the ultimate lit hum study guide

8/18/2019 The Ultimate Lit Hum Study Guide

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THE ULTIMATE LIT HUM STUDY GUIDECOMPILED BY RYAN MANDELBAUM

The Iliad

By Homer

(Books I – XII)

Plot Summary

The Iliad picks up at the end of the Trojan War –a ten-year long war fought between theAchaeans (Greek) and the Trojans. Chryses, the priest of Apollo, pleads with the

Achaeans to return to him his daughter who they captured in battle. When the Achaean’srefuse, Apollo plague’s the Achaean’s. Agamemnon, leader of the Achaean’s, finally

gives up the daughter in order to end the plague, but only after he is fairly compensated by taking the girl previously given to Achilles. Achilles, the greatest Achaean warrior, is

dishonored and insulted by the unfair exchange, and resorts to withdrawing from the warin order to punish the Achaeans. To further hinder the Achaeans in battle, Achilles also

attempts to seek out help from Zeus, by asking his own mother, the goddess namedThetis, to persuade him. Without support from Achilles or Zeus, the Achaeans face

difficult challenges against the powerful Trojan army.The Achaean’s meet the Trojans and a duel between Menelaus and Paris ensues to

try and settle the war for good. The gods intervene and the duel is left unresolved.Fighting continues back and forth between the two sides. Both sides agree to have a day

of peace to bury their dead, and strengthen their defenses. Afterwards, the fightingcontinues for a few days, and the Trojans, with the help of the gods, begin to take the lead

in the war. The Achaean’s unite and recall that Troy is destined to fall. Agamemnon,fearing the Trojan’s victory, offers Achilles great wealth if he rejoins the war, but

Achilles refuses. The Achaean’s send spies across the Trojan border, who encounter oneof their enemies. They threaten him to gain information about the Trojans, which they use

to launch several successful attacks. The next day the Trojans attack the Achaean’s camp, breaking through the walls of the camp and forcing the troops all the way back to their

ships.

Major Themes

Honor –-Achilles is so dishonored when Agamemnon takes Briseis from him, that he withdraws

from the war (Book I). Later, when Agamemnon attempts to win Achilles back byoffering him gifts, Achilles denies, claiming that “There was no gratitude given for

fighting incessantly forever against your enemies. Fate is the same for the man who holds back, the same if he fights hard" (Book IX: 316). This shows Achilles de-glorifying war

because he chooses to stay home and live a long and happy life, rather than return to the battlefield and die “honorably.”

-As Paris and Menelaus get ready to fight, Paris begins to show signs of fear andcowardice. His brother Hector mocks him, and Paris is moved to fight, but he soon

escapes from the field. Paris is looked down upon, in contrast with his brother, who is agreat Trojan warrior and a well-respected leader.


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- Nestor upholds honor in war by giving uplifting speeches to the Achaeans. In book VIIhe preaches about the glory of victory to his troops, convincing them to step forward, and

fight Hector. Again, in Book IX, while Agamemnon has lost hope and is ready to head back home, Nestor brings reassurance to the troops through a sense of glory, and the

troops spirits are again raised.

The Shield –The shield which Hephaestus welds together for Achilles is described ingreat detail in Book 18 (you may want to look this chapter over). The elaborate designs

on shield depict not only the war, but also life outside of the war (ie dancing, children,and harvest). The shield emphasizes both peacetime and wartime to show that life exists

outside of war, and that war is not all which matters.Burial – Homer gives great importance to burial rituals:

- both armies engage in a day of peace to bury their dead (Book VII)- when Patroclus dies, Achilles refuses to eat to morn his death, and he is given

proper burial (Book XIX and XXIII)- when Hector dies, Priam goes to the Achaean camp to claim his body and grant

him proper burial (Book XXIV)Structure –

- The Iliad is divided into three 8-book units and each unit begin with a decisionmade by Achilles, and end with one made by Zeus.

- Book I mimics events which occur in Book XXIV, Book II mimics Book XXIII,and Book III mimics Book XXII, etc, etc.

- The Iliad is intended to be an enormously long poem, in order to reflect themagnitude of its greatness.

Plot SummaryBook 13 - With Zeus backing the Trojans, the Achaeans have now been forced as far

back as their ships. Zeus now takes his attention away from the battle and Poseidon takesadvantage of this. In the form of Calchas, he rekindles the Achaeans’

spirit. Consequently, the Achaeans drive Hector back but Hector wounds Poseidon’sgrandson and so Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with super strength. Hector continues the

assault, but having lost some of their soldiers, the Trojans lose confidence. Polydamas persuades Hector to fall back and regroup. Hector tries to do so, but most of his front line

is dead. Great Ajax then insults Hector and he has an eagle flying on his right, a goodomen for the Achaeans.

Book 14 – The Achaeans analyze their situation and again Agamemnon suggestsretreating. Odysseus calls him a coward and Diomedes rallies the troops

together. Meanwhile, away from the battlefield, Hera tricks Aphrodite to give her a breast band with the power of love and longing and then by promising Sleep one of her

daughters, she tricks Zeus. When Zeus sees Hera wearing the band he is immediatelyseduced and has sex with her. Sleep then makes Zeus fall asleep and allows Hera to tell

Poseidon to help the Achaeans while Zeus is asleep. The Achaeans, with new help,charge the Trojans. Great Ajax knocks over and injures Hector with a boulder forcing

him back to the city. Without Hector the Trojans are forced back easily into the city.Book 15 - Zeus wakes up and sees the turmoil. Hera tries to direct the blame on

Poseidon but Zeus promises that he will continue to help Trojans but has no personalinterest in the war. He also knows that Troy is still fated to fall. Zeus then has Iris stop


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Poseidon from helping Achaeans and orders Apollo to help Trojans. Hector againcharges and again progresses all the way to Achaean ships. Teucer who had killed many

Trojans that day breaks his bow (because of Zeus) and is stopped from killing further.Book 16 - Patroclus begs Achilles to fight or at least let him wear his armor. Achilles

still refuses to fight but agrees to let him wear armor. With Patroclus wearing Achilles’

armor, the battle turns again in favor of Achaeans. Patroclus goes on a killing spree andeven kills Zeus’ son Sarpedon. Zeus decides to kill Patroclus after he has slain theTrojans more. Zeus imbues Hector with cowardice and he leads the Trojan

retreat. Patroclus chases the Achaeans up to the Trojan gates. Apollo finally persuadesHector to stand up to Patroclus but Patroclus spears Hector’s charioteer though and in the

frenzy to get the charioteer’s armor, Apollo wounds Patroclus before Hector finishes himoff.

Book 17 – A fight breaks out over Patroclus’ body in order to take the armor. In the endit is Hector who gets it. Zeus continues to support the Trojans, but not whole-

heartedly. He allows the Achaeans to take away Patroclus’ body.Book 18 – News of Patroclus’ death makes Achilles decide to rejoin war. He is

convinced by Iris to make an appearance on the battlefield. His mere appearance makesthe Trojans retreat in fear. That night, Hector decides foolhardily to continue with the

assault, despite advice from Polydamus. The other soldiers all agree with Hector becauseAthena has robbed them of their wits. Hephaestus also makes Achilles a new

armor. Night falls for first time since book 10 marking Achilles’ entry into the war.Book 19 – Achilles upon getting new armor rejoins the battle. He reconciles with

Agamemnon, who returns Briseis. Achilles wants to waste no time and wishes to join thefight immediately but he is persuaded to let the army eat. He, however, vows to not eat

until Hector is slain. Zeus pities him and has Athena fill his stomach with food. Achillesthen blames the horses for leaving Patroclus’ body behind, but horses respond by telling

him that there was divinity at work.Book 20 – Zeus fearing that Troy will fall before its fated time, allows the gods to

intervene. At first the gods hurry down, but eventually they decide to let the soldiersfight for themselves. Apollo encourages Aeneas to fight Achilles. They begin dueling

and as Achilles is about to kill Aeneas, Poseidon saves him. Hector then also wants a piece of Achilles but is told to wait by Apollo until Achilles comes to him. However,

Hector is too anxious and challenges Achilles. He fights poorly and Apollo saves himfrom defeat.

Book 21 – Achilles continues to slaughter the Trojans and each time he kills someone, hetosses the body into the river Xanthus. The river god protests because the bodies are

clogging up the river so Achilles agrees to stop throwing them into the river but he doesnot slow up on the killing. The River god, witnessing the onslaught, pities the Trojans

and asks Apollo to help them. Achilles hears the plea and attacks the god. The RiverGod takes him downstream and almost kills him but from Hephaestus saves him by

setting fire to a nearby floodplain and boiling the river. The gods now begin toargue. Athena defeats Ares and Aphrodite, while Poseidon challenges Apollo. Apollo

refuses to fight over mere mortals and when Artemis tries to encourage Apollo to fight,Hera overhears her and pounces on her.

