The Peatlands of Caithness & Sutherland

M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � �

The Peatlands of Caithness & Sutherland

M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � �

Foreword

�� INTRODUCTION

�� WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT THE PEATLANDS?

#� SO MANY TITLES���

$� MANAGEMENT OF THE OPEN PEATLANDS AND ASSOCIATED LAND

� MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS IN AND AROUND THE PEATLANDS

%� COMMUNITY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

'� SPREADING THE MESSAGE ABOUT THE PEATLANDS

(� WHAT HAPPENS NEXT?

Bibliography

Annex �Caithness and Sutherland peatlands SAC and SPA descriptions

Annex � Conservation objectives for Caithness and Sutherland Peatlands SAC and SPA

Acknowledgements

Membership of LIFE Peatlands Project Steering Group

Contact details for LIFE Peatlands Project funding partners

Acronyms and abbreviations

C o n t e n t s

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The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #

As a boy I had the great privilege of spending my summers atDalnawillan= our family home= deep in what is now called the “FlowCountry”� Growing up there it was impossible not to absorb itsbeauty= observe the wildlife= and develop a deep love for thisfascinating and unique landscape� Today we know far more about thepeatlands and their importance and we continue to learn all the time�As a land manager I work with others to try to preserve for future generations that which I have been ableto enjoy� The importance of the peatlands is now widely recognised and there are many stakeholders andagencies involved� The development of this strategy is therefore both timely and welcome�

The peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland are a special place= a vast and ancient landscape on a scalescarcely matched in the UK� They are a place for wildlife= supporting a wide array of distinctive and oftenrare plants= birds and animals� But they are also a place for people� For more than half of their existencepeople have been an integral part of the peatland story� They are a place of work= a place of quiet reflection=of recreation and inspiration= a place that heightens the senses� More recently the importance of other roles=for example as a water source and a carbon store= has also been recognised�

Despite these important qualities= the peatlands have suffered over the last decades from policy shifts=varied standards of stewardship= and uncertainties� This Strategy is the first time that a clear= shared visionfor the future has been attempted� It is a vision for a future where land uses complement rather thancompete with each other�

The Strategy has been shaped through a process of wide consultation and discussion= and has the support ofmany organisations and individuals� It is however very much a beginning rather than the last word= as we donot yet have all the answers to many of the issues it raises� My hope is that implementation of the Strategywill continue the way of working that has created it= with more inclusive= co�ordinated planning and action�

There will be opportunities for everyone who lives in= works in= or visits the peatlands to get involved indeveloping and putting the Strategy into practice� Please take those opportunities= to ensure that thepeatlands remain as special for future generations as they are for us�

LORD THURSO MP

Why the peatlands?

The peatlands of Caithness andSutherland are a special place= of nationaland international importance� Nowhereelse in Britain= and possibly the world= isthere such an extensive area of this typeof peatland (c$��=���ha)� Together withassociated areas of moorland and openwater= large areas of the peatlands aredesignated as Sites of Special ScientificInterest (SSSI)� They are recognised to beof national importance for conservationboth as a habitat in their own right andbecause of the diverse range of rare andunusual breeding birds they support� Thedesignated peatlands are also part of theNatura ���� series of sites (SpecialProtection Areas and Special Areas ofConservation)= which seeks to maintainrepresentative examples of the range ofhabitats and species across the EuropeanUnion (EU)�

Why a strategy?

Within the Caithness and SutherlandPeatlands Natura ���� site= the UKgovernment is committed under EUlegislation to avoiding the deteriorationof qualifying habitats and the habitats ofqualifying species= and the disturbance ofspecies� It must also ensure the site’sintegrity and maintenance in the future�Outside the designated site is a stillbigger area of peatland= which is also ofimportance for nature conservation andto which the UK government hascommitments under the UK BiodiversityAction Plan (see below)� There iscurrently however no clear plan or visionfor the area to ensure that theseobligations are met� Rather there is adiverse range of regulations= incentivesand policies� This strategy= and theprocess that has led to its production= isthe beginning of a more co�ordinatedapproach�

In some places the legacy of past landuse policies for forestry and agriculture ishaving a detrimental impact on thepeatlands= in particular throughagricultural drainage= and forest plantingon or adjacent to peatland� Where this isthe case these impacts now need to beaddressed urgently to ensure the futurewell�being of the peatlands � To supportthis= the balance between peatlands andwoodlands in the area needs to bemanaged in line with the currentnational forestry policy objectives� Theseobjectives promote the enhancement ofthe environment by enriching andextending important woodland areas= whilst integrating with andcomplementing work to maintain andrestore peatland habitats and species�

‘Nowhere elsein Britain= andpossibly theworld= is theresuch anextensive areaof this type ofpeatland’

I n t r o d u c t i o n

1

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � $

Pool system at Halsary= Caithness

Although this is primarily a strategy topromote the natural heritage interest ofthe peatlands= there are many ways inwhich this can go hand in hand withsupporting the needs of localcommunities and the economy� Thestrategy recognises that the peatlandsare a place where people live and work=and that the support of localcommunities is key to the survival of thepeatlands�

What area does it cover?

The starting point for this strategy is allthose areas of Caithness and Sutherlandwith peat soils� Many are aware of the“Flow Country”= the name now oftenused for the central part of the counties=but in fact peatland is much moreextensive= stretching from the west coastof Sutherland across to the far east ofCaithness� Much of this peatlandsupports blanket bog and wet heathvegetation= some of which is designatedfor its nature conservation interest�Elsewhere agriculture= peat extraction orforestry have significantly altered thecharacter of the peatlands� Within thiswide area= the highest priority peatland isthat carrying UK and Europeandesignations�

The peatlands cannot be considered inisolation however= as they are intimatelylinked through hydrology= landmanagement= bird and animalmovements to a much wider area� Thestrategy therefore looks at the wholelandscape in which the peatlands sit�

Who is it for and what willit be used for?

This strategy is for everyone with adirect interest in the peatlands= forexample whether running a croft=owning a sporting estate or as a publicagency with statutory duties�

Its uses will include the following:

As a statement of a shared vision and objectives for the peatlands�

As an action plan which can be used for prioritising work�

As a reference document for land managers considering future land management options�

As a source document when policies orplans that affect the area are being prepared�

As a means of advocating additional funding for the area�

How has it been prepared?

The strategy has been prepared by aproject officer and overseen by theSteering Group for the LIