the quality of life of a vast majority of the people remains to be achieved. In fact, there has been marginal success' in taking science to the people, and the gains expected from its deve­lopment and utilisation have reached onïy a limited number of people.

There have been m a n y unforeseen developments also. O n e "of the most unfortunate developments has been the creation of dual structure as a result of the policies evolved and their implementation. A small elite class has been created which has benefited considerably from these developments, the gains of development going largely to them. Their life-style, aspirations

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and values are similar to those of western societies, whose culture they aspire to adopt. The vast majority has benefited only marginally, if at all, from these developments. In some cases, for example, artisarfs and crafts­m e n have been affected adversely. They could neither get n e w education nor were educated in schools and colleges with hardly any facilities, with the result that they were unable to develop their capabilities and widen their horizon. In the hope of finding a remedy for their problems and to better their lot, and began looking to the past values and ethos and tended to be extremely conservative. In every change they began to see a threat to their life, existence, culture and values.

The basic task which faces India today is to do away with this duality, wh^ch exists not only in the economic sense, but also in social and cultural spheres and has a major ; impact- on the shape of things to come . A critical look at social and cultural life, values and goals would reveal that science, its ¡outlook and basic values, have not been integrated with culture. For the vast majority of the people, it is something alien. They do not see in science ana..technology an instrument which could change their lives, better their conditions of living, give them a n e w code of social behaviour and a n e w value system. In fact, m a n y of them see it as a threat to the traditional culture and values. They are enchanted by the gadgets m a d e available by technology, andif possible and within their means, they would like to use them. They appear not to realise the w a y these technological innovations are likely to affect their lives, change h u m a n relations and the society as a whole. They do not yet have the knowledge and insight to assess these deve­lopments and knowledgeably intervene in the situation to turn it to their (advantage. In other words, the challenge is to develop a philosophy which should transform science and technology from a factor of inequality to an instrument for bringing about equality and social justice and providing a fetter quality of life and creative opportunities to all.

Interface ofS&T with Society and the Direction of New Cultural Thrust

Indian society has not yet accepted the implications of a science culture. The conceptual tools are not directly related to the needs of scientific and technological advances. Consequently, it has not been possible to m a k e an adequate long-term scientific planning aimed at social transformation. There is, therefore, need to impart a conscious cultural thrust in favour of trans­formation of methods of thinking, culture and individual and social action.

Neither scientific knowledge, nor the benefits accruing from scientific and technological advances have reached the bulk of the poeple. Science is still a distant object to the vast majority of our people. Major events, such as the Pokharan experiment or the launching of Aryabhata and Bhaskara or the establishment of bases in Antarctica by Indian scientists, create an impact and generate national pride, but they do not bring about the desired

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changes in the m o d e of thinking of people. Soon, they are absorbed by the struggle and toil and uncertainty and revert to the "traditional" ways, since improvements in their daily lives are not effected by these developments or by other discoveries in science and innovations in technology. Further, there is a lack of interaction a m o n g the different groups and segments of society. Within each social segment, the discussions on cultural and social issues are not linked with those of science and technology, the latter with long-term perspectives, values engendered, and their impact. Each group merely wishes to benefit from some of the immediate uses to which science and technology can be put.

There is, also absence of evaluative discussion at both institutional and societal levels. Within the institutions, criticism of work or programmes by, fellow scientists is generally not appreciated; on the contrary, it is taken as a personal affront, and those responsible for criticism earn a bad n a m e . A dismal consequence is that the majority of scientific personnel keep th itaselves away from effective participation in the evaluation process. Ait( |the national level, scientists in R & D institutions, because of the pre­valent ethos, are inhibited from taking a critical look at the policies and pro-Saitimes through public discussion and debates. If the scientists, the creators

n e w knowledge, do not participate effectively in the national debates, it isi difficult to have a weil-informed discussion and consensus on national issues.

In line with the prevalent general culture, there is a tendency to please thlp superiors rather than be objective and critical. This duality results in lade lof commitment on the part of scientists to the programmes of work. Ariother consequence is that national goals are not translated into persona­lised I inner goals of rigorous intellectual effort. Scientific culture, ethos and temper, the essential ingredients of contemporary science, have not yet taken roots. Instead, there is merely an implanted western veneer, to give the impression of objectivity and scientific outlook.

The national culture has certain pronounced weaknesses and strengths. The weaknesses are: refusal to face facts, obsequiousness, double standards of taking shelter in obscurantism while practising science, dilatoriness, making promises without keeping them, and tolerance of that which is patently incorrect or evil. The strengths are: willing acceptance of austere living, displaying cohesiveness and courage in times of crisis and intellectual tradition and possession of reservoir of talents which few other nations could match. Nevertheless, in every-day life, personal shortcomings draw the nation away from the realities and prevent effective implementation of those scientific and technological policies which have hard options, long-term commitment and require deep and lasting changes.

The need is to mix the strengths of the national culture with the value system of science to develop a n e w culture, which would m a k e science and technology integral parts of social existence and which would give rise to a n e w humanist social and cultural order.

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Scientific and Technological Advancement

The major national objectives as defined in the Sixth Plan were the achieve­ment of technological self-reliance, removal of poverty, increase in producti­vity, reduction in regional inequalities, and promotion of active involvement of all sections of the people in the national effort. Science and technology have a vital role to play in the attainment of these objectives. With limited resources and given the international context, these objectives cannot be realised without setting up a series of priorities.

For the purpose of achieving technological self-reliance, it m a y be necessary to m a k e contributions to R & D in sophisticated areas as well as areas of mass consumption, goods to meet the basic needs of the people, particularly in matters of food, clothing, shelter, education, medicine and recreation. It is also necessary to develop process k n o w - h o w for such wage goods to ensure their quality, to reduce their cost drastically and to ensure equitable distribution. This must form an essential element of the scientific strategy so as to fulfil the cardinal objectives of the Scientific Policy Reso­lution.

A techno-economic structure already exists, in India, though it is adapted to varying stages of industrialisation, and any future development must fit into what already exists. Large-scale hightechnology creates the possibilities of mass production for an industrialising economy and genera­tion of social wealth. But used sparingly, it m a y prove to be m o r e expensive and incapable of redistributing wealth and employment. Small-scale low-technology offers distributional potential for wealth and employment, but must fit into what already exists. Large-scale high technology creates the lest it remains as isolated subsidised 'welfare' sector. W h a t is called for is a combined strategy, and this has vital implications for policy-making and selection of modes of technology suited to different sectors.

A balance must be struck between high-scale and small-scale produc­tion technologies in a combined strategy. Both have positive and negative pay-offs. Thé present policy demonstrated contrary results which followed the introduction of high-energy inputs to agriculture and agricultural mecha­nisation. These have led to self-sufficiency in food. A s a result, resources which were earlier diverted to the import of food could n o w be diverted to meet other developmental needs. This self-sufficiency also relieved the coun­try from political pressures to which it was subjected w h e n it needed food imports. However, it had two other consequences. Firstly, the cost of food is higher than before and this m a d e it more difficult for the poorer sections of the .population to meet their nutritional needs. Secondly, since only the rich farmers could provide these high-energy inputs, they became richer. As a consequence, their power in rural areas also increased, creating serious social tensions. In order to work out strategies to meet the stated goals and to minimise deleterious effects, such as those stated above, it would be

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necessary to carry out sociological studies and to undertake forecasting and modelling exercises. These are needed to anticipate the possible impact and work out better programmes of development and to monitor and eva­luate their impact on implementation and provide feedback to decision­makers.

Thrust Area Problems Relevant to Socio-Economic Conditions

Looking over the last 35 years of development since independence, m a n y significant achievements are noticeable. These pertain to the creation of R & D infrastructure and establishment of industries, including those based on sophisticated science and technologies. Engineering and consultancy capabilities have also been developed. Taking these developments into consideration, the development strategy for the future must aim at consoli­dating the gains by reinforcing the existing institutional : structures and filling the gaps. A few of these are mentioned and discussed below in an indicative manner.

Highest priority should be given to the meeting of the basic needs, i.e. food, clothing, shelter, education and medicine and to scientific and technological developments in these areas, which m a y cover increase in production, improvement of quality and an equitable distribution system. The last two are extremely important for fulfilling the needs of the under­privileged sections of the population. The implementation in these areas will m a k e the people aware of the vital contribution which science and technology can m a k e to their day-to-day living, particularly by reducing the cost of essential mass-consumption commodities. This will bring science closer to the poeple and the people closer to science.

It is often stated that the above-mentioned problems do not concern science and technology. The knowledge needed to achieve the objectives is avauabfe&.sirod'îl is*up to-the Social structure and political system to put the knowledge to the desired use. This argument, however, delinks science and technology from the social and political system. Secondly, it limits the role of scientists to that of mere generators of knowledge, without any role in its utilisation. Such a limitation of the role of scientists has serious consequences for the future of science itself. This becomes evident from a cursory glance at history. In m a n y cultures and civilisations, science and technology,^having reached a high point, were engulfed by other social movements which were anti-scientific and destroyed science. This happened in Greece, India, islamic culture area, etc., and in fact in every culture and civilisation.

The limitations of gains of development accruing from the advances in science and technology, to a small minority, at the cost of the vast majority, generate in the latter antagonism against science. This gives rise to social movements which are anti-scientific and are built around irrational idealogies and cults isolated from science and cutting at its very roots.

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Anotner feature which requires special attention in India arises out of the basic mechanism of development of science and technology in the country. The science which exists has been implanted and technological developments have taken place around imported technology. Conse­quently, there is a need to interact with the system in a manner which leads to improvement of the productivity of scientists and the quality of their work. The same applies to the area of technology and the industries based on it. As long as the linká with R & D system and industries of Europe and U S A remain strong, the local initiative in this direction would either not be there or would remain very weak. The reason for this lies in the fact that through linkages with western R & D only-the technical dimensions of a product or process are looked into. The process of the making of a product is a part of a system covering a whole range of factors, such as the skill and attitude of workers, the social and cultural ethos, technological climate, attitude towards efficient use of materials and energy, the management system, etc. It is the input to all these factors which could bring about the change.

Consequently, in order to reap the full benefits from the infrastruc­ture created and the investment m a d e , the productivity of the existing indus­trial units is required to be improved. This includes such aspects as the conservation of energy, efficient and productive use of manpower, proper use of raw materials, avoidance of wastes, use of byproducts and residues, and improvement of the quantity and quality of products. Looking into the existing productivity levels in both small and large scale sectors, and in the private and public sectors, these aspects need to be given high priority.