Book 22 - Priam sees the carnage and opens the city gates so soldiers can come in. Hectorremains only soldier left outside. Despite Priam’s pleading Hector refuses to come inside


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as he feels ashamed of giving the order to charge the Achaeans. As a result, Hector andAchilles finally meet. Hector flees at first. Zeus considers saving him but Hera

persuades him not to. She claims Hector’s time has come. Athena appears in front ofHector as one of his allies and convinces him to fight Achilles. They exchange spear

throws but both miss. When Hector turns to his ally, his ally has disappeared and he

realizes he has been tricked. In a final, desperate bid for glory he chargesAchilles. Hector is wearing Achilles’ old armor and Achilles knowing it’s weak points,times a spear throw that goes through Hector’s neck. While dying, Hector pleads to be

returned to the Trojans but Achilles lets him get ravaged by dogs and birds.Book 23 - Achilles holds Patroclus’ funeral the next day and then holds some

ceremonious games in his honor. However, a chariot race which Diomedes wins with thehelp of Athena, spurs trouble. Achilles wants to give Antilochus’ 2

nd place prize to the

last place finisher because Athena has robbed him. The men get into a huge argument but they eventually reconcile.

Book 24 - Achilles continues to abuse Hector’s body, though Apollo prevents it from being damaged and staves of dogs and birds from feeding off it. Apollo persuades Zeus

that Achilles must let Hector’s body be ransomed. Priam goes into the Achaean campand begs for Hector’s body. Achilles finally agrees and takes the treasures offered by

Priam in exchange. Priam leaves with Hector’s body and a funeral is held. Achillesfinally realizes that he is soon to die and that his father will soon suffer the pain being

suffered by Priam. This finally melts his rage.Character Analysis

AchaeansAchilles – Hero of Achaean army, but to modern reader he is not so heroic. His refusal to

fight is initially warranted but after Agamemmnon’s plea, his refusal is childish andstubborn. In a certain way he is the villain because many Achaeans die due to his refusal

to fight. His supremacy as a warrior is unchallenged, despite his strong divine backing. Anger and Pride are his weaknesses. He prays Achaeans lose because of insult

delivered by Agamemnon. Despite these 2 flaws, he is otherwise a great gentleman asshown by the way he treats his friends when they come to persuade him to rejoin the war.

Agamemnon – Leader, also short tempered like Achilles. He insults Achilles and ordershim to give up Briseis. He takes the least risks in battle but expects the greatest share of

the loot. He is cunning and untrusting as shown when he tests his army’s loyalty in Book2. After reconciling with Achilles, he does not admit to his own fault but blames it on

fate and the gods. His rage is based on selfishness and thus the reader does not feelsympathy for him in the same way they do for Achilles. He lacks certain kingly

qualities. He panics when faced with confusion and twice he suggests fleeing. Odysseus, Nestor and Diomedes guide him and rally his troops when he is in despair. His despair is

brought about by his concern for the lives of his troops though.Odysseus – A crafty, resourceful, daring, and merciless man. While not the smartest, he

makes the most of his qualities. He is the opposite of Achilles in that he does not let his passions cloud his judgment. Achilles, Hector, and Agamemnon are flawed

geniuses. Odysseus is an unflawed regular guy driven by his desire to go home and see bring order to his household. He is not the noblest nor stateliest but he is the only one

that survives to go home.Aias – Greatest warrior after Achilles. Always fights unaided by gods. Best soldier


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especially when on defense.Diomedes – The youngest of the Achaean commanders, Diomedes is bold and sometimes

proves impetuous. After Achilles withdraws from combat, Athena inspires Diomedeswith such courage that he actually wounds two gods, Aphrodite and Ares.

Great Ajax - An Achaean commander, Great Ajax is the second mightiest Achaean

warrior after Achilles. His extraordinary size and strength help him to wound Hectortwice by hitting him with boulders. He often fights alongside Little Ajax, and the pair isfrequently referred to as the "Aeantes."

Nestor – King of Pylos and the oldest Achaean commander. Although age has takenmuch of Nestor's physical strength, he still has left a great deal of wisdom. He often acts

as an advisor to the military commanders, especially Agamemnon. Nestor and Odysseusare the Achaeans' most deft and persuasive orators.

Menelaus – King of Sparta and the younger brother of Agamemnon. While it is theabduction of his wife, Helen that sparks the War, Menelaus proves quieter, less imposing,

and less arrogant than Agamemnon. Though he has a brave heart, Menelaus is notamong the mightiest Achaean warriors.

TrojansHector – Leader of the army. He is overrated as a warrior but still greatly feared. He

kills many Achaeans but only one significant warrior, Patroclus but this is when Patroclusis already down. He is given divine support from Apollo and Zeus. He’s a big family

man who loves his wife, children, and brother (Paris). He remembers his duty to thearmy is foremost and in the end he chooses to die in battle than live with his family. The

tragedy is he is killed fighting a needless war and fights only because of his sense of duty.Priam – King of Troy and husband to Hecuba, Priam is the father of fifty Trojan warriors,

including Hector and Paris. Although too old to fight, he has earned the respect of boththe Trojans and the Achaeans by virtue of his levelheaded, wise, and benevolent rule. He

treats Helen kindly, even though he laments the war that her beauty has sparked.Paris – A son of Priam and Hecuba and brother of Hector. Paris's abduction of the

beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, sparked the Trojan War. Paris is self-centered andoften unmanly. He fights effectively with a bow and arrow but lacks the spirit for

battle. He prefers to be at home making love to Helen while others fight for him. Thisearns him a great deal of disrespect.

Apollo – A son of Zeus and twin brother of the goddess Artemis, Apollo is god of the artsand archery. He supports the Trojans and often intervenes in the war on their behalf.

Close ReadingBook 4 a Homeric simile.

This passage describes full-scale war for the first time in the Iliad. The passage comparesthe two armies to fast flowing rivers, heading towards each other. When the two armies

meet, the clash of their armor and the war cries are so loud that they can be heard faraway, just as the shepherd can hear the crashing rivers. The rivers are carrying so much

energy that they have forced a new course and discarded the original route. Thestreambed is described as hollow (4.454) with only the white-water generated from the

collisions falling back into the original river’s course. The image of two armies travelingtowards each other, eroding away the battlefield, just as the river has done, is forged into

the reader’s mind. The white-water could symbolize the recoil of the two armiescolliding or even slain soldiers being tossed up and aside. In addition, the white-water


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generated by the two rivers cannot be traced back to either river. Homer is making thestatement that even though there are two armies, once a soldier dies and his armor is

stripped, there is no distinction between a Greek and a Trojan body. The shepherd is asomewhat ambiguous character. In the Iliad the main focus is on the leaders and

gods. There are very few references to those who live in and around Troy who are not

involved with the war. The shepherd may represent these common people. The use ofthe word “thunder” (4.455) suggests that the shepherd does not know what the noise isnor where it is coming from. The reader also gets the impression that the shepherd

doesn’t really care much about the noise either because there is no mention of him lateron. This is perhaps a rare insight into civilian life around Troy and that people are

generally indifferent to the conflict

Comparisons to other Texts! Odysseus can be compared to himself in the Odyssey. In both he is shown to be

very smart and a good speaker, but in the Odyssey his arrogance is exposed in the land ofthe Cyclopes and he is constantly being aided by most of the gods.

!

Agamemnon can be compared to himself in Orestia.! Achilles can be compared to Medea in that they share the same reaction when their

pride is wounded. They are both overcome by an uncontrollable rage and neither arewilling to make compromises until they have exacted some form of revenge.

! Hector and Medea make similar choices. Hector chooses to die with honor on the battlefield and lose his family. Medea chooses to lose her family in order to exact

revenge and get her pride back.

The Odyssey by Homer

Plot Summary

The Odyssey takes place a decade after the citadel of Troy is sacked. It focuses on

the journey of Odysseus from Troy to his island of Ithaca. While away, his wife Penelopeis being courted by a crowd of unruly suitors who are literally eating the family “out of

house and home.” She wards them off by having them wait for her to finish weaving a blanket for Odysseus’ father, but she unravels it every night. Telemachus, Odysseus’ only

son who he has not seen since he left for the war, is the only one left to guard the fort.Young and inexperienced, he is really no challenge to the suitors.

The story actually begins with the Telemachia (story of Telemachus). Deeply bothered by the disrespect of the crowd in his house, and commanded by Athena,

Telemachus sets off to find word about his father’s whereabouts and health. Penelope iskept in the dark of the whole but the suitors learn of his journey and conspire to kill him

on his way back home so that they may marry his mother and take his household. WithAthena’s protection the entire time, Telemachus travels to the homes of Nestor and

Menelaus. The former does not have much information to offer, but the latter tells whathe has learned from the Old Man of the Sea about Odysseus and then lets Telemachus

return home.Book five introduces Odysseus when Hermes is sent to release Odysseus from


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Calypso’s island. Odysseus builds a raft and travels to the land of the Phaiakians. Enroute, his ship is smashed by Poseidon, who is angry with him for hurting Polyphemos.

He arrives at the island and is taken in by Nausikaa, who is under the influence ofAthena. He enters the city and ends up at the knees of King Alkinoos. They feast and

play games in which Odysseus excels and are later sung to by a singer. The songs are

about Odysseus and the War and they cause him to weep. Eventually, he reveals hisidentity and tells the story of his long journey from Troy to their island. In order, he tellsthem of the Kikonians, lotus eaters, Cyclops, Aiolos, Laistrygones, Circe, Hades, Sirens

(after a return to Circe), Skylla and Charybdis, island of Helios, and then Kalypso. Theythen offer him a high place in the city, and the hand of Nausikaa, but instead he asks for

safe passage back to Ithaca. They drop him off on the island with his gifts as he sleeps.On their way back, Poseidon turns the Phaiakian ship to stone, for he is angered at the

safe return of Odysseus.Athena shrouds Odysseus in cloud so that he will not be bothered while he sleeps.

She disguises herself as a young boy and eventually reveals to him the truth about wherehe is and the situation in Ithaca. She disguises him as an old beggar and tells him to stay

with his swineherd for a while. There, Odysseus tests the swineherd’s loyalty and is briefed of the situation in Ithaca. Telemachus arrives and when they are alone together,

Odysseus reveals himself to his son. The two begin plotting an attack on the suitors andOdysseus returns to his home still disguised as a beggar. He spends time amongst the

suitors, testing the loyalty of his wife and his servants. After Penelope arranges formarriage games to take place, the suitors return home and in their absence, Odysseus and

his son hide all the weapons. Before the games, Odysseus servant Eurikleia recognizeshim by his scar. On the day of the games, none of the suitors can string the bow and

Odysseus is granted a try. After stringing it and shooting an arrow through the ax-loops,he begins to attack the suitors with his son. With the help of Athena, they kill each suitor

and then Odysseus cleans the house before he allows Penelope to enter. She initially doesnot believe it is he, but after he speaks of the bedroom he built, she is convinced of his

identity. Odysseus visits Laertes, his father where he is welcomed warmly. While there,the relatives of the suitors attack Odysseus’ family but after a battle with Laertes,

Odysseus, and Telemachus, Athena tells them all not to fight.

Major characters

Odysseus is the protagonist of the Odyssey. He is known across the world for his wisdomand intelligence. He holds favor in the heat of Athena, but is hated by Poseidon. Though

he is wise and clever, he is very flawed and he allows his pride and hasty judgment tomake him do unwise things, such as taunt Polyphemos. He begins his journey from Troy

with a ship full of men but ends up alone by the end. He is a war hero but he also has a place in peace. He is responsible for building his bedroom, particularly structured around

a large tree.

Penelope is the wife of Odysseus. She is known repeatedly as “circumspect,” hinting thather character complements that of her husband quite well. She remains in tears and in

retreat for a good part of the text, but she also demonstrates a clever side and strength ofconviction in warding off the suitors. She remains faithful to Odysseus.


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Telemachus is Odysseus’ only son. He is an adult, but has no battle experience and is not

capable of resisting the many suitors alone. There are times when he gets bold and makesgreat threats, insults, and speeches, and others when he feels a bit scared. Athena helps

him as well, so that the final plan may be accomplished.

Athena is the most active goddess in this tale. She supports Odysseus and his family theentire time. She transforms people and gives strength, protection and advice.

Antinous and the suitors are living off of Odysseus’ riches and preying on Penelope.

They are completely violating all the rules of hospitality established elsewhere in the text.Antinous is the most hostile and bold of the suitors and Odysseus kills him first.

Eurycleia was nurse to both Odysseus and Telemachus and she is faithful to the family

when other servants are not. Her recognition of Odysseus’ scar sheds light on the life ofthe young Odysseus.

Eumaios is Odysseus’ loyal swineherd, while Philoetius is the loyal cowherd. They

rejoice at the return of their master and help secure his victory. Melanthius, however, isthe goatherd who chooses sides with the suitors and is therefore brutally mutilated.

Laertes is Odysseus’ aged father who lives on a farm in Ithaca. He is in severe decline

until the return of his son.

Islands (order of fabula)

The Kikonians inhabit the first island that Odysseus reaches after Ilion. He sacks theircity and takes their possessions, but his men get drunk and feast, while the surviving

Kikonians went to recruit others and attack them. The Achaians had to retreat.

The Lotus Eaters offer Odysseus’ men some lotus to eat, which causes them to lose sightof their “nostos” (homecoming), and makes them wish to stay with the lotus eaters.

The Cyclops’ land is plentiful in resources. Here Odysseus intrudes upon the home of

Polyphemos expecting gifts, only to be trapped and have some of his crewmemberseaten. To escape, Odysseus creates a plan to poke out the eye of the Cyclops. After this is

accomplished, he tells the Cyclops that his name is Nobody, so when Polyphemos criesout to the other inhabitants of the island, he will tell them that Nobody has hurt him. The

men escape under some sheep. After they are in the water, an overly proud Odysseustaunts Polyphemos and reveals his true identity. For this, Polyphemos curses him and

asks his father, Poseidon, to avenge him.

The Aiolian island is kind to the travelers, and gives Odysseus a skin filled with thewinds. While sailing, his men get jealous of him and open his bag while he is sleeping.

After unleashing all the winds, they wind up back at the island, but are refused furtherhelp.


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The Laistrygones is a land of giants. Odysseus sends men in the city to see what type of

people they are. While in the palace, one man is eaten while the other two run back to theship. The entire town chases after them and kills many of his men.

In Circe’s island, Odysseus first sends men in to see who in habits the place. When theyarrive at Circe’s home, they are all turned into swine who escapes to tell the story.Hermes tells Odysseus how to transform his men back into humans. He wins over Circe

and becomes her lover and the witch turns his men back to humans and shows themhospitality. She tells the men that in order to get home they must first travel to the city of

the Kimmerian people, or the land of the dead.

At the land of the dead, Odysseus encounters the spirit of Elpenor, one of his crew whofell of a roof at Circe’s island. They converse and then, in front of a pool of blood, he

waits for Teiresias, the blind prophet, to tell him how to get back home. Teiresias tellshim what he must do and then he talks to his mother, who died waiting for his return. She

tells him about what is happening in Ithaca. He then sees the daughters and wives ofmany men, Agamemnon’s, Achilleus, Ajax and the heroes in torment, such as Tantalos,

Sisyphos, and Hercules.

The island of the Sirens is one from which no man has returned. Anyone who hears theirsong is enchanted to their land and dies there. For this reason, Odysseus has his men jam

their ears with beeswax. He, however—proud man that he is—desires to hear the songhimself. Therefore he has his men tie him to a pole and when he asks to be released, they

only tighten the ropes.

Skylla is a monster with multiple heads. No ship passes without losing some of its men.She lives high up in a cave and eats six of the men.

At the island of Thrinakia, the men are told that if they do not eat the cattle, they will

have a safe passage. Odysseus falls asleep and the men begin to feast. This deeply angersHyperion who smashes the ship and drowns them all.

Charybdis swallows and spits the ocean up. Odysseus escapes by holding onto a tree

branch.

Kalypso is a beautiful goddess who lives on Ogygia. She is more beautiful than Penelope, but Odysseus still chooses his wife and home over immortality as Kalypso’s lover. She

takes care of him and sleeps with him every night for nine years until Hermes arrives totell her that Odysseus must be set free.

The Phaiakians are closer to the gods than humans and are the best sailors in the known

world. They are somewhat inhuman because they have never known war. They listen towar stories with a somewhat voyeuristic approach but do not truly understand the nature

of human failings.


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Major Themes

1. JudgingThe Odyssey is an epic about interpretation as well as action. Odysseus judges each place

differently. Each time he lands on an island he must figure out what kind of people live

there. The reader must also judge.! Odysseus thinks that he is traveling around to see who is a good host when in fact he is being judged as a good guest and in many cases is found lacking

! Odysseus judges places by his own standards in an almost Herodotus way. The Cyclopsare uncivilized because they are unlike him and the giants are beastly because they do not

welcome him. As his journey progresses he has to learn to judge more carefully, if for noother reason but his own safety.

2. Sujet/FabulaThe order we experience Odysseus’ journey home is very different from the order in

which it takes place for Odysseus.! The sujet starts with Kalypso because this is the point when he chooses mortality and

makes the ultimate decision to return home. It also begins when he is alone (after he haslost all of his men). So we begin the story at its most difficult point (the temptation of

Kalypso). The flashback begins with the Phaiakians because storytelling must occur withhumans.

3. Peacetime

The Odyssey reveals the social climate of peacetime as well as what is possible in timesof peace.

! Hospitality is possible in a time of peace because you can invite strangers into yourhome and they are expected to be good. While wartime is based on compensation,

peacetime is based on reciprocity and hospitality is the fundamental expression of therules of reciprocity. The suitors in Odysseus’ home do not follow the rules of hospitality.