M a n y of the industries are based on obsolete technologies and it is necessary and desirable to introduce new technologies, covering both the process and product systems. This again is important for meeting national needs as also for meeting export requirements and international competi­tion. The development of science-based sophisticated technologies is not only a matter of significance, but also an urgent need.

In order to meet the basic needs, requirements of industry and inter­national competition, there is need to give more attention, than has been given so far, to such areas as development and utilisation of natural resour­ces, transport and communication systems, sources of energy, and infor­mation culture. In doing so, the need for balanced regional development should not be lost sight of.

Application of Science and Technology .- New Paradigms

Scientific and technological research in the country is n o w in a position to contribute significantly to national progress. There is need to evolve a n e w set of paradigms for the selection of research programmesffor strengthening basic research, for the pursuit of policies for the development of indigenous

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technologies and their smooth transfer to industry, agriculture and social services.

The development of these capabilities has m a d e it possible for the country to achieve any goal that it sets for itself. It has also brought to surface the problems of choice: Which goals to choose? Development of sophisticated technology for a limited objective or a mix of technologies for social goals? H o w to choose between different programmes — generation of n e w technologies or development of existing technologies? Which sector of industry is to be given preference? What relative priorities are to be assigned to different areas of science?

So far, the promoters of an area, a programme or project, with the lin­kages they were able to build with decision-makers and on the basis of projections they were able to m a k e , were able to get resources. However,

i with the increasing cost of research and the increase in the number of I areas of science and the projects possible in an area, the problem of choice has raised the question of criteria. The criteria cannot be decided purely on the basis of scientific possibilities or technological feasibility; the problem of utilisation of knowledge has also to be taken into account. The latter dimension brings in the question of possible impact on m a n , society and lenvironment. These have to be foreseen before a decision is taken; hence, forecasting of the possibilities becomes a desirable necessity.

These are the n e w areas of development requiring interaction between natural and social sciences, to which sufficient attention has not been given so far. In fact, the dividing line between the two is coming in the w a y of development of these aspects of science and technology. The coming to­gether of these sciences would have considerable effect on the development of science policy.

Since independence, import substitution has been suggested as a strategy for industrialisation. This influenced the selection of research programmes in the national research establishments. A s a result, the percep­tion of scientific community continued to remain under the spell of techno­logical developments in the western countries. The basic issue is to evolve a culture in which the paradigm governing the choice of R & D is determined by the goals of society. The national laboratories should be invited to actively participate in the process of indigenisation and further develop­ment of industries should be based on indigenous effort.

Presently, basic research is confined mainly to universities and a few institutes of excellence. Though universities have a tremendous research potential, they are unable to play an effective role due to lack of adequate support, and for not being involved in the national effort and strategy, as an integral part. Further, the research laboratories in the universities are not properly equipped. Research facilities in these laboratories should be im­proved, so that the available m a n p o w e r is fully utilized. The university laboratories should be encouraged to undertake applied and industrial re-

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search also, so as to actively involve the academics in the problems of indus­try, and to provide the students and researchers the benefits of such a cul­ture and the encourage them to undertake researches on the problems of the industry. However, without basic research, n e w technologies, cannot be developed, nor can the long-range problems of the industry be resolved. Basic research is vital for making major breakthroughs in technology. Consequently, as a matter of policy, basic research groups around distin­guished scientists need \ to be created in applied research laboratories. In addition, such laboratories should also develop groups which m a y look into socio-economic dimensions of science and technology, not only to k n o w the trends or to forecast ftiture possibilities, but also to look into the possible consequences of strategies, programmes of research and the impact of n e w technologies.

For effective functioning of R & D institutions, certain basic facilities are required to be developed, such as those relating to the development of instruments, maintenance and repair of instruments, workshop facilities, including those for fabrication and design of equipment, library, documen­tation and information services, and computers and other sophisticated instruments. Obsolete instruments and equipment reduce the effectiveness of R & D system to provide solutions to the urgent problems in the shortest possible time. The importance of this is often not realised, and hence it needs considerable emphasis. Research, if it is to provide results, has to be treated as an industry, and as an industry it is capital-intensive insofar as it requires major investments in instruments and equipment and manpower . It is needless to point out that instruments and equipment have a limited life of 5-6 years, as they undergo major changes as a result of scientific and technological advancement.

Mechanism for transfer of results' of research to industry has to be built in the programmes themselves, which necessitates involvement of government R & D system and the industry. In addition, there is need for providing risk capital for trying n e w technologies on large scale. This also necessitates investment in building up of design and fabrication facilities.

Evaluation and Monitoring of Science Policy

The importance of the design of a suitable organisational system, encom­passing several stages and the task of continuous evaluation and monitoring of science and technology policy, needs no emphasis. Hitherto, performance at every level has been perfunctory and eclectic since there have not been adequate monitoring and evaluation mechanisms at programme, institution, agency and national levels.

At the national level, committees like S A C C , C O S T , N C S T , and n o w S A C C , have functioned to provide some sort of review of developments and to suggest modifications. However, their functioning was not supported by

95

à machinery Which could provide them with up-to-date information. In the absence of information, review of monitoring systems was possible only on the basis of personal information and experiences and could not serve ade­quately the purpose of continuously developing policies or correcting the m o d e of their implementation.

At the second level, some evaluation studies have been conducted by CSIR, B A R C and I C A R . Scientists as a whole were reluctant to coope­rate with such evaluative efforts and, therefore, such efforts could never properly take off the ground.

At the third level, namely the institutions level, some evaluative efforts have been undertaken in the form of discussions and oral assess­ments by heads of institutions. They have never been able to acquire a formal and systematic rigour. CSIR has undertaken a major study to evaluate the efficiency of research units, as a part of a U N E S C O project and it is expected to throw considerable light on the functioning of institutions as well as to suggest methods of measurement.

The subject of evaluation has been an elusive one, since there has not t>een so far any recognised methodology for it. Without a methodology and objective and uniform standards, the evaluation reports fail to gain credibi­lity or acceptability from the scientific community.

Science Policy Studies

Adequate information and data are not available for decision-making in

Ícience and technology policies. This lacuna requires to be filled by collec-ing data through comprehensive research surveys from time to time on

Scientific personnel, their background and placement, research trends, etc. Without such a database, the decision-making process is bound to be lop­sided.

Teaching in science policy studies has been a neglected area. There is need to augment research efforts in this field. The report of the* Working Group on Science and Technology for the Sixth Plan has already identified the following areas in which research should be promoted-

(i) Science and technology policy ; (li) Science and society dynamics; historical, social and ethical

aspects relating to the development of science and techno­logy and their impact;

(iii) Problems arising out of international dimensions of science and technology, including research on global problems, issues like transfer of technology, and linkages of scientific programmes with socio-economic and political policies;

(iv) Development of techniques in such areas as science planning, including criteria of choice, working out of priorities, resource allocation, monitoring and evaluation of research, etc.;

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(v) Forecasting and assessment of technology; and (vi) Working out models/strategies of development. This is a timely recognition of the importance of such studies. India

has developed the necessary capabilities in R & D , and what is needed n o w is to develop capabilities- in policy sciences, in order to maximise her gains from the infrastructure created, evolve research strategies and channelise her research efforts in a purposive manner to meet a set oí goals. In doing so, the country needs to be conscious of the possible impact of the options m a d e , to avoid the deleterious effects and often unforeseen consequences.

In addition, policy studies in various areas should focus upon the pre­sentation of five year projections which m a y be termed 'science outlook for Indian science and technology'. Such concrete projections .based upon ade­quate data would be helpful in checking achievements against targets, ensuring accountability of science to the people, and helping in pinpoin­ting deficiencies. In addition, such documents have a greater value in infor­ming the public about the development of science policies of the govern­ment and the thrust of its programmes. They would also help generate a well-informed debate not only on policies and programmes but also on the measure of success in the achievement of stated goals. Reports to the Parlia­ment on such debates would help to generate a more healthy and critical parliamentary debate, which, in turn, would have considerable impact on the scientific community, by making them more responsive to public criticism.

97

REFERENCES

Chapter J - Introduction

1. ASc. W . Science and the Nation, Pelican. 2. J D Berlnal, Scijcial Functions of Science. 3. J . G . CrowtIj»er, Operational Research. 4. See (1)1 abdve, and also Vannever Bush, Science, the Endless Frontier. 5. A . V . Hill Report to the Royal Society on the Organisation of Research in India.

A largejnvintj>er of research programmes were undertaken in universities and such institutions as Indian Institute of Science, Balgalore.

6. Indian National Congress, Planning Committee. 7. Bombay^ Plafl. 8. Vide Bajttélljs Report. 9. A good j (dis£ussion of political dimensions of Plato's work could be found in

Benjamin Farrington's: Science and Politics in Antiquity See also D . P . Chatto-padhyay^: Science in Antiquity, Progress Publisher, Calcutta 1983.

10. Diderot; Encyclopaedia, see 11. Saint Simon and H . G . Wells, created utopias of what science and technology

could do,j particularly in latter's numerous works. 12. P M S Bla£k<jtt; Political & Military Consequences of Atomic Energy, Robert

Jungk, /Tongues of Conscience. The Oppenheimer trial also brings out m a n y dimensions.

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Chapter n - Basic Features & Assumptions

18. Roshed Rashdi: Unesco meeting Jamaica 1983. 19. Wazir Hasan Abdi: Unpublished Translations of Srikanth & Kewal R a m . 20. Shigeru Nakayama, Characteristics of Japanse Science, C S S T D , N e w Delhi 21. E d m u n d Burke III. The Institutionalisation of Social Science, Its Social and

Political Significance, U N E S C O meeting in Kingston, Jamaica, 1983. 22. For a detailed discussion, see

A . R a h m a n : Intellectual Colonisation: Science & Technology in West-East Re­lations, N e w Delhi: Vikas, 1983.

23. Loren Graham, at Science & Society Centre at M I T , has carried out a number of studies in this regard, whereas regarding China a large number of studies have been published both during Mao's period - before and after cultural revolution and also later.

99

24. A . Rahman, Nehru and Indian Science. 25. See full text of Scientific Policy Resolution, Appendix I. 26. Moraze, Charles: Science as a Factor of Inequality, U N E S C O . Chapter III - Education 27. India 1983, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,

Government of India, N e w Delhi, Chpater on Education, pp. 47-60. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. A survey carried out by N S T D University of W o m e n Scientist to know how far

scientific knowledge was being utilised by them in daily life brought out the fact that most w o m e n followed traditional beliefs instead of using scientific knowledge acquired.