! Odysseus cries when he hears the song of the Iliad. The crying and emotion repressed inwar can be expressed in peacetime. After the war, warriors need to hear their story again

so that they may experience it emotionally. In peacetime, you can cry.! In peace you can be clean and be concerned with bathing, bedding, games and also

craftsmanship. Odysseus’ bed is a representation of the glorious things people can makeduring peacetime. Odysseus is not just the “sacker of cities” but also the “maker of beds”

4. Storytelling

! This is the most essential human interaction and it must occur between humans. For thisreason, Odysseus’ story does not begin until he is with the Phaiakians. Storytelling is

expected of all guests. It is the exchange for hospitality. Storytelling is also a mark ofcivilization as well as intimacy and when Odysseus returns home he and Penelope tell

each other stories when they make love.! Storytelling is also a way in which The Odyssey is intentionally framed and mediated.

Odysseus’ storytelling is filtered and it is important to remember that everything in hisaccount is in quotation marks. This becomes very important during his account of the

Cyclops when Odysseus is revealed as an unreliable storyteller. He is inconsistent aboutthe nature of the Cyclops and their ways of life.


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- He says the Cyclops are without community, help from gods or civilization when in factthe Cyclops live within communities and are descended from the gods and take great

cares with such domesticities as cheese making and goat herding.! Stories should be of things you know. In the case of the Phaiakians, they do not cry

during the stories of the war because they do not know war.

Close Reading (5.55-65; 81-4; 92-4)This is the introduction of Odysseus and also the setting in which Odysseus must make

his most important decision. By this point in the Odysseus’ story he has lived and sleptwith Kalypso for nine years. The reader sees the scene as it unfolds before Hermes.

Kalypso’s cave is surrounded by a seductive nature. The cave in lines 5.57-5.65 isdescribed as pleasing, sweet, warm and satisfying on all sensory levels. Kalypso attempts

to seduce him into staying not only by making her cave pleasing but also by creating thedomesticity Odysseus so misses. There is fire, singing and even weaving but the

domesticity of Kalypso’s cave is too good to be true. In this passage, Odysseus is sittingalone on the beach crying. Ultimately, Odysseus tells Kalypso he would prefer the less

pretty and mortal Penelope to a life of immortality with the perfect goddess. Odysseusrecognizes something trivial in the never-ending existence he is offered. Odysseus is

given the choice of immortality but he denies it because he wants to complete his storyand because he wants a human ending.

Comparisons to other texts…

! Homecoming (nostos)It is very important in The Odyssey to have an appropriate homecoming. Odysseus is

faced with many alternative fates.-He could return home and be denied his nostos like Agamemnon who, upon returning,

was killed by his wife.-He could die before he gets home and be denied his nostos

-Or he could live with Kalypso forever and never complete his journey! Choice of Achilles vs. choice of Odysseus

Achilles has to choose between love at home or honor in the battlefield while Odysseusmust choose between immortality with Kalypso or honor at home when he returns. Both

men choose honor.! Weaving in The Iliad vs. The Odyssey

Helen represents the plot with her weaving but Penelope changes the plot with herweaving and unweaving.

! ChronologyThe Iliad is told almost entirely in order and in The Odyssey, everything is told out of

order.

! Judging by inversion

On the island of the Cyclops, Odysseus’ judges by inversion just as Herodotus often doesin The Histories.


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The Histories by HerodotusSelection # 1 – Book 1, Chapters 1-140; Book 2 chs. 1-5;chs. 33-51, chs.112-120; Book3

chs.17-38Plot Summary

Herodotus starts his story with Candaules, the king of Lydia, who was so proud of

his wife’s beauty, that he made his bodyguard Gyges hide in his bedroom so that he cansee his wife naked. The queen saw Gyges and made him kill the king and seize the thronein order to revenge the impropriety of the act. That’s how Gyges became the king of

Lydia and a prophecy by the oracle was made that the murder would be revenged inGyges’ fifth generation. Then Herodotus goes on to tell some memorable achievements

of Ardys, Sadyattes and Alyattes which are the heirs of Gyges. Croesus (the fifthgeneration) overrun the Aiatic Greeks and established the Lydian empire. This is when

the Athenian philosopher Solon visited him. When Croesus asks him who is the happiest person Solon knows (thinking he will say Croesus) Solon tells him that a truly happy

person must have a happy death and only then can he be considered truly happy since lifeis a chance and happiness is temporary. After that Croesus accepts in his home and

cleanses Adrastus who later goes on to kill Croesus son Atys by accident making Croesus prophetic dream come true. Later on Croesus is mislead by an oracle message and he

goes on to attack Cyrus and the Persians. Cyrus manages to win the war and takesCroesus prisoner. In this way the killing of Candaules was revenged in the fifth

generation. Then Herodotus goes on to explaining how Cyrus came to power. Hisgrandfather Astyages had a dream that his daughter urinated that it swamped the whole

Asia. Thus he decided to kill her son Cyrus. Through some accidents the child was notkilled and later on, this was found out so Astyages sent Cyrus to Persia. When he grew up

he conquered Astyages and Medes fulfilling the dream. After finishing Cyrus’ storyHerodotus goes on to describe the Persian customs. Cyrus was succeeded by Cambyses

who attacked Egypt and Ethiopia. The Herodotus describes Egyptian customs (who doeverything opposite to the Greeks) and Ethiopian customs. Cambyses sent spies to

Ethiopia and later on he becomes a mad man and starts the expedition to Ethipia. On theway to Ethiopia the soldiers are starving so they turn to cannibalism after which they

head home.Analysis of Major Characters:

Gyges – with his seizing of the throne Herodotus starts the explanation of the war. Gygesis blindly following the orders of his king and this is his main flaw. He kills the king and

thus five generations later Croesus loses his throne in order to achieve the cycle ofrevenge. Candaules, whom Gyges kills is a representation of hubris – he thinks his wife is

so pretty and in order to show off with her he comes up with the plan that Gyges must seeher naked. This is only one of many incidents of hubris in the Greek texts (compare with

Agamemnon mainly)Croesus – he is in general a good king but he becomes too confident in himself which is

evident in his conversation with Solon over happiness. He thinks himself to be thehappiest person in the world. This is again a form of hubris but it is not as heavily

punished as Candaules’ (why?) Croesus wants to kill his grandson Cyrus because of hisdream. Still, Cyrus fulfills the dream which once again shows that destiny cannot be

overturned. Croesus realizes the wisdom of Solon and how fleeting happiness is.Solon – he appears for a very short time setting some very important themes in the


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Histories (mentioned below). He is an Athenian philosopher who goes to visit Croesus.Cyrus -Cyrus spent his childhood in a poor family but he demonstrated his kingly blood

even in the games with the other children. He conquers Croesus but keeps him in his palace and takes care of him. Cyrus is the one who brings great glory to the Persians. The

first instance when a child’s character gains that much attention and still it is not fully

developed but serves the larger story of the text.Cambyses –He starts out to be a king who wants to attack Egypt and Ethiopia but latergoes mad and kills his sister and his brother. He also offends the Egyptians but this is

again contributed to his madness. Herodotus speaks in Book 3, ch. 38 about theimportance of custom and that Cambyses couldn’t have possible outraged Apis and all

customs of the Egyptians if he was not mad which is again a kind of deductive logic sincefor him customs are so important that only a mad man would transcend them.

Major Themes:Purpose of the Histories: The Histories opens with a promise by Herodotus to describe all

marvelous acts both by Barbarians and by Greeks. He wants to give an account of whythey fought and examine the causes of these wars, so for him it is not only important that

we describe what happened in order to preserve the memories but to also understand thecauses and analyze the events. Herodotus describes multiple causes of the war and he

doesn’t favor one over the other because he believes that causes are immenselycomplicated and there are always many reasons why something happened.

What is knowledge: Herodotus says that he knows everything he writes because he asked people and these people were not eye-witnesses but their word is taken for the pure truth.

Also, Herodotus deducts a lot of information. Also, Herodotus deducts his knowledge ofthe other barbarian[1] cultures because he thinks that the further they are from Greece,

they would do more things in the opposite ways. He believes that the world is symmetric.For Herodotus extremity in the customs of other cultures is worth describing. Thus, he

does not describe things that the barbarians do in the same way as Greeks. Herodotus isdifferent than Odysseus since he does not judge the other cultures but he is genuinely

interested in their customs. He does not hold an ethno-centric view.Cycle of Revenge: We may call it God, faith, destiny or just cyclical structures but in the

Histories things happen because they had to. In a sense there is some very strict order ofthe world where everything is interconnected. Thus, if Gyges kills the king five

generations later Croesus has to lose his kingdom. This feeling of order is reemphasizedthrough the numerous omens and dreams. People try to escape their destiny but they can

never do that (Cyrus vs. Croesus)Temporal happiness: from the very beginning Herodotus says that “For most of those

which were great once are small today; and those which used to be small are great.(p.5)This is the main wisdom of Solon when he visits Croesus and tells him that if he is happy

today it is luck but not happiness.Oracles: Herodotus is very skeptical of religion and the oracles and he questions them

often in the Histories. This is a great major difference from the Odyssey and the Iliad ofHomer. There are no gods in the Histories but there are dreams and omens which are

thought to be credible by all.Close Reading Exercise:

Book 2; 34 – This is a great example of Herodotus’ deductive extraction of knowledge.He does not know anything about Nile but he beliefs it should be in the middle of Africa


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and must be the longest river since in Europe the Danube (the longest river) crossesEurope through the middle. Also he says that Nile should be the same length as the

Danube since the world for Herodotus is very symmetric, i.e. if Europe has a long river passing in the middle than Africa should also have a long river passing through the

middle.

Points of contact:The Iliad and the Odyssey and how Homer’s account is different than Herodotus’. How isThucydides different in his History of the Peloponnesian war?

Why do Homer, Herodotus and Thucydides write their historical accounts? What isimportant to them? (to preserve, to analyze, to glorify?)

The role of Gods in this text vs. the Gods in the Homeric epicsKnowledge in the Histories and knowledge in Agamemnon and Oedipus the king

Dreams in the Homeric hymns, in other Greek texts vs. dreams in the Bible

The Oresteia

By: Aeschylus

Plot Summary

The Oresteia is composed of three plays: Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and TheEumenides.

Agamemnon begins with the sudden presence of a beacon light that signals the victory ofthe Atreidae in Troy. The chorus, the elder men that did not go to war, enters the stage

and summarizes the cause of the Trojan War as well as Agamemnon’s decision toslaughter his daughter, Iphigeneia, for the sake of the war. In the midst of the chorus

speech, the Herald brings news that confirms the Achaean success and praisesAgamemnon for his valiance and greatness. Agamemnon returns home with Cassandra, a

captured girl from the war who is seen as a barbarian. While Agamemnon andClytaemestra are in the house, Cassandra cries to the chorus that she will die alongside

Agamemnon. Cassandra, cursed by Apollo to know the future but have no one ever believe her, prophesizes of the death of Agamemnon and the return of Orestes in

vengeance. Cassandra enters the house, and Agamemnon cries offstage that he has beenstabbed. The doors of the palace open and the audience sees Clytaemestra standing over

the dead bodies of Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytaemestra reveals that she killedAgamemnon in revenge for her daughter and for punishment of his infidelity. Aegisthus

enters and states that that he has avenged the sins of Atreus in feeding the father ofAegisthus his own children. Clytaemestra and Aegisthus are in power, while the chorus

begs for the return of Orestes to purify the house of Atreidae.The Libation Bearers opens with the return of Orestes to witness the chorus, black veiled

women from the house, and Electra bearing libations to pour over the grave ofAgamemnon. Electra finds a lock of hair that matches her own that Orestes in sign of

grief had laid for all the dead. She begins to pray of his return, and Orestes revealshimself to them. They rejoice and Electra claims that her mother had wrongly buried her

father in the absence of his citizens, and Orestes tells of the oracle from Apollo that hewill punish his father’s murderers. The chorus relates a dream of Clytaemestra that she


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had suckled a snake and the serpent drew in blood. Orestes and Pylades devise a plan toenter the house disguised as an outlander. Orestes enters as a messenger with the news

that Orestes has died and questions his parents what they would like to do with his body. Clytaemestra and Aegisthus both feign remorse over his death. Aegisthus would

like to speak to the messenger alone to question him, and Orestes kills him in the room

offstage. Orestes catches Clytaemestra speak words of affection over the death ofAegisthus, and takes her into the room to kill. The doors of the palace open, as Orestesstands over the bodies of Clytaemestra and Aegisthus. Nevertheless, Orestes grieves for

the death of his line, and how his victory is soiled. He claims himself an outcast andleaves.

The Eumenides begins when a priestess of Apollo, the Pythia, sees the temple of Apollowith Orestes, blood dripping from his hands and sword, surrounded by black and

repulsive creatures. Apollo tells Orestes to go to the citadel of Pallas Athene so that shecan judge the case and clear him of his affliction. The ghost of Clytaemestra appears to

waken the Furies and sends them to hunt down Orestes. Apollo rids the Furies from hishome, and decides to provide help in the trial. The setting switches to Athens where

Orestes is embracing the statue of Athene awaiting his trial. The Furies find him andclaim that they will seek revenge for the murder of his mother. Athene asks Orestes to

answer their claim, and he responds that he shall accept whatever fate that isdecided. Athene claims that the case is too large even for her to analyze, and calls upon

twelve of her finest citizens to judge justly. The trial is held and Apollo speaks on behalfof Orestes against the Furies. Athene claims that she has no mother and is always for the

male in case of marriage. She casts her vote for Orestes in the case of a tie. When the ballots have been cast, there are an equal number on both sides, and Orestes is

saved. The Furies feel they have been dishonored in the face of the new gods, andAthene appeases them with the power to straighten the lives of the citizens of

Athens. The Furies become the Eumenides.

Analysis of Major Characters

Agamemnon – Agamemnon is the king of Argos, and brother of Menelaus. When the play begins, Agamemnon is not present because he is away fighting the Trojan War.

Agamemnon and the men of Argos have been in Troy fighting for the last ten years. The people of Argos are angry with him because the war has lasted for such a long time, and

so many young men have died. When Agamemnon returns to Argos, he bringsCassandra, the daughter of Priam, home with him.

Agamemnon is a character with immense hubris, and he displays this hubris when hewalks on the purple robes that Clytaemestra laid down for him (63-64). This hubris is one

of the reasons why Agamemnon’s death must occur. Another reason for Agamemnon’sdeath is fate because his death is completing the blood cycle that began when his father

fed Thyestes his sons. His death also is revenge for his sacrifice of his own daughter,Iphigeneia.

Clyatemestra – Clytaemestra is the wife of Agamemnon, and Queen of Argos. When the play opens, she seems to be a wife very concerned about her husband’s well being and

his safe return home. While he has been fighting, however, she has found a new lover,Aegisthus. Clytaemestra is portrayed with strong male qualities because she has had to


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rule Argos for the last ten years. Her manliness is also present when she murdersAgamemnon instead of Aegisthus. She is consumed with anger at Agamemnon for his

sacrifice of Iphigenia. She views her murder of him as an act of fate that had to befulfilled.

Aegisthus - The lover of Clytaemestra. He wants revenge on Agamemnon for the murder

of his two brothers. However, a weakness of character is apparent when it is Clytaemestrathat performs the killing instead of he.

Cassandra – Cassandra is a woman brought to Argos from the war by Agamemnon.Apollo has given her the power to foretell prophecy, however, she is cursed for no one

can understand her prophecies. When Clytaemestra takes Agamemnon into the house andkills him, Cassandra speaks of his death, as well as of the cycle of revenge that is present.

However, her warnings are unrecognizable and are not understood. Clytaemestra thenmurders her as well.

Chorus from Agamemnon - The chorus is composed of Argive elders. They are critical ofAgamemnon for the lengthy war and high death toll. Consequently, they are not

completely sympathetic to him. However, they disapprove of the murder of Agamemnonand cry for their actions to be punished.

Orestes – Orestes is the son of Clytaemestra and Agamemnon. In The Libation Bearers,he slays his mother to avenge his father’s death. Apollo leads on his desire for revenge.

There are many similarities between Orestes and Clytaemestra. Both kill a familymember out of revenge, and their methods on stage are very similar.

Chorus from The Libation Bearers – The chorus is composed of a group of servantwomen from the house of Agamemnon. They clearly have sympathy for Electra and

Orestes. Along with Electra, they are the first to discover the return of Orestes. Thewomen aid in Orestes’ plan.

Electra – Electra is the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaemestra, and the sister of

Orestes. While her mother and Aegisthus rule, she lives in the palace as a virtualslave. Electra has immense sympathy for her father, and repeatedly fails to notice his

own shortcomings. She strongly supports her brother, for he is the only person that shehas.

The Furies (Chorus from The Eumenides) – The role of the chorus in society is to punishmurderers. The Furies represent the older generation of gods in Greek

culture. Throughout the story, there is a contrast between this older generation and thenew. The ghost of Clytaemestra calls them to punish Orestes for the matricide he

committed. They are angry with Apollo for his support of Orestes. They believe that therelationship between mother and son is stronger than husband and wife. At the end, they

are renamed the Eumenides, which has a more neutral connotation, and they are given areal position in Athens where they can oversee the lives of the people.

Athene - Orestes escapes to Athens, so that Athene can clear him of his guilt. She callstwelve men to decide the outcome of Orestes fate. Athene ultimately casts the deciding

vote that declares Orestes innocent. Athene ends the blood curse on the house of Atreusand the cycles of revenge. She represents the new generation of gods, and the new order.

She is an opposition to the Furies, who are the old order of gods. Her decision celebratesan era of democracy and reliance on the justice system.


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Major Themes

1. Seeing

The drama of a play is immediate and simultaneously occurs to the audience and the

characters in the play. Therefore, in this play, knowledge is obtained directly throughseeing the action that takes place.(The doors of the palace open, disclosing the bodies of Agamemnon and

Cassandra, with Clytaemestra standing over them.)Stage directions: After Line 1371

Why is the murder not seen? Why must the murderer stand over the deadcharacters? Why does the audience only see that image?