32. This approach was first enunciated by Dr. S. Radhakrisnan, an eminent philoso­pher and first Vice-President and later President of India. Similar approach has also been expressed by the eminent physicist and educationist, Dr. D . S . Kothari.

Chapter TV -Organisation of Research Systems 33. The controversy over CSIR centred around this point, last expression of which

was made by H J . Bhabha, Minerva. 34. Loc. Cit. Chapter V - Science Policy & Planning of Research 35. Science in Parliament, A . Rahman and N . Haritash, N I S T A D S , N e w Delhi, 1983. 36. Approach to Science and Technology Department of Science and Technology,

N e w Delhi, 1972. 37. Science and Technology Plan, Government of India. 38. Loc. Cit. 39. A . Rahman, Alternative Technology 40. Indira Gandhi: Inaugural Address, ISCA, Waltair, 1976. See also summary reco­

mmendations. 41. This was reflected in the formulation of the 6th Five Year Plan. 42. This would be evident from the study of Annual Plan document, 1977-79. 43. A large number of organisations came into existence like A S T R A at Indian

Institute of Science, Bangalore, Shanmugham Chetty Institute at Madras and others.

44. A K N Reddy, Paper read at the discussion meet on Approach to Science and Tech­nology Plan, Bangalore, 1974.

45. The major concern was initiated at the U N Conference on Environment, Stock­holm. Mrs. Indira Gandhi's Address, environment policies and plans. India's con­cern with environment began when a committee was formed with Pitamber Pant, former Member of the Perspective Planning Division of the Planning Commission as its Chairman. However, the Committee did not function effectively tul late in the seventies.

46. Summarised versions of various science & technology plans have been taken from Five Year Plan documents prepared by the Planning Commission and pub­lished by Government of India.

47. CSIR Conyroversy on Pilot Plant, Kane Committee Report.

100

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Ray, K . Scientific and Technical Personnel (Census of India 1961, Monograph Series No.l) , N e w Delhi-1, Office of the Registrar General, Ministry of H o m e Affairs, 1966, pp.11-16, 51-57.

Report of the Education Commission (D.S. Kothari, Chairman), Government of India, 1966, N e w Delhi.

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Gandhi, I. The Problem of Brain Drain Speech on the Oceasion of the Second Nehru Memorial Lecture, N e w Delhi, November 13, 1968.

Gandhi, I. Role of Agricultural Scientists. Speech at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, N e w Delhi, February 1980, 1968.

IAMR: Scientific and technical manpower for R & D - Industrial sector, Manpower Journal 1980, 15(4), 1-18.

India, Education and Culture (Ministry of) Annual Report, 1981-82. N e w Delhi, 1982.

India, Education and Culture (Ministry of), Report of the review committee on post­graduate education & research in engineering & technology, N e w Delhi, 1980, 164p.

India, Education and Social Welfare (Ministry of-), Report of working group on technical education. N e w Delhi, Ministry of Education & Social Welfare, 1978,,134p.

India, Science & Technology (Dept. of ), Report of the Committee on Scientific and Technical Manpower, N e w Delhi, November 1981, 78p.

India, Science and Technology (Deptt. of )t Report of the Committee on Scientific and Technical Manpower, N e w Delhi, November 1981.

India, Education & Culture (Ministry of ) , Report of the Review Committee on Post­graduate Education and Research in Engineering & Technology (Chairman Y . Nayu-d a m m a ) , N e w Delhi, 1980.

Indian Institute of Technology, Madras: Reorientation of technical education for indus­trial development in the decade 1970-80. Proceedings of the seminar on Technical educa­tion, 20-23 February 1971, Madras IIT, 1971, 788p.

île Jha, (CS) A n approach to the Sixth Five Year Plan for technical education, 17p., Position paper for meeting on Plan Frame for science and technology (1980-85) held at N e w Delhi August 2-3,1980.

Joshi, N . A Mathematical Model for Projecting the Demand for Scientists and Technologists in National R & D Institutes. R & D Management, January 1977, 8(1), 43^17.

Roy, G K Chemical Engineering Education: The Interaction of Professional Institutions & Aca­demic Education. Chemical Age of India, June 1980, 31(6), 693-695.

Singh, D D Planning for technical personnel, need and problems,AICC Economic Review, April 7, 1961,pp.23-24.

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Sivakumar, SS Disguised Unemployment, Technology and Private Property, In Vyasulu (V) Ed., Techno­logical Choice in the Indian Environment, N e w Delhi; Sterling, 1980, 77-92.

Sundaram, K . Engineering manpower — A study of our resources and requirements,Manpower Journal, October 1965, March 1966 (Vol.1, Nos.3-4), p.8.

University Grants Commission: University Development in India: Basic Facts & Figures, 1972-73 to 1976-77, NewDelhi-1979.

University Grants Commission: University Development in India: Basic Facts & Figures, 1972-73 to 1976-1977. Part II: Section B : Examination results, N e w Delhi, 1981.

University Grants Commission: University Development in India: Basic facts & figures, 1972-1973 to 1976-1977, Part-II: Section B: Examination results, N e w Delhi, 1981.

University Grants Commission: Report of the year 1979-80, N e w Delhi, 1980.

University Grants Commission: Report for the year 1978-79, N e w Delhi, 1981.

B02 Financial resources for science and technology.

A h m a d , A . ; Sharma, K D ; Gupta, SP. Foreign assistance to scientfic research in India' (Survey Report No.7) , 1966, SPSRUnit, CSIR, N e w Delhi.

Expenditure in Indian National Laboratories, Nature 1965 (Vol.206), pp.8 73-874.

Expenditure on Scientific & Industrial Research — Research in India, Nature 1964 (Vol.20), pp.1076-1077.

Narottam Shah, Government Expenditure on Science and Technology in India. Society and Science January/March 1981, 4(1), 33-63.

Rahman, A ; Sen, N . ; Rajagopal, N R State Support to Research in India, A n Analysis of Trends (Survey Report No.8) , 1966, R S P O , CSIR, N e w Delhi.

Rahman, A ; Ghosal, A ; Sen, N . ; Rajagopal, N R ; Dasgupta, S; Husaini, S H M ; Roy, A K . A Study of Government Expenditure on Scientific Research. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1963, (Vol.22, No.12), pp.479-486.

Rahman, A , ; Ghosal, A . ; Sen, N . ; Rajagopal, N R . ; Dasgupta, S.; Husaini, S H M ; Roy, A K . A Study of Expenditure in National Laboratories, 1964, p.98. (Survey Report No.2) , SPSR Unit, CSIR, N e w Delhi.

Zaheer, S H ; Rahman, A ; Sen, N . Investment in scientific and technological research during the Fourth Five Year Plan, 1964, SPSR Unit, CSIR, N e w Delhi, p.31.

HI

B03 Scientific and Technological Information

A h m a d , A . Flow of science and technology information — The cases of India and China., Media Asia 1979, 79-83.

Arunachalam, S. The information revolution: Its Implications for India, Science Today,August 1981, 15(8), 5-8.

Banerjee, U K Technology information system for India. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research 1980, 39(11), 597-608.

Rahman, A ; Sen, N . ; Sengupta, K N . Scientific Journals in India (Survey Report No.10), R S P O , CSIR, N e w Delhi.

B04 Institutional Resources for Science and Technology

CSIR, Development of policies and perspectives of science in India, April 1964, CSIR, Rafi Marg, N e w Delhi.

CSIR: Annual Plan 1983-84 of CSIR N e w Delhi, November 1982.

CSIR: Report of the Third Reviewing Committee (Chairman, A . Ramaswami Mudaliar), 1964, pp.iv + 96, CSIR, Rafi Marg, N e w Delhi.

CSIR: Reviewing Committee Report (Chairman: Ardeshir Dalai), 1948, pp.57, CSIR_, Raft Marg, N e w Delhi.

CSIR: Second Reviewing Committee Report, 1954,pp.93, CSIR, Rafi Marg, N e w Delhi.

India, Science & Technology (Dept. of), Annual Report, 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981.

National Institute of Science .Technology and Development Studies (NISTADS), Progress Report, 1979-81, N e w Delhi, 1982.

Nilakantan, P., National Laboratories Seminar, August 1962 (No.32), pp.13-15.

Rahman, A . , Indian Science Congress — A need for Change, Science Today, January 1969, pp.17-19.

Rahman, A . National Laboratories in India, Nature 1964 (Vol.203), pp.582-584.

Ramaswami Mudaliar, A . Review of CSIR, Science in Parliament, 1964 (Vol.1, No.4) , pp.71-74.

Randhawa, M S , Agricultural Research in India — Institutes and Organisations, Indian Council of Agri­cultural Research, N e w Delhi, 1958, pp.448.

112

Saha, M N Industrial Policy of the Planning Commission, Science and Culture, 1953(Vol.l8), pp. 452-458.

Zaheer, S H CSIR, Nature 1965 (Vol.207), pp.688.

COO P R A C T I C E O F S C I E N C E A N D T E C H N O L O G Y P O L I C Y - M A K I N G

COI Elaboration, Implementation and Monitoring of National Science and Technology

A h m a d (Aqueil) The Making of Science and Technology Plan. 38p., Workshop on Public Policy and Policy Analysis, April 5-7, 1982, held at Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

A h m a d , A . Science and Technology in India, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November 1980, 38-41.

A h m a d , (Aqueil), Scientists and Science Policy Formulation: The Criterial of Participation. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, Nov. 1978. 37(11).

Atma R a m (Dr.) Development of Technology — Key to India's programme. Indian Worker, January 30, 1967,pp.l9-30.

Bhatia, M . Science in India, Survey and Planning of Scientific Research Unit, CSIR, N e w Delhi, 1965, pp.67.

CSIR: N e w five year plan (1980-85) 6p. Position paper for meeting on plan frame for science and technology (1980-85) held at N e w Delhi, August 2-3, 1980.

CSIR: Proposals for the fourth five year plan (Vol.1). M a y 1964, CSIR, Rafi Marg, N e w Delhi.

Dedijer, Steven Research Policy — Its makings and measurements, Science and Culture, January 1, 1963,pp3-12.

Dedijer, Steven Scientists and the national research policy, Science and Culture, February 1, 1963, pp.61-73.

Department of Science and Technology. 5p. Position Paper for meeting on plan frame for Science and Technology (1980-85) held at N e w Delhi, August 2-3, 1980.

Gandhi, I. Address to the Science Congress at Waltair on January 3,1976.

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Government of India, Scientific Policy Resolution, No. l31/CF/57, March 4, 1965.

Haksar, P Reflections on S & T in the Sixth Five Year Plan, Science Today,April 1981, 11-13.

India, Department of Science and Technology (New Delhi), Research and Development in Industry 1976-77, N e w Delhi, D S T 1978. 101p.

India, Planning Commission: Report of the Working Group on Science & Technology for the Sixth Plan (1980-85), N e w Delhi 1981, 80p.

India, Science & Technology (Dept. of), Science and Technology in India, N e w Delhi, 1981.

Indian Scientific Policy, a scientific policy resolution (4 March 1958), Minerva, Winter 1964, pp.243-256.

Keshwani (GS) Jawaharlal Nehru and-Science. In N A N D A (BR) Ed. Science and Technology in India. N e w Delhi; Vikas, 1977,p.l-20.

Lal(D) •' Science Policy: Disturbing Development, Research & Development.

Mahalanobis, P C Approach to Operational Research to Planning in India, Sankhya, 1955-56 (Vol.16), pp.3-62.

Mahalanobis, P C Next steps in planning, Sankhya, 1960 (Vol.22), pp.1-2, Vijnan Karmee, 1959 (Vol.11, No.l),pp.5-20.

Mahalanobis, P C Objectives of science and technology, Vijnan Karmee (Special issue on symposium on collaboration between the countries of Africa and Asia), M a y 1966. (Vol.18, No.5) , p.20.

Mahalanobis, PC The planning of scientific research, A note to the Planning Commission, (Mimeographed, Undated).

Mahalanobis, PC Priorities in science in under-developed countries, Pugwash Conference, N e w Delhi, February 1964.

Mahalanobis, PC Science and national planning, Sankhya, Vol.20, Part 1 & 2 , p.1958. Vijnan Karmee, 1958 (Vol.1, No.l),pp.l-8.

Mendelssohn, Kurt, Science in India, The Listerner, September 24, 1964 (Vol.12), pp.457459.

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Morehouse (W) Nehru and Science: The Vision of N e w India. Indian Journal of Public Administration 1969, 15(3), 489-508.

Qureshi, (MA) The Growth of Science and Technology in Independent India, National Investment and Finance, August 1982, 1197-1199.

National Committee on Science and Technology (New Delhi): A n approach to the science and technology plan, 1973, 69p.

Planning Commission, Notes on perspective of development of India, 1960-61 to 1975-76. April 1964. N e w Delhi.

Planning Commission, Report of the working group on scientific research for the Third Five Year Plan, December 1959, N e w Delhi.

Planning Commission, Second Five Year Plan (a draft outline), February 1956, New¡ Delhi.

\ Planning Commission, Third Five Year Plan, August 1961, N e w Delhi.

Planning Commission, The Third Five Year Plan, Mid-term appraisal, November 1963, N e w Delhi.

Rahman, A . National Basis for Scientific Research Link, August 15, 1963, p.83.

Rahman, A . Planning and assessment of scientific research,Vijnan Karmee, 1963 (Vol.15, Nos.11-12), pp.3-5.

Rahman, A . Planning of research in India and related problems, Scientific World, 1965 (Vol.9, No.2) , pp. 15-19.

Rahman, A ; Sundaram, K ; Rajagopal, N R ; Raman, A V . R & D Planning and National Plans, Economic & Political Weekly 1979, 14(12-13), 635-639.

Rahman, A Research and National Planning, Research & Industry, December, 1963 (Vol.1, No.12), pp.241-242.

Rahman, A ; Iyengar, J V S ; Sharma, K D Research Planning in Mechanical Engineering: Need for Priority. Occasional Paper Series No.3,1967; R S P O , CSIR, N e w Delhi

Rahman (A), et. al.; Science & Technology in India, N e w Delhi: Indian Council for Cultural Relations, 1973, 235p.

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Rahman, A ; Sharma, K D ; Sen, U.(Mrs.); Malik, S.(Miss) Science Policy in India, Occasional Pape/Series No.l , 1966, R S P O , CSIR, N e w Delhi

Rahman, A . Scientific Research in India, Africa Quarterly, July-September 1964, pp. 102-110.

Roy, N K Planning in perspective, Science and Culture, 1962 (Vol.28), pp.210-214.

Salam (Abdus) Reflections on Science and Technology. Sixth Zaheer Science Foundation Lecture held at N P L , N e w Delhi on 23 January 1981.

Sarabhai, ( W ) Science and National Goals, Indian Journal of Public Administration 1969, 15(3), 316-322. Sarabhai, V . Science policy and national development, Ed. by Kamla Chowdhury, Delhi: Macmillain 1974, 174p.

Science and Technology Plan; 1974-79. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, M a y 1975, 34(5), 245-246.

Sharma, K D ; Gupta, B M ; Kundra, R . Geographical Distribution of Indian Publishing Scientists. Journal of Scientific & Indus­trial Research 1979, 38(9), 471-477.

Sharma, K D ; Malik, S. (Miss); Sen, U m a (Mrs.) Gaps in Science Policy, Eastern Economist, 1969, (Vol.51, No.4), N e w Delhi.

Siddhartha (V) Private Science and Public Policy. In S H A R M A (KD), Q U R E S H I ( M A ) , Eds: Science, Technology & Development Essays in Honour of Prof. A . Rahman, N e w Delhi, Sterling, 1978, 68-87.

Singh, K H The VI Five Year Plan on Science and Technology, 1981-83. M a n and Development 1981, 3(1), 77-88.

Thacker, M S Scientific Research: Progress in India since Independence,Indian Quarterly, October-December 1957,pp.287-307.

Zaheer, S H Meeting national needs through Science & Technology, Government, Science and Inter­national Policy (paper prepared for the 8 th meeting of the Panel on Science and Techno­logy) Washington: Committee on Science & Aeronautics, U . S .

Workshop on the Planning and Management System for Multinational R & D Projects (MIRDPS) organised by the Indian Society of R & D Planning and Management and CSIR held at Srinagar,July 19-23, 1982, 80p.

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C02 Science and Technology Forecasting and Assessment

Ahmad, A Technology Assessment: The State of the Art in India, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1980, 39(3), 125-131.

Biman Sen India in 21st Century. Mainstream, 6 March 1982, 1-4.

Dan (TK), Gokula Ratnam (CV), Gopa Kumar (K), Rohatgi (PK) Research, Development and Technological Imperatives for Glass in India towards 200 A . D . Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, April 1982, 41(4), 216-231.

India, Futurology (NCST Panel of ) Interim Report on Scientific and Technical H u m a n Resources Development in India, N e w Delhi, April 1977, 30p.

National Committee on Science and Technology (New Delhi), A n outlook on Indian future (200Ó A . D . ) , Interim report on futurology, N e w Delhi : N C S T , 1978, 202p.

Prasad, R . Forecasting and the requirements of scientists and technologists, United Nations Confe­rence on the Application of Science and Technology for the Benefit of the Less Develop­ed Areas, February 1963.

Swaminathan (MS) Our Agricultural Future. Yojana^ô February 1982, 30(10), 4-7.

Rohatgi (PK), Nagraj (B), Rohatgi (K) Future Technologies for metals and materials in India. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research in India, June 1982, 41(6), 351-360.

Rohatgi (PK); M o h a n (S); Menon, R V G . Technology Assessment for India. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, November 1979, 38(11), 603-610.

C03 Transfer, Diffusion and Implantation of Technologies

Asthana (P) Developing Finance Institutions as Tools of Technology Transfer. In I N D I A N B A N K Seminar on Innovative Technologies for Integrated Rural Development held at N e w Delhi, April 15-18, 1982, Proceedings, Madras 1982, 5p.

Banerjee, U K Managing Transfer of Technology in India, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1980, 39(10), 535-543.

Bhalla, G S Transfer of Technology and Agricultural Development in India. Economic and Political Weekly 1979,14(51-52), A130-A142.

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Chandra Mohan From Innovation to Marketable Technology, International Seminar on Technology Trans­fer organised by CSIR & U N I D O at N e w Delhi, December 11-13, 1972. 14, 1-14, 7p.

De (NR) Technology Transfer and Continuing Education-1, The unforeseen Aftermath. Business Standard, 16 July 1982. 5 p .

Desai, A . Technology Import Policy in the Sixties and Seventies: Changes and their consequences. N e w Delhi; National Council of Applied Economic Research, M a y 1981.

Goyal, S K M N C s Versus National Interest. Mainstream, 26 December, 1981, 20(17), 11-14.

Goyal, S K Monitoring & Regulation of Transnation, Corporations in India, Bangkok; E C A F E 1980, 103p. (Working Paper. 12).

Goyal, S K Multinational Corporations in India: (The Need for a Realistic Policy Framework), N e w Delhi, Public Policy and Planning Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration, 1978 Reprint N o . 2 , 1-27.

Goyal, S K Regulation of Transnational in Developing Countries; Research Programme on Foreign Private Capital in India, N e w Delhi; The Indian Institute of Public Administration.

Goyal, S K Trends of Concentration in India: Business & Economic Power, N e w Delhi; Public Policy & Planning Division, The Indian Institute of Public Administration, May 1979, 1930.

India, Science ana .technology (Deptt. of-), Some aspects of Research and Development in Relation to Import of Technology. 4p. Meeting on Plan Frame for Science and Techno­logy (1980-85) held at N e w Delhi, August 2-3, 1980.

Kamal Vir, Multinational Corporations in Indian Perspective. Lok Udyog, June 1982, 16(3), 35-38.

Mehta (PC) Transfer of Technology from the laboratory to industry, Failure and success: T w o Cases. International Seminar on Technology Transfer organised by CSIR and U N I D O at N e w Delhi, December 11-13, 1972, 2.1-1; 8p.

Pai, R K Patent System in India, Science and Culture 1950-51 (Vol.16), pp.279-283.

Paranjpe (VG) From the Laboratory to Industry: A case of technology transfer. International seminar on Technology transfer organised by CSIR and U N I D O at N e w Delhi, December 11-13, 1972..

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Ramaswamy, (NS) Role of Banks in Transfer of Technology for Small Farmers and Rural Poor, In, I N D I A N B A N K Seminar on Innovative Technologies for Integrated Rural Development held at N e w Delhi, April 15-18, 1982; Proceedings. Madras 1982.