1. When the palace doors open, the audience sees the Clytaemestra standing over the bodies at the same time as the rest of the kingdom. The actual action of the murder is

hidden from sight because it is more significant that the murderer is standing over the body of the king and his mistress. The sight shows that power is now in the hands of

Clytaemestra.2. The sight of the Agamemnon’s dead body would shock the audience. The body of a

dead king is a powerful symbol of the overturn of social stability.3. The same palace doors are opened to the audience when Orestes stands over the

bodies of Clytaemestra and Aegisthus. The audience sees the cycle of revenge and the prophecy being fulfilled.

“Seeing” and failing to see! The lights in the beginning of Agamemnon are beacons that signal the victory of

the Argives in Troy. As the light travels from one point to the next, the audience and thecharacters understand the overthrow of Ilium.

! Agamemnon tramples upon the robes. It is an action reserved only for the gods, butdue to pride, he steps upon them.

! Orestes returns to the palace disguised as an outlander. As a person exiled from hishome, those people closest to him cannot recognize him and see his return.

! The Pythia, Apollo’s priestess, cannot bear the sight of Orestes, his hands andsword covered in blood, surrounded by the disgusting Furies. It is a sight that relates is

terrible to see.The Oresteia creates a catharsis and serves as a social function to engage the emotions of

pity and fear. Although the concept of a dead king is difficult to imagine, the audiencecan identify with the characters on stage simply through the way the action is presented

on stage. Instead of seeing the murder occur, the audience sees the palace doors openwith Clytaemestra over the bodies much like the rest of the kingdom would see

it. Therefore, the play proves to cause an even more effective unsettling feeling. Nevertheless, seeing is just one form of the discovery of information:

1. Prophecy – Cassandra speaks of the fate of Agamemnon and the return of Orestes.2. Suffering – Stories from the characters that involve pain from surrounding forces.

3. Report – The Herlad informs both the audience and the characters that the Argiveshave been victorious in Troy and that Agamemnon is due home shortly.

4. Patterns – Cycles of Revenge, repetitive imagery, and metonymy trace actionthroughout the play. One object or piece of figurative language is used to convey a


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recurrent action.

2. Web/Net Imagery In Agamemnon, there are many uses of imagery that refer to websor nets. The meaning of this imagery changes with each different character that uses it. In

one instance, Agamemnon uses the word "web" when really he is referring to the purple

robes that Clytaemestra has laid on the ground for him. His odd word choice somewhatforeshadows his own death for only gods perform this action. When Clytaemestra usesthe net imagery, it is twice in reference to fishing that signifies her murder of

Agamemnon as something that is a necessity and life sustaining.Examples:

! The Chorus: (355-60) (1047-9) AG In this quote, the chorus uses net imagery todepict the sacking of Troy. They later use it to explain the fate of Cassandra.

! Clytaemestra: (866-8) (1373-5) (1381-3) AG In these passages, Clytaemestracomments on rumors she heard about Agamemnon’s death while at war. When saying

this, she foreshadows her murder of him. She also describes her need to murderAgamemnon.

!

Agamemnon: (944-9) AG Agamemnon uses "webs" to mean the robe thatClytaemestra has put on the ground for him. His word choice is ironic.

! Cassandra: (1125-8) AG Cassandra is trying to tell the chorus what is about tohappen, but of course they cannot understand her. The web that she describes is much

like the Clytaemestra and Agamemnon’s web that she is caught in.! Aegisthus: (1580-2) AG Aegisthus uses "nets" to refer to the cycle of revenge that

is caused by the curse of the house of Atreus.

3. Old/New Order The Eumenides centers around the division between the old order ofgods and the new order. The roles of Athene and Apollo represent the new order and The

Furies are the old. The trial of Orestes embodies the conflict between the two sides:

Throughout the texts, there exist binary references that contrast the two orders ofgods. The natural represents the older generation, while society signifies the new. The

idea of femininity and masculinity are separated between the two orders. The old orderappears to be that which is uncivilized or dark, while the new generation is the product of

civilization and is seen as the light.

4. Revenge versus JusticeThere are two forces that are at conflict in the motives of the characters. Equally, while

Clytaemestra and Aegisthus are punished for their actions, Orestes is found to be free of punishment for his actions. The two abstract ideals are explored in contrast to each other

in each story.Why is Clytaemestra punished for killing Agamemnon, but Orestes not punished

for killing his own mother?! The motive of revenge cannot be deemed right or wrong in the stories. Revenge is

an action of loyalty and a protection of one’s beliefs. Aegisthus aided the killing ofAgamemnon in response to Atreus feeding his father his own children.

! Justice is not necessarily right or wrong, but it is guided because it seeksright. Although it may not follow morality or equality, it searches for a balance within


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disorder.! In The Eumenides, justice prevails to save Orestes from death. The story is a

support for the system of liberal democracy and celebrates the power of the courtsystem. There is no better judge or law than that of the divine Athene.

Close Readings

Lines 1371-1392 (Agamemnon)

! Clytaemestra has just committed the murder of Agamemnon and is explaining tothe chorus how she killed the king. She relates that it was not an act that was new in her

mind, but was “pondered deep in time” (1378). She is like a hunter in this passage and isdescribing how she caught her prey. It is this feature of hunter that gives Clytaemestra

masculine qualities throughout the play. She shares, “…as fishermen cast their hugecircling nets, I spread deadly abundance of rich robes, and caught him fast” (1382-

3). There is a prevalent image of pain and death in the passage, but the picture is blurredwhen the scattering of blood accounts for a growth and renewal of life. Within death,

Clytaemestra is glad “as garden stand among the showers of God in glory at the birthtimeof the buds” (1391-2). The passage is important because it helps to explain the vicious

nature of Clytaemestra and her masculine description. The prevalent net imagery is alsoused to bind Agamemnon. The same nets or robes that he ironically stepped upon in

glory are the weapons for his destruction.

Lines 179-713 (The Eumenides)! In this passage, Apollo is commanding the Furies to leave his sanctuary. This is

where the struggle between the two types of gods begins. The very graphic descriptionsof bodily punishment and harm depict the focus of the Furies. There is also a focus on

blood in this passage. These numerous mentions of blood point to the importance of the bloodline, blood cycles, and the literal blood from mother to son. In this passage the idea

of pollution of the blood is introduced. This was the Greeks’ feeling about culpability.

Comparisons to Other Texts

! Husband/wife relationship: Clytaemestra and Agamemnon are involved in a webof infidelity and end up destroying each other in the end. Penelope and Odysseus have

the opposite relationship where Penelope practices complete fidelity in the face of hersuitors at home.

! Cycles of Revenge:In the Iliad, a cycle of revenge begins with the destruction of Patroklos, where Achilleus,

must take revenge on Hektor for the loss of his friend.

! Nostos (Homecoming):

Odysseus receives a long-awaited homecoming after years of hardship atsea. Agamemnon received an inversed nostos. Agamemnon returns home quickly, only

to face the most dishonorable end of his glory.! Ethnography:

Cassandra is viewed much like the characters in Histories and The Odyssey. Thoseindividuals that are not from Greece and far from known civilization are viewed


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completely as foreigners. Cassandra is seen by Clytaemestra and a Greek perspective asa barbarian.

! Hubris:Characters that believe they can bypass the laws of their natural surroundings. Xerxes

believed he could punish the land and sea, while Agamemnon stepped upon the robes, an

action reserved for the gods. Both are punished for their actions.

Oedipus study guide

Plot Summary

The play begins with a plague that has stricken Thebes. Seeking an oracle atDelphi, Thebes and its king, Oedipus, are told the plague will end when the murderer of

the former king, Laius, is caught and expelled. Teirasias, the blind prophet of Apollo, issummoned to reveal who the murderer is. Under questioning he tries to refuse to answer

Oedipus; after Oedipus accuses him of being the murderer, Teirasias reveals that Oedipusis in fact the murderer. Oedipus flies into a rage and accuses his brother-in-law Creon of

concocting a scheme through which to seize the throne. Creon protests that he isinnocent of these charges, and to prove it explains that he and Jocasta (Creon’s sister,

Oedipus’ wife, Laius’ window) are as happy as they could conceivably be and thus he hasno motive to be king. Jocasta intercedes on Creon’s behalf, attesting to his

innocence. Jocasta and Oedipus talk and compare stories of the dead king’smurder. Gradually, prophesies come together. Jocasta explains that her and Laius’ son

was prophesied to kill Laius. Laius pierced the baby’s ankles and told others to leavehim out to die. Oedipus tells how, when he was a young man, it was prophesied he

would kill his father and lie with his mother, causing him to run away from his parents,Polybus and Merope of Corinth. While fleeing, Oedipus met and killed a rude old man

and the better part of his entourage at a crossroads. A messenger comes to tell Oedipusand Jocasta that Polybus is dead, which initially brings them great joy because clearly

Oedipus didn’t kill him, thus rendering the prophesy false. However, their joy is shortlived because the messenger also reveals that Polybus is not Oedipus’ blood father;

Oedipus was saved from being left out to die, and his ankles were pierced. Oedipus, being characteristically slow on the uptake, thinks that the messenger’s story just means

he is of plebian rather than royal blood, even while Jocasta panics as she realizes thetruth. A herdsman comes and reluctantly reveals that baby Oedipus was sent off to die,

only to be saved by Polybus. After this revelation the audience learns that Jocasta haskilled herself. When Oedipus discovers her, he gouges out his eyes with her “gold

chased brooches, attempting to ease the pain of seeing and realizing his crime and hisguilt. Oedipus prepares to go into exhile and asks Creon, the new king, to please take

care of his daughters, Antigone and Ismene. After bidding his daughters a tearfulfarewell, Oedipus leaves.

Analysis of Major Characters

Oedipus: Powerful king of Thebes renowned for saving the city from the Sphinx. Anexemplar of Freudian theory, he takes on the role of a paternal figure early in the

play. He greets the townspeople numerous times as “children” (lines 1 and 57). He has afiery temper and is quick to fly into rages. This tendency towards quick and decisive


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action does, however, have its good side when he is a king; he can anticipate his subject’sneeds by sending Creon to the oracle at the play’s beginning. He is also the last person in

this play to understand anything; not only the audience but nearly every other characterunderstands that he murdered Laius and caused the plague on Thebes long before

Oedipus himself understands. Nearly until Jocasta kills herself, Oedipus is constantly in

action, threatening, calling, and commanding in a frenetic (perhaps unconscious) attemptto race his fate.

Creon: Oedipus’ brother-in-law and uncle, he is honest and loyal to what he sees as theultimate interest of Thebes. He seeks the help of oracles and prophets and, while he

makes no move to alleviate the pain of Oedipus’ final fate, he did send his daughters tosay goodbye, which comforted Oedipus.

Jocasta: The sister of Creon, wife and mother of Oedipus, and widow of Laius. She

stands by Oedipus throughout in the best ways she knows how. At first she joins him intrying to prove the prophecies false. Then, when she realizes the truth before Oedipus,

she tries—in a notably maternal gesture—to protect him from the truth by attempting invain to stop him from searching for the truth.

Laius: The murdered former king of Thebes and husband of Jocasta. He attempts, like

nearly everyone else, to avoid their fate, and fails miserably. At a crossroads, he’s killed by Oedipus, the son he tried unsuccessfully to have killed.

Teiresias: The blind oracle who reluctantly—and only when accused of being Laius’

murderer—reveals to Oedipus that he is the polluter of Thebes. The irony is that whileTeiresias doesn’t have literal sight he has metaphorical sight.

Minor characters: Chorus of Old Men of Thebes, Priest, First Messenger, Second

Messenger, Herdsman Non-speaking characters: Polybus, Merope, Ismene, Antigone

Major Themes

Don’t try to escape your fate. In this play pretty much everybody tried, to their eventualdoom. Laius and Jocasta tried to kill their child to avoid a prophesy, Oedipus tried to run

away from his fate. Fate still caught up with them, seemingly because they tried to avoidit (i.e. Oedipus wouldn’t have killed an old man on the crossroads is he hadn’t been

running away from Polybus and Merope). This is a play about fate, not free will.Sight. There’s the great irony that Teirasias, who is literally blind, is the one who

actually sees, while Oedipus is metaphorically blind. He blinds himself at the play’s end,so that he “will never see the crime I have committed or had done upon me! Dark eyes,

now in the days to come look on forbidden faces, do not recognize those whom you longfor” (lines 1271-4). Vision is symbolic of knowledge.

Guilt and the irrelevance of intention. Intentionality is not a factor in considering guilt;Oedipus has no conscious knowledge that is committing parricide and incest, but because

he committed the acts, he is equally guilty as someone who had full consciousknowledge.


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Aristotle’s definition of tragedy

Terms:Hamartia: keeps character from doing what they should; tragic flaw (Greek: “to

err”)

Peripeteia: change of fortune (Greek: “to change suddenly”)Anagnoresis: moment of recognition (Greek: “recognition”)Main ideas:

A tragedy follows a trajectory of linear events that begin in the middle of theaction. The protagonist, at the tragedy’s beginning, has a high status and generally seems

to be in a great position in life. The tragedy essentially explains and chronicles hisfall. The tragedy should ideally climax with anagoresis. Oedipus perfectly embodies this

definition of tragedy.From Aristotle’s Poetics, translated by Gerald Else:

“Tragedy…is a process of imitating an action which has serious implications, iscomplete, and possesses magnitude; by means of language which has been made

sensuously attractive, with each of its varieties found separately in the parts; enacted bythe persons themselves and not presented through narrative; though a course of pity and

fear completing the purification of tragic acts which have those emotionalcharacteristics.”

Comparisons to Other Texts

Speech actsSpeech acts are actions fulfilled simply through speaking. Cursing, for instance, is

a big speech act. Compare God’s creation of the world in Genesis and the power ofJesus’ Word in John with the power of speech acts in Oedipus.

Sight and knowledgeReally seeing and really knowing what’s going on isn’t necessarily such a great

thing. In Oedipus knowing his own guilt and realizing what he’s done brings himtorment and exile. In Genesis, Adam and Eve get expelled from Eden for eating the

apple and Lott’s wife gets turned into a pillar of salt for looking back.Structure of the city

In Oedipus, the citizens of Thebes are remarkably involved, and the play beginswith Oedipus addressing them. They seem to play more of an active role in their own

fate than the nameless and faceless Trojans that live behind the wall in the Iliad. Also,the violence and threat that Troy faces comes from an invasion outside its walls, while

the pollution that threatens Thebes comes from within.Mothers

Jocasta’s role in Oedipus is a pawn of fate. She is not a character taking action, butriding along with those who are making action. As a mother she neither orders nor stops

baby Oedipus’ death sentence nor does she appear to be any less passive as a wife. WhileDemeter is active in trying to rescue Persephone, Clytenmnestra avenges the death of her

daughter, and Medea is responsible for the death of her children, Jocasta emerges as perhaps the most passive figure of the group.

Other prophesies about the danger posed by family members.In The Histories, fears about the danger posed by children come not from oracles


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but from dreams. Astyages dreamt first that his daughter Mandane urinated so much thatit swamped Asia, and then that vines grew from her genitals and spread all over Asia. An

interpreter decided that this was indicative of a threat posed to Astyages by Mandane’schild, Cyrus, and Astyages ordered the death of his grandson. Like in Oedipus, the

compassion of strangers botches this and Cyrus did indeed live to fulfill the prophesy

(pages 49-50).

History of the Peloponnesian War

Thucydides

Plot SummaryThe Peloponnesian War was fought between Athens and Sparta. The war was mostly a

demonstration and challenge of power between the two Hellenic forces. The tension between the two nations spawned from conflicts over shipping, trade and colonial

expansion. The result of these conflicts was a twenty-seven year war in Northern Greece.This account of the war details the disastrous conflict that led to the downfall of the

Athenian empire.Characters

! Athens (and it’s allies)–Takeover of its allies - don’t care about the internal politics of the other countries…rules

allies through global imperialism…post politics- Athens liked to be innovative and to change, they were a liberal society, which

continually changed their model of society and philosophized about their culture. >Athens cared a lot about the physical structure of their society and culture…this says a lot

about the way that they view themselves.- They had a lot more money than Sparta.

- The laws were more revisable depending on who could convince the will of themass. > The “mass”, there is almost no majority.

! Spartans (and it’s allies) –Controls their allies, but works with them…their allies were controlled politically instead

of economically.- Spartans were a conservative and traditional power.

- Spartans were the first to have laws free from tyranny and kept those laws- Not democracy nor tyranny (may feel safer in Sparta because of the consistency of

law)*Similarities – viewing alliances as a superstructure

Major Themes

Speeches - the decline in the quality of the speeches represent the quality of Athens.

! Dispute over Corcyra (1.31-43) – Corcyra and Corinth are on the verge of war, bothgo to Athens to present why they should be supported instead of the other. Corcyra

speaks first. They speak of being the neutral victims, and ways which they can helpAthens by being allies. Corinth responds by saying that they are not innocent victims, and

with point out that they have a peace treaty with Athens that will be broken if they become allies of Corcyra. Abstract: Both sides present a case, second case clearly


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responds to the points of the first.! Debate at Sparta (1.66-78) – Many of Sparta’s allies send delegates to Sparta, and

delegates of Athens were there on business. The speeches given are by Corinth andAthens. Corinth says that Sparta needs to prepare as much as Athens does for war.

Athens responds by saying that they are not to be blamed for the state of affairs, that if

Sparta were in their position they would have done the same. Abstract: Second case not adirect response to the first, but a defense by point out different aspects. All speakers arein first person plural, speech coming from a group of people.

(1.80-87) – When the speeches are done, Spartans ask all others to leave and have aninternal debate. King and an ephor (congressmen type position) give speech. King

presents the point that they should not go to war since they are not adequately prepared tofight Athens, as Athens has many more resources. Ephor says that he did not understand

the Athenians’ speech, and that Athens was too proud and already acting aggressively, sothey should go to war. Abstract: Second is not a response of the first. First uses

everything Corinth said above to reach different conclusion, second does the same toAthens’ speech. Speeches are in first person singular.