Reddy (AKN) The Transfer, Transformation and Generation of Technology for Rural Development. In Sharma (KD), Qureshi ( M A ) , Eds: Science, Technology and Development, N e w Delhi; Sterling 1978, 237-275.

Reserve Bank of India, Bombay, Foreign collaboration in Indian industry, Survey report, 1968, 1974. Bombay; RBI , 1974. 18p.

Shah (PS) Transfer of Technology-II, The Public Sector, Business India, 7 July 1982, 5p.

Shah (PS) Transfer of Technology-Ill. Indian Joint Ventures Abroad. Business Standard 8 July 1982, 5-6.

Soundarajan (P) Technology Transfer to Burma. Lok Udyog, February 1982,15(11), 45A8.

Subramanian (KK) Technology for Small Scale Industries. 7p. In. I N D I A N B A N K Seminar on Innovative Technologies for Integrated Rural Development held at N e w Delhi, April 15-18, 1982; Proceedings. Madras 1982..

Suri, M M International technology development and transfer Lessons from Indian experiences. In A F O technology transfer in some Asian countries. Proceedings of a Seminar held in N e w Delhi in February 1979. 90-106.

Suri, S. A case study Seminar, 1967 (Vol.92) pp.22-25.

Technology Gap-I, Rethinking on "Total Self-Reliance!' The Statesman, 26 September 1982, 6p.

Technology Gag-II, The Absence of a National 'Network'. The Statesman, 27 September 1982, 8p.

Technology Gap-Ill, Linking Research to High Investment. The Statesman, 28 Septem­ber 1982, 8p.

C04 Organization and Management of Scientific and Technological Activities at the Performer's Level

A h m a d (Aqueil) Science and Technology in India and China: Comparative Organisational Structures. Society and Science, April-June 1982,5(2), 34-54.

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Anderson (Robert S) Growing Science: Different Visions. Science Today, December 1976, 11(6), 24-28.

Anderson (Robert S) Growing Science in India — 2,HomiJ . Bhabha, Science Today, November 1976, 11(5), 47-54.

Atthreya, N H Organisation and Administration of research and development, Bombay, M M L School of Management, 1968.

Banerjee, U K Environment for Technology in India, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1980, 39(6), 293-297.

Bhagavantam (S) Organisation, Management and Progress of Defence Research and Development, Indian Journal of Public Administration 1969, 15(3), 395-404.

Chowdhury K . ; Sarabhai, V . Organisation for developmental tasks,. Atomic Energy Commission of India, Indian Journal of Public Administration, January-March 1968, (Vol.14, No.l) , pp.1-20.

Ghosh, J C Post-war organisation of scientific research in India,Science and Culture, 1943 (Vol.9), pp.135-139.

Government Organisation on Scientific & Industrial Research in India, Science and Culture, 1943 (Vol.19) pp.6-11.

Hill, A V Scientific research in India, London: Royal Society, 1946.

Hymayun Kabir Organisation of scientific research. Science in Parliament. (Vol.1, No.l), pp.5-7.

Mehta (PC) Personnel Management in Industrial Research Organisations. In, Sharma (KD), Qureshi ( M A ) , Eds. Science, Technology and Development, N e w Delhi; Sterling 1978, 311-320.

Mukerji, D . Indian Science: Policy, Organisation and Application. Minerva, Spring 1964, pp.360-369.

Rahman, A . Decentralisation within the National Laboratories, Vijnan Karmee, January 1964 (Vol.16, No.l),p.9.

Rahman (A), Roy (AK) , Sharma (KD) Management's Attitude to Research & Development in Iron & Steel Industry — A case study. Lok Udyog, August-Sept. 1969. 12p.

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Rahman, A . Organisation and authority in a research institution, Symposium on Science and the Nation during the Third Plan, July 27-30, 1964, p.4.

S a h a , M N Basic principles of organisation of scientific research, Science and Culture, 1943 (Vol.9), pp. 173-178.

Sarabhai, V A Leadership in Science, Indian Review, July-December 1966, pp.291-294.

Swaminathan (MS) Government Policy and Administration of Agricultural Research. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 1969, 15(3), 559-564.

Vallurj (SR) Budgetting R & D , Considerations, Defining Priorities - Case Study. Workshop on Mana­gement <pf R & D Institutions organised by United Nations University and C F T R I held at Mysore, Júfy 17-24,1979, 20p.

Wahi (PN) Organisation, Management and Progress of Medical Research. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 1969,15(3), 385-394.

Zaheer, S H Organisation of Scientific Research, Proceeding of the Second Conference of Scientists & Educationists, N e w Delhi, August 4-5, 1963, Ministry of Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs, Government of India, N e w Delhi, pp.23.

Zaheer, S H The Organisation of Scientific Research in India and the Role of CSIR. Science and H u m a n Conditions in India and Pakistan, Rockefeller University Press, N e w York.

Zaheer, S H Organisation of scientific research in India, Lecture delivered at the Indian Science Congress, Delhi, October 9,1963, p.24.

Zaheer, S H Organisation and administration of Indian Science, Nature, 1964 (Vol. 204), pp.528-529.

CÓ6 International Co-operation in the Field of Science and Technology

Lavakare (PJ) Cooperation in Science and Technology. Commerce 1981, Annual Number , 143(3681), 69-90.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Technical Cooperation among Developing Coun­tries. What India can offer, N e w Delhi, March 1980.

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DOl Fundamental Research and Science

Bhatia, K L ; Joglekar, D V Recent advances in engineering research and the rolé played by the Central Board of Irrigation and Power in promoting research in Irrigation and Power Sector, Symposium on the Science and the Nation during the Third Plan, July 2 7-3 0, 1964, N e w Delhi.

Fox, CS Some aspects of scientific and industrial research in India, Science and Culture 1943 (Vol.9), pp.109-112.

Menon, M G K Basic Research as an Integral Component of Self-Reliance in Science and Technology: Its Role, Relevance, Support and Areas of Thrust. Journal of. Scientific & Industrial Research, February 1982, 41, 65-82.

Nagpal, PS; Bhatia, J R ; Rahman, A ; Bhargava, R N . Trends of research in electronics engineering, C T R Series N o . 2 , 1966, R S P O , CSIR, N e w Delhi.

Rahman , A . ; Malik, S. (Miss) Current trends of research in Botany, C T R Series No.l , 1966, R S P O , CSIR, N e w Delhi.

Rahman, A . Goals of Basic and Applied Research in Different National and Cultural Contexts, Jour­nal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 34(1), 1977.

D 0 2 Agricultural R & D

Agriculture in the Sixth Plan. Science Today,June 1981, 15(6), 45-51.

Bhattacharya, H C Scientific Research in agricultural industries, Vijnan Karmee, 1954 (Vol.6, No.7 ), pp. 11-12.

Bose, P R , Vashist, V N Bullock Cart: The Choice of Technology, Kurukshetra,16 March 1981, 8-14.

Dogra (B) Milk Cooperatives and the Poor-1. The Great White Hope that failed. Business Standard; 25 June 1982, 5p.

Dogra (B) Milk Cooperatives and the Poor-II. The Myths and the reality, Business Standard, 26 June 1982, 5p.

Dutt, R C N I E D and India's Development Experience. Mainstream^ M a y 1980, 18(36), 17-19.

Gandhi, I Agricultural Research, Inaugural Address at the Opening Ceremony of the Nuclear Re­search Station of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, N e w Delhi, November 29, 1971.

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Gandhi, I Food for Millions. Inaugural Address to the National Food Congress, N e w Delhi, M a y 11, 1970.

Gandhi, I Towards Self-Sufficiency in Food. Speech at a Conference of Chief Ministers and Agri­cultural Ministers, N e w Delhi, April 9, 1966.

India, Agriculture (Ministry of), Annual Report, 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 50 years of agricultural research and education, Goldenjubilee, 1929-1979, N e w Delhi, 1980, 215p.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research: Krishi Vigyan Kendra: Farm Science Centre: Management & Operational Guidelines, N e w Delhi, 1980.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (New Delhi): A new strategy in agriculture — A collection of the speeches by C . Subramaniam, 1972, 294p.

Jain, H K Scientific research and technological developments in developing countries — Achieve­ments and failure in agriculture. Society and Science 1980, 81-90.

Jain, SC Problem and policies of Indian agriculture, Allahabad, Kitab Mahal, 1963, pl92.

K u m a r , Y Possibilities of extending agricultural research in India, Vijnan Karmee, 1965 (Vol.17, No .7 ) , pp.5-8.

National Commission on Agriculture (New Delhi): Policy and strategy, N e w Delhi: Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, 1976,197p.

National Committee on Science and Technology (New Delhi): National resources — R & P projects for the sub-sector forest, land, soil. Vol.111, Dehradun; Forest Research Institute 8¿ College.

Narayana, N S , Parikh, K S . Agricultural Planning and Policy in Draft Sixth Plan: Will farmers, fulfil planner's expec­tations? Economic & Political Weekly 1979,14(30-32), 1295-1306.

Pal, BP Science and Agriculture. Science in Parliament, 1963 (Vol.1, No.l) . pp.20-24.

Pande, P G Place of veterinary research in the nation's plan for food production. Science and Culture 1959 (Vol.24), pp.447-465.

D 0 3 Industrial R & D

A t m a R a m (Dr.) A few throughts on Applied Science in India (Twenty-eighth Acharya Jagdish Chandra Bose Memorial Lecture), Calcutta, November 30, 1,966.

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Acharya, R M Breeding, feeding and management in dairy development. 15p. In. I N D I A N B A N K Semi­nar on Innovative Technologies for Integrated Rural Development held at N e w Delhi, April 15-18,1982, Proceedings 1982, Madras.

Basu,*SK Technological Development in the Indian Machine Tools Industry, Invention Intelligence, April 1980, 15(4), 148-154.

C F T R I The Food Industry in India. In. U N I D O Appropriate Technology for Food Storage and Processing. Geneva. 1979, 75-91p.

Char, S V Economics of Steel Technology in India, Economic and Political Weekly 1979, 14(21), M 6 5 - M 6 7 .

Dedijer, Steven Industry and Research in India, Talk at the Shri R a m Research Institue, N e w Delhi, July 13,1964. p.10.

Desai, Ashok V . The origin and direction of industrial R & D in India, Research Policy 1980, 9(1), 74-96.

Exploiting research for industry, Seven case studies, Commerce, January 1967 (Vol.114, No.2906),p.l26.

Husaini, S H M ; Ghosal, A . ; Rahman, A . Efforts in Industrial Establishments in India, Survey Report N o . 5 , 1965, SPSR Unit, CSIR, N e w Delhi

Husaini, S H M and others Research in Industry in India, Nature, July 1965, pp. 125-127.

India, Electronics Commission: Perspective report on electronics in India. N e w Delhi: 1975,690p.

India, Industry (Ministry of) : Annual Report, 1980-81, N e w Delhi 1981.

India, Industry (Ministry of.): Development Commissioner (Small Scale Industries): Annual Reprot 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981, 240.

Mehta (PC) Cooperative Research in Indian Industry. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 1969, 15(3), 351-362.

M o h a n , B . R & D in Industry, Commerce Annual No.1978 137(3526), 127-131.

Mukherjee (A) Inefficiency in Cement Industry Government Policy to Blame. Business Standard, 10 August 1982, 5p.

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Mukherjee, B. Indian drug industry - Past, present and future, Science and Culture, January 1964, pp.20-25.

National Committee on Science and Technology (New Delhi): Report of the Science and Technology Panel for Khadi and Village Industries, N e w Delhi, N C S T , 1976, 155p.

Planning Commission, Scientific Research in Chemical Industry, a report «f working group, May 1964, N e w Delhi.

D 0 4 Transport and Communication R & D

Rao, K K Technological research on Indian railways, Symposium on Science and the National during the Third Plan, July 27-30,1964, N e w Delhi.

D05 Health R & D

Medical Science in India, Nature, M a y 2, 1964, pp.445-446.

Ninan (S) Banker's Battle with Bottles. Business India,ll July 1982, 4p.

Mukerji, B. Progress and promise of research in bio-medical sciences, Science and Culture, June 1967, pp.265-269.

Pandit, C G Role of medical research: Medical research in India, United Nations Conference on the Application of Science & Technology for the benefit of the less developed areas, Feb­ruary 1963.,

Rao (PK) Nurturing Tomorrow's Citizens. Health Priorities. Business Standard, 16 June 1982, tp.

D 9 6 Environmental R & D

Aggarwal (A) The rising cost of making deserts bloom. N e w Scientist, 13 October 1977, 96-97.

Futehally, Z . Forestry in India: Need for a change. India Express, 29 July 1982 6.

Environment and Ecology: Imperatives for R & D . 3p. Position Paper for meeting on Plan Framework for Science and Technology (1980-85) held at N e w Delhi, August 2-3,1980.

Environmental Conservation: Report of the Expert Group on Forest and Environment, Forest Research Institute and Colleges. 15 p. Meeting on Plan Frame for Science and Technology (1980-85) held at N e w Delhi, August 2-3,1980.

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Gandhi, I The Ecological Crisis. Inaugural Address to the' National Committee on Environmental Planning and Co-ordi­nation, N e w Delhi, April 12, 1972.

Gandhi, I. Social Forestry, Changing Villages,Sept.-October 1980, 2(3), 37-41.

India, Environment (Dept. of): Annual Report, 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981.

Indian Environment (Dept. of): A National Policy of Environment, N e w Delhi, 1981.

India Science & Technology (Dept. of-): Environment Research Committee, Research Projects, 1975-77, N e w Delhi, 1979.

India, Science & Technology (Dept. of), Report of the Committee for Recommending Legislative Measures and Administrative Machinery for Enstaring Environmental Protec­tion (Tewari Committee Report), N e w Delhi, 1980.

Krishna Murti (CR) R & D Challenges of Environment Management. Mainstream Annual Number 1981, 29(1-5), 135-139.

Pal, BP A National Policy on Environment, N e w Delhi: Dept. of Environment, Govt, of India, 1980.

Sahai, R & Chauhan, M . Pesticide Pollution, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1977, 36(12), 685-694.

Sharma, R . Deforestation: F . A . O . warning. Financial Express,29 June 1982, 6.

U N C T A D (Geneva): Environmental policies and their implications for trade and develop­ment: A case study of India. N . Y . , U N 1977, 63p.

D O 7 Civil Space R & D

Ashok Raj, Vishnu Mohan, C . INSAT: Evolution and Prospects. Economic & Political Weekly>14 August 1982,17(33), 1326-1331.

Gandhi, I. India and the Space Age, Speech at the Thumba Rocket Centre, February 2, 1968.

India, Space (Department of ), Annual Report, 1980-81. N e w Delhi, 1981.

India, Space (Department of ), Profile 1980-1990, N e w Delhi, 1981. 22p.

Indian Space Research Organisation, National Paper of India for the Second United Nations Conference on Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNI S P A C E 82), Bangalore 1982, 5Op.

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Indian Space Research Organization (Ahmedabad) : Report of die seminar on Indian programme for space research and applications. Ahmedabad: I S R O , 1972, 106p.

Indian Space Research Organization (Bangalore): Sarabhai on space — A selection of writings and speeches. Bangalpre: ISRO, 1979, 52p.

D 0 8 Energy R & D

Administrative Staff College of India (Hyderabad): National Seminar on Energy. ASCI Hyderabad. 5-9 March, 1976. 2 Vols.

Atomic Energy in India, Science and Culture, 1954 (Vol.20), pp.205-208.

Bhabha, HJ Atomic Energy in India. Science in Parliament, 1964 (Vol.2, No .2) , pp.57-68.

Bhabha, HJ Atomic energy research and development in India — A decade of sustained progress. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, (Vol.24), pp.389-390.

Bhabha, HJ Role of atomic power in India, and its immediate possibilities, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1955 (Vol.l4-A). pp.561-568.

Bhabha, HJ O n the economics of atomic power development in India and the Indian atomic energy programme, Science and Culture, 1957 (Vol,23),pp.l80-186, 219-25.

Bhabha, HJ Need for a new power source, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1955 (Vol. 14-A),pp.413-418.

Bhabha, HJ Peaceful uses of atomic energy, Science and Culture 1955, (Vol.21) pp. 124-128.

Development of Atomic Energy, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1954 (VoL13-A), p.586.

Gandhi, I. Address to the United Nations Conference on N e w and Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi, August 10,1981.

Gandhi, I. Exploration of Oil Speech on the occasion of the Inauguration of tiie First Off-shore Drilling Operations at Alibet, Cambay, Gujarat, March 19,1970.

Gandhi, I. Global Effort to Meet Energy. Indian & Foreign Review, 15 August 1981,18(21), 5-7.

Gandhi, I. Power for prosperity, Inaugural Address at the 40th Session of the Central Board of Irrigation and Power, N e w Delhi, Nov. 22,1967.

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Gandhi, I. Tarapore: A Dream C o m e True. Speech while dedicating the Tarapore Atomic Power Station to the Nation, January 19, 1970.

India, Addition Sources of Energy (Govt, of), Renewable Energy in Action, N e w Delhi 1981.

India, Atomic Energy (Dept. of), Annual Report, 1979-80, N e w Delhi, 1981.

India, Atomic Energy (Dept. of), Annual Report, 1980-81, Bombay, 1981.

India, Atomic Energy (Dept. of), Annual Report, 1981-82, Bombay, 1982. /

India, Energy (Ministry of-): Annual Report 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981.

India, Energy (Ministry o£), Coal (Dept., of,): Annual Report 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981.

India, Energy (Ministry off), Power (Dept. of): Report of the Committee on Power, N e w Delhi, 1980.

India, Energy (Ministry of), Power (Dept. of ): Annual Report, 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981.

India, Petroleum Chemicals & Fertilizers (Ministry of-), Petroleum (Dept. of): Annua Report, 1980-81, N e w Delhi, 1981.

India, Planning Commission, Report of the working group of energy policy, N e w Delhi 1979, 121p.

Ramanna, R . Nuclear Power for Economic Development, Journal of Industry & Trade 1979, 29(3), 12-15.

Mukherjee (A) <iergy Use in India-I. The Influencing Factor. Business Standard, 15 September 1982,

5, 7p.

Mukherjee (A) Energy Use in India-II. The Population Growth Factor, Business Standard, 16 September 1982,5p. ~ •

Mukherjee (A) Energy Consumption-II. Fuel Use Efficiency up in the Economy. Business Standard, 21 July 1982, 5p.

National Committee on Science and Technology (New Delhi): Report of the fuel and power sector. N e w Delhi; N C S T , 1978. 85lp.

Pachauri (RK) Energy policy for India — A n inter-disciplinary analysis. Delhi; Macmillan, 1980. 369p.

Sethna, H N India's atomic energy programme — Past and future. Bhagirath 1980, 27(2), 51-6.

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World Bank, India: Economic Issues in the Power Sector: Washington, D . C . November 19/9,175p.

D 0 9 Defence and Peace R & D

Bhagavantam, S. Science and Defence. Second Conference of Scientists and Educationists, August 4-5, 1963. N e w Delhi.

Bhagavantam, S. Place of science in the defence of a country^ 25 Acharya Jagdish Chandra Bose Memorial Lecture, November 1963, p.12.

Kothari, D S Coordination of scientific research and defence requirements, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 1963 (Vol.22), pp.67-68.

Kothari, D S Science and Defence, Vijnan Karmee, 1958 (Vol.10, Nos.6-7), pp.19.

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APPENDIX I

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA SCIENTIFIC POLICY RESOLUTION

N e w Delhi, the 4th March, 1958.

N o . 131 /CF/57 . The key to national prosperity, apart from the spirit of the people, lies, in the modern age, in the effective combination of three factors, technology, raw materials and capital, of which the first is perhaps the most important, since the creation and adoption of new scientific techniques can, in fact, make up for a deficiency in natural resources, and reduce the demands on capital. But technology can only grow out of the study of science and its applications. 2 . The dominating feature of the contemporary world is the intense cultivation of science on a large scale and its application to meet a country's requirements.. It is this, which, for the first time in man 's history, has given to the c o m m o n m a n in countries advanced in science, a standard of living and social and cultural amenities, which were once confined to very small privileged minority of the population. Science has led to the growth and diffusion of culture to an extent never possible before. It has not only radically altered man 's material environment, but, what is of still deeper significance, it has provided n e w tools of thought and has extended man ' s mental horizon. It has thus influenced even the basic values of life, and given to civilization a n e w vitality and a n e w dynamism.

3. It is only through the scientific approach and method and the use of scientific knowledge that reasonable material and cultural amenities and services can be provided for every m e m b e r of the community, and it is out of a recognition of this possibility that the idea of a welfare state has grown. It is characteristic of the present world that the progress towards the practi­cal realisation of a welfare state differs widely from country to country in direct relation to the extent of industrialisation and the effort and resources applied in the pursuit of science.