!

Speech given by the Spartan King (2.11) - Given to the generals right before theydepart for battle with Athens. Warning them to not be too cautious because Athens has

the ability to defend herself. Abstract: Not a debate, instead a warning to Spartan alliesthat if they want to win not to underestimate the greatness of Athens.

! The funeral oration – (2.34-46) Details given in close reading. Abstract: Not adebate. Saying the greatness of Athens.

! Policy of Pericles (2.60-64) – After plague, Athenian assembly questions if theyshould have gone to war. Pericles (general who had voted for war) defends himself and

says they should expect great disasters because of their greatness. Abstract: Not a debate.But Athens is no longer great because of the plague. Plague is the turning point, the

beginning of the end.! Speech of the Mytlenians (3.9-14) – Mytlene was an ally of Athens that revolted.

They went to Sparta to ask to be taken into their alliance. Their point was that Athensreally used their allies as slaves, and thus were being treated unfairly and wanted to end

their affiliation with Athens. Sparta takes them. Abstract: Not a debate. It claims to showhow awful Athens is to its allies.

! The Mytlenian Debates (3.37-48) – Athens debating on whether they should kill allof the Mytlenians for revolting. First speaker says that killing them would give them what

they deserved and it would deter future rebels. Says that the Mytlenians were not badlytreated. Also that if they wait too long to punish, that feelings of anger will lessen, and

they will not receive proper punishment. Second speaker begins by attacking the firstspeaker personally. He also says that acting in haste and anger will only bring ruin to

Athens because they will have to follow the precedent and it will be extremely costly to put kill rebels because they will hold out for as long as possible. Abstract: Debate. Really

shows how awful Athens can be to its allies (although second speaker won, and so asecond mission was sent to stop the first, which was ordered to kill everyone).

! The Melian Dialogue (4. 85-114) – Melos was a colony of Sparta. Athens made anexpedition to the island, and instead of destroying it immediately, representatives went

and spoke. Instead of being allowed to speak in front of the people, they had to speak before a small governing group. Athens wants Melos to follow Athens’ self-interest, but


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it was not to Melos’ self interest. Melos did not give in. Athens blockaded them incompletely. Abstract: This is the end of the downfall of speeches as it is not a speech at

all; it is a dialogue to the point that it is written as a play. It is this point that representsthe downfall of Athens.

Close ReadingPericles’ Funeral Oration (book 2. 34-46)Pericles’ Funeral Oration is one of the key passages of the book. The form of the oration

is as important as they content discussed. Pericles begins his speech by addressing theform and purpose of a funeral oration, he discusses his personal disagreement with it’s

traditional implications, but decides that as a tribute to the men who died, he willcontinue to speak, but only after acknowledging his feelings that the fact the mere actions

of a funeral are honor enough for any man. He goes on to say that he feels men can onlylisten to the praises of other men for so long, and that is why he has decided to speak

about greater forms of honor that applied to the men who had died and to the peoplelistening to him speak. The first group of people he praises is the ancestors of the

Athenian people because they created the Empire of Athens. He then goes on to praisetheir just and premiere government. He discusses the ways in which he feels Athens

stands apart from it’s peers, as an empire full of people who know how to abide by lawand also know how to celebrate. He praises the people of Athens for creating a

courageous and loyal military, superior to all others they fight and for their ability to fighttheir own fight. He praises the characteristics of men in Athens, their rationality and

deliberateness in battle, in addition to understanding their priorities and not flauntingextravagance in their lives. He goes on to say that it is because of all these reasons that

Athens will be remembered. Their legacy will live on through what they have left behindat every battle, what has been traded in every exchange, in what kindness has been on in

every gift and that any man who tries to record this through his own estimation of thefacts would fall short. It is here that his speech shifts focus toward the soldiers, although

not describing them individually, he does describe individual characteristics of the wholethat he feels should be represented by the Athenian people. He describes their honor and

spirit and asks that the people of Athens adopt that same energy and aim it against theirenemies. Towards the end of his speech he consoles the families who have lost loved

ones, but tells them that their soldiers died with pride and honor, and that honor is the onething one will always have and never looses. Finally Pericles makes a comparison

between the women that these men have loved and Athens. Athens is seen here as theultimate perfect woman, one any person should be willing to die for.

The plague is described in the section of the story right after the funeral oration.

Thucydides narrates himself into this section more than he did in the previous one. Heacknowledges this by saying that although he himself did not experience the plague; he

wants to record it if it should ever happen again. Initially in the section he describes thesymptoms of the disease in great length and discusses the ways in which people’s bodies

reacted to the disease. He does not however address particular cases of sickness, butrather sticks to a general overview of those affected. The plague marked a time of great

migration from the country in to the city of Athens and this migration also coincided withthe unraveling of the city. Lawlessness and civil unrest were rampant, men were dying


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inside Athens and outside land was being laid to waste. There is an oracle towards theend of this section that the Athenians interpreted as a description of their situation ad at

the same time an oracle was sent to the Spartans telling them to go to war. An importantnote is that although this was the goriest part of the book, a war story, the plague took

place when no actual fighting was going on between the Spartans and the Athenians.

Comparison! The two passages are connected through opposition. They are recounted side by

side because they symbolize a complete reversal of fortune > peripeteia! In the funeral oration he is constructing an honorable and courageous view of death

and in the plague death is this awful experience that is deconstructing the honor andstructure of the city.

! In the plague, he describes how the plague destroyed everything that they hadhonored in the oration. > Example – culture is disrupted in the plague and was very

important in the funeral oration, as well as honor.! The funeral oration is the one surviving account of Athenian democracy (from a

supporting viewpoint) and the bulk of the images from the plague are about lawlessnessand disregard for order.

Points of Contact

1. Reversal of Fortune: connections to Oedipus, Medea and the Bacchae. Peripeteia,the idea that there can be a complete change of fortune in one moment. This is seen in the

plague in Thucydides, in Medea, the peripeteia happened before the play actually beganand in the Bacchae it is when Pantheus’s mother realizes what she has done (actually

killed her son.)2. Oracles: they happen and they matter. They also happen in Oedipus. You get the

idea.3. HONOR – there are several points of contact between the idea of honor in

Thucydides and in other texts such as the Iliad. Honor is mentioned in other texts,however, as two stories about war, the connection is strongest here. However, in

Thucydides honor is only mentioned on a “citywide” or non-individual basis. In the Iliadfallen soldiers are individually talked about in accordance to their honor.

Lysistrata

By: Aristophanes

Summary:Lysistrata gathers the women of Athens and Sparta in the front of the Akropolis for

the purpose of formulating a plan to help stop the war between Athens andSparta. Lysistrata asks the women if they would like their husbands to return to them

from the war, and the women at first, claim that they would do just about anything to gettheir husbands back. Then, Lysistrata proposes her plan, to stop sexual activity with

their husbands. The women, after hearing this, back down and hesitate to concur to suchan act, except Lampito. Soon, however, with the help of Lysistrata’s persuasive


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arguments, the women consent to her plan. Lysistrata has arranged the seizure of theAkropolis, the Athenian treasury, so no money will go toward the war effort. Kleonike

proposes that the women swear on a cup of wine, that they “won’t…dilute it with water,”and the women agree to swear to the plan (366). After all the women swear, the women

enter the Akropolis. The elder Athenian men march to the Akropolis carrying firepots

with the purpose of burning down the gates of the seized building. The elder womenencounter the Koryphaios of Men at the gates, and the women pour water all over themen, putting out their fire. At this moment, the Commissioner of Public Safety arrives to

try to settle the dispute. Before the Commissioner and the other men are able to breakopen the gates with a crowbar, Lysistrata comes out of the Akropolis. Archers attempt to

arrest Lysistrata, but all four of the archers that the Commissioner sent forth fail with thehelp of the other women. After the archers are scared off, Lysistrata begins to tell the

Commissioner that the women will stop the war. Then Lysistrata places her veil on theCommissioner’s head and the other women help dress him up as a woman and then beat

him off the stage. Then the Chorus of Women and the Chorus of Men display a sexual battle, which results in both the men and women naked. The women soon become filled

with desire for sex and make excuses to Lysistrata as to why they have to leave. Then,Kinesias, with his son, arrives at the Akropolis gates, “in erection and considerable plain”

(419). He tries to woo his wife, Myrrhine, into returning home to her beloved son whoneeds her care. Myrrhine pretends she will have sex with her husband, who insists on do

on the ground outside the Akropolis. Myrrhine, all the while delays intercourse, makingKinesias very frustrated. Then she leaves her husband on the ground for good since he

would not agree to vote for peace, as she wished. A Spartan herald arrives, bringingnews of the Spartan’s suffering due to the women’s refusal of sex. He and the

Commissioner agree to settle a treaty for the war, bringing their respective delegations tothe scene. Lysistrata emerges from the A

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