4 . The wealth and prosperity of a nation depend on the effective utili­sation of its h u m a n and material resources through industrialisation. The use of h u m a n material for industrialisation demands its education in science and training in technical skills. Industry opens up possibilities of greater fulfilment for the individual. India's enormous resources of manpower can only become an asset in the modern world w h e n trained and educated.

5. Science and technology can m a k e up for deficiencies in raw materials by providing substitutes, or, indeed, by providing skills which can be expor-

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ted in return for raw materials. In industrialising a country, a heavy price has to be paid in importing science and technology in the form of plant and machinery, highly paid personnel and technical consultants. A n early and large scale development, of science and technology in the country could therefore greatly reduce the drain on capital during the early and critical stages of industrialisation. 6. Science has developed at an ever-increasing pace since the beginning of the century, so that the gap between the advanced and backward coun­tries has widened more and more» It is only by adopting the most vigorous measures and by putting forward iwr utmost effort into the development of science that w e can bridge the gap. It is an inherent obligation of a great country like India, with its traditions of scholarship and original thinking and its great cultural heritage, to participate fully in the march oí science, which is probably mankind's greatest enterprise today. x

7. The Government of India have accordingly decided that the aims of their scientific policy will be:

i. to foster, promote, and sustain, by all appropriate means, the cultivation of science, and scientific research in all its aspects, pure, applied, and educational;

ii. to ensure an adequate supply, within the country, of research scientists of the higest quality, and to recognize their work as an important component of the strength of the nation;

iii. to encourage, and initiate, with all possible speed, programmes for the training of scientific and technical personnel, on a scale adequate to fulfil the country's needs in science and education, agriculture and industry, and defence;

iv. to ensure that the creative talent of m e n and w o m e n is encoura­ged, and finds full scope in scientific activity;

v. to encourage individual initiative for the acquisition and dissemi­nation of knowledge, and for the discovery of n e w knowledge, in an atmosphere of academic freedom;

vi. and, in general, to secure for the people of the country all the benefits that can accrue from the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge.

The Government of India have decided to pursue and accomplish these aims by offering good conditions of service to scientists and according them an honoured position, by associating scientists with the formulation of policies,- and by taking such other measures as m a y be deemed necessary from time to time.

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APPENDIX II

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

TECHNOLOGY POLICY STATEMENT

Preamble

Political freedom must lead to economic independence and the alleviation of the burden of poverty. W e have regarded science and technology as the basis of economic progress. A s a result of three decades of planning and the Scien­tific Policy Resolution of 1958, w e n o w have a strong agricultural and indus­trial base and a scientific manpower impressive in quality, numbers and range of skills. Given clear-cut objectives and the necessary support, our science has shown its capacity to solve problems.

The frontiers of knowledge are being extended at incredible speed, opening up wholly new areas and introducing new concepts. Technological advances are influencing life styles as well as societal expectations.

The use and development of technology must relate to the people's aspirations. Our o w n immediate needs in India are the attainment of tech­nological self-reliance, a swift and tangible improvement in the conditions of the weakest sections of the population and the speedy development of backward regions. India is k n o w n for its diversity. Technology must suit

. local needs and to make an impact on the lives of ordinary citizens, must give constant thought to even small improvements which could m a k e better and more cost-effective use of existing 'materials and methods of work. Our development must be based on our o w n culture and personality. Our future depends on our ability to resist the imposition of technology which is obsolete or unrelated to our specific requirements and of policies which tie us to systems which serve the purposes of others rather than our o w n , and on our success in dealing with vested interests in our organizations: governmental, economic, social and even intellectual, which bind us to out­m o d e d systems and institutions.

Technology must be viewed in the broadest sense, covering the agri­cultural and the services sectors along with the obvious manufacturing sector. The latter stretches over a wide spectrum ranging from village, small-scale and cottage industries (often based on traditional skills) to medium, heavy and sophisticated industries. Our philosophy of a mixed economy involves the operation of the private, public and joint sectors, including those with foreign equity participation.

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Our directives must clearly define systems for the choice of technolo­gy, taking into account economic, social and cultural factors along with technical considerations; indigenous development and support to techno­logy, and utilization of such technology; acquisition of technology through import and its subsequent absorption, adaptation and upgradation; ensuring competitiveness at international levels in all necessary areas; and establishing links between the various elements concerned with generation of technology, its transformation into economically utilizable from, the sector responsible for production (which is the user of such technology), financial institutions concerned with the resources needed for these activities, and the promo­tional and regulating arms of the Government.

This Technology Policy Statement is in response to the need for guide­lines to cover this wide-ranging and complex set of interrelated areas. Keep­ing in mind the capital-scarce character of a developing economy it aims at ensuring that our available natural endowments, especially h u m a n resources, are optimally utilized for a continuing increase in the well-being of all sections of our people.

W e seek technological advancement not for prestige or aggrandisement but to solve our multifarious problems and to be able to safeguard our independence and our unity. Our modernization, far from diminishing the enormous diversity of our regional traditions should help to enrich them and to make the ancient wisdom of our nation more meaningful to our people.

Our task is gigantic and calls for close coordination between the different departments of the Central and State Governments and also of those concerned, at all levels, with any sector of economic, scientific or technological activity, and, not least, the understanding and involvement of the entire Indian people. W e look particularly to young people to bring a scientific attitude of mind to bear on all our problems.

2 . Aims and Objectives

2.1 Aims

The basic objectives of the Technology Policy will be the development of indigenous technology and efficient absorption and adaptation of imported technology appropriate to national priorities and resources. Its aims are to:

a) attain technological competence and self-reliance, to reduce vulnerability, particularly in strategic and critical areas, making the m a x i m u m use of indigenous resources;

b) provide the m a x i m u m gainful and satisfying employment to all strata of society, with emphasis on the employment of w o m e n and weaker sections of society;

c) use traditional skills and capabilities, making them commer­cially competitive;

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d) ensure the correct mix between mass production technologies and production by the masses;

e) ensure m a x i m u m development with m i n i m u m capital outlay-, f) identify obsolescence of technology in use and arrange for

modernization of both equipment and technology; g) develop technologies which are internationally competitive,

particularly those with export potential; h ) improve production speedily through greater efficiency and

fuller utilization of existing capabilities, and enhance the quality and reliability of performance and output;

i) reduce d e m a n d s on energy, particularly energy from non­renewable sources;

j) ensure h a r m o n y with the environment, preserve the ecological balance and improve the quality of the habitat; and

k ) recycle waste material and m a k e full utilization of byproducts.

2.2 Self-Reliance

In a country of India's size and e n d o w m e n t s , self-reliance is inescapable and must be at the very heart of technological development. W e must aim at major technological breakthroughs in the shortest possible time for the development of indigenous technology appropriate to national priorities and resources. For this, the role of different agencies will be identified, responsibilities assigned and the necessary linkages established.

2.3 Strengthening the Technology Base

Research and Development, together with science and technology education and training of a high order, will be accorded pride of place. T h e base of science and technology consists of trained and skilled m a n p o w e r at various levels, covering a wide range of disciplines, and an appropriate institutional, legal and fiscal infrastructure. Consolidation of the existing scientific base and selective strengthening of thrust areas in it are essential. Special atten­tion will be given to the promotion and strengthening of the technology base in newly emerging and frontier areas such as information and materials sciences, electronics and bio-technology. Education and training to upgrade skills are also of utmost importance. Basic research and the building of centres of excellence will be encouraged.

Skills and skilled workers will be accorded special recognition. T h e quality and efficiency of the technology generation and delivery systems will be continuously monitored and upgraded. All of this calls for substan­tial financial investments and also strengthening of the linkages between various sectors (educational institutions, R & D establishments, industry and governmental machinery).

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3. Priorities

3.1 Need for Perspective Planning

The time scales involved in the generation of technology are long, even with imported elements. Therefore, relevant technologies in all areas of priority, particularly where large investments are to be m a d e , should be clearly identified well in advance. The cost and time element involved in the import of technology and indigenous development will be given considera­tion. Components which could be assigned to the various institutions which are capable of developing them or which could be built up for such activities will be identified. Ministries concerned with large investments and produc­tion activities in areas such as food, health and energy will be provided with appropriate technical support through suitably structured S & T groups.

3.2 Employment

H u m a n resoruces constitute our richest endowment . Conditions will be created for the fullest expression and utilization of scientific talent. Measures will be taken for the identification and diffusion of technologies that can progressively reduce the incidence of poverty and unemployment, and of regional inequalities. The application of science and technology for the improvement of standards of living of those engaged in traditional activities will be promoted, particularly house-hold technologies. Technologies rele­vant to the cottage, village and small industries sector will be upgraded. | n the decentralized sectof labour must be diversified and all steps taken to reduce drudgery. In all sectors, the potential impact on employment will be an important criterion in the choice of technology.

3.3 Energy

Energy constitutes an expensive and sometimes scarce input. Therefore, the energy requirements both of a direct and indirect nature for each product and each production activity and the associated technology employed will be analysed. Measures will be devised to avoid wastage or non-optimal use of energy. Fiscal measures as necessary will be introduced to ensure these. Research and Development in the energy sector will aim at improving the efficiency of its production, distribution and utilization, as well as improvement of efficiency in processes and equipment.

3.4 Efficiency and Productivity

Technologies already employed will be evaluated on a continuing basis to realise m a x i m u m benefits in terms of increased producton and lower costs,

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specially in the public sector enterprises. Every effort should be m a d e to utilised byproducts and wherever possible to recycle waste materials, espe­cially those from urban areas. Programmes to m a k e use of easily available and less costly materials will be supported.

3.5 Environment

Development should not upset ti e ecological balance for short as well as long-term considerations. Poorly planned efforts to achieve apparently rapid development, ignoring the long-term effect of m a n y technologies on the environment, have resulted in serious ecological damage. It is, therefore, essential to analyse the environmental impact of the application of each technology. D u e regard will be given to the preservation and enhancement of the environment in the choice of technologies. Measures to improve environ­mental hygiene will be evolved.

3.6 Some Specific Areas

In technology development special emphasis will be focused on food, health, housing, energy and industry. In particular, stress will be laid on:

— agriculture including dry-land farming; O p t i m u m use of water resources, increased production of pulses and oilseeds;

— provision of drinking water in rural areas, improvement of nutrition, rapid reduction in the incidence of blindness, eradica­tion of the major communicable diseases (such as leprosy and tuberculosis), and population stabilization;

•*- low-cost housing; r development and use of renewable nonconventional sources

' of energy; and .

^ industrial development.

4 . Indigenous Technology

$.1! : Importance of Technology Development

¡Fullest support will be given to the development of indigenous technology, ; achieve technological self-reliance and reduce the dependence on foreign inputs, particularly in critical and vulnerable areas and in high value-added items in which the domestic base is strong. Strengthening and diversifying the domestic technology base are necessary to reduce imports and to expand exports for which international competitiveness must be ensured.

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4.2 Inventions

The spirit of innovation and invention is the driving force behind all techno­logical change. W e must awaken our science and technology to the exciting challenges of our times, provide incentives to encourage inventors, and direct their efforts to areas of special importance. The system of rewards and incen­tives will be strengthened for inventions, innovations and technological breakthroughs and their utilization. The fullest opportunity will be provided to m a k e use of inventions.

4.3 Enhancing Traditional Skills and Capabilities

Traditional skills and capabilities'will need to be upgraded and enhanced, using knowledge and techniques generated by advances in science and technology. Technologies which will result in low-cost production and in products marketable close to the point of manufacture, particularly in the rural sector, will be promoted. Support will be given to technologies which reduce pressure on items in short supply and utilize improved local materials and methods. Government will give preference to products of such technolo­gies in its o w n purchases. The adoption of technologies that can promote decentralized production will be helped through the support to design, marketing, quality control and other services.

4.4 Ensuring Timely Availability

The time cycle from scientific research to utilization is a long one. Hence the need to initiate action well in advance to identify and ensure timely availa­bility and delivery of n e w technologies. Encouragement and support (fiscal, commercial and administrative) will be given to the production and user organisations to be associated with and participate in technology develop­ment efforts at appropriate level.

4.5 Upgradation to Prevent Obsolescence

Technology is constantly on the move . The base of indigenous technology should be capable of utilizing world-wide advances and adapting them to local needs. The creation and strengthening of institutional structures for keeping track of international developments will receive urgent attention.

A strong central group will be constituted to undertake technology forecast and technology assessment studies and will inter-aiia draw up pro­grammes of purposeful research. Arrangements will be m a d e to provide high-level scientific advice in major sectors of the economy. Where big investments are involved or a large volume of production is envisaged, it will be incumbent on the Ministry or agency concerned to provide a techno-

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logy forecast covering its requirements over a ten-year or longer period and evolve a strategy for development based on priorities.

4.6 Increasing the Demand for Indigenous Technology

Our country has already invested significant amounts in setting up research and development facilities as well as design consultancy and engineering capabilities. The technological potential inherent in this system of inter­linked capabilities must be utilized, and in turn provide a fillip for further development from within the system. Incentives will, therefore, be provided to users of indigenously developed technology, and for products 'and pro­cesses resulting from such use.

4.7 Preferential Treatment

In view of the cost of technology development and the time necessary for successful marketing of a new or improved product, indigenously developed items are invariably at a disadvantage compared with imported products or those based on imported technologies and brand names. Support must therefore be provided through fiscal and other measures, for a limited period, in favour of products made through indigenously developed techno­logies, care being taken to ensure quality.

4.8 Fiscal Incentives

Suitable financial mechanisms will be established to facilitate investment on pilot plants, process demonstration units and prototype development in order to enable rapid commercial exploitation of technologies developed in laboratories. Linkages between scientific and technological institutions and development banks will be strengthened. Gaps in technology will be identi­fied and suitable corrective measures taken with adequate allocation of resources. Fiscal incentives will be provided in particular to: promote inven­tions-, increase the use of indigenously developed technology; enhance in-house Research and Development in industry; and efforts directed to absorb and adapt imported technology.

4.9 Design Engineering

Capabilities in design engineering are essential for the translation of know-h o w to commercial production. This is particularly important in areas rela­ting to: agricultural production; agro-industries• metallurgical, chemical and petrochemical processes; machine tools; industrial machinery and capital goods; as well as for the construction and erection of entire plants. Building up and enhancing these capabilities will have a catalytic beneficial impact

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on the utilization of indigenous efforts that have resulted in product and process k n o w - h o w . Existing design engineering capabilities will be streng­thened and upgraded, and interaction encouraged between design engi­neering organisation, academic and research institutions and industry. Wherever gaps exist, design engineering capabilities will be developed and nurtured.

4.10 Engineering Consultancy

Engineering consultancy is a vital area for ensuring speedy technologi­cal and industrial development. It ensures the appropriate utilization of indi­genous materials, plant and machinery. Engineering consultancy provides an essential link between R & D institutions and industry, and thus promotes effective transfer of technology. Capacity for total systems engineering, process development and project management should be developed with collaboration if required. Wherever capability exists, utilization of Indian consultancy engineering organisations will be promoted. Even where foreign technical collaboration or consultancy is considered unavoidable, association of designated Indian consulting engineering organisations would be pre­ferred. Indigenous engineering consultancy in both private and public sectors will be promoted on a sound professional basis in the context of the overall national perspective of technological self-reliance.

4.11 In-house R&D

In-house R & D units in industry provide a desirable and essential interface between efforts within the national laboratories and the education"1 sector as well as production in industry. Appropriate incentives will be given to the setting up of R & D units in industry and for industry including those on a cooperative basis. Enterprises will be encouraged to set up R & D units of a size to permit the accomplishment of major technological tasks.

5. ,, Technology Acquisition

5.1 Mix of Indigenous and Imported Technology

A policy directed towards technological self-reliance dot:, not imply techno­logical self-sufficiency. The criterion must be national interest. Government policy will be directed towards reducing technological dependence in key areas.

Advantage should be taken of technological developments elsewhere. This can also be achieved through well-defined collaborative arrangements in research and development.

At any given point of time, there will be a mix of indigenous and imported technology. However, technology acquisition from outside shall

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not be at the expense of national interest. Indigenous initiative must receive due recognition and support.

In the acquisition of technology, consideration will be given to the choice and sources of technology, alternative means of acquiring it, its role in meeting a major felt need, selection iand relevance of the products, costs, and related conditions. A National Register on foreign Collaboration will be developed to provide analytical inputs at various stages of technological acquisition.

5.2 Principles of Acquisition and Technology Assessment

Where the need to import technology is established, every effort should be made to ensure that it is of the highest level, consistent with requirements and resources. The technology import will be so planned as to have effective transfer of basic knowledge (know-why) and to facilitate further advance­ment.

Where the import of technology is contemplated, the level of which technology has been developed, or is in current use, within the country, shall be first evaluated. Lists of technologies that have been adequately developed to the extent that import is unnecessary will be prepared and periodically updated; in such areas no import of technology would normally be permitted; and the onus will be on the seeker of foreign technology, be it industry or a user Ministry, to demonstrate to the satisfaction of the approval authority that import is necessary.

Technology assessment systems will be reviewed. A technology assess­ment mechanism consisting of competent groups will render advice in all cases of technology import relating to highly sophisticated technology, large investments and national security. Aspects of employment, energy, efficiency and environment will be kept in view.

The basic principles governing the acquisition of technology will be: * a. Import of technology, and foreign investment in this regard,

will continue to be permitted only on a selective basis where: need has been established; technology does not exist within the country; the time taken to generate the technology indi­genously would delay the achievement of development targets.

b. Government m a y , from time to time, identify and notify such areas of high national priority, in respect of which procedures would be simplified further to ensure timely acquisition of the required technology.

c. There shall be a firm commitment for absorption, adaptation and subsequent development of imported k n o w - h o w through adequate investment in Research and Development to which importers of technology will be expected to contribute.

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5.3 Unpackaging

Technology to fulfil a particular need consists of m a n y components. It is necessary to develop capability to break d o w n the total package of techno­logy required for a purpose \iyitp components, some of which m a y be readily available or could be indigenously developed, and others that will need to be imported. N o r m s and guidelines for such unpackaging will be evolved.

5.4 Absorption of Technology

There shall be a commitment to ensure an adequate scale of investment in R & D for the absorption, adaptation and wherever possible, improvement on and generation of n e w technology, making fullest use of overall national capabilities. Only thus can self-reliance be ensured and a technology gene­ration process established firmly. Appropriate mechanisms will be evolved at the stage of technology assessment to ensure the absorption of imported technology.

5.5 Technological Information

The availability of an efficient system of collection and analysis of relevant technological information, including cost and other economic aspects, is a prerequisite for the appropriate choice of technologies. This will consi­derably enhance the possibility, of obtaining favourable terms and condi­tions in acquisition of technology. Such a technology information base will be established.

6. Technology Transfer

6.1 Diffusion

Special efforts need to be m a d e for the diffusion of technology in use to all beneficiaries w h o can employ them optimally. Appropriate measures shall be evolved to facilitate technology diffusion, including: horizontal transfer; technological support for ancillaries from large units; technology inputs to small units; and upgradation of traditional skills and capabilities.

6.2 International Competitiveness and Technology Exports

It is necessary to maintain international competitiveness in products, services and technologies that have export potential. Conditions for the marketing of indigenous technology and of products based on it will 'be improved. It is important in all such cases to conform to the highest international standards.

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6.3 Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries

A concerted effort will be m a d e to participate fully in technical cooperation among developing countries. Encouragement will be provided for partici­pation in technology development programmes with other developing coun­tries which can contribute to mutual national development.

6A Protection : Legislative Framework

Development of technology calls for large investments and often involves considerable risk. Encouragement will be given to obtaining necessary pro­tection in all cases of indigenous technology development. A machanism will be set up to ensure that national interests arising from the generating of technology are fully protected internationally in terms of industrial pro­perty rights.

7. Implementation

The success of the Technology Policy and the speed with which the various facets of the Policy are implemented will depend to a considerable extent on a system for efficient monitoring, review and guidance and a scheme of incentives and disincentives.

Government will evolve instruments for the implementation of this Technology Policy and spell out in detailed guidelines for Ministries and agencies of Government as well as for industries and entrepreneurs.

Such in implementation demands a conscious integrated approach covering technology assessment, development, acquisition, absorption, uti­lization and diffusion, and connected aspects of financing, based on overall national interests, priorities and the attainment of the most challenging tech­nological goals.

Above all, the entire population must be imbued with self-confidence and pride in national capacity.

Indian Science and Technology must unlock the creative potential of our people and help in building the India of our dreams.

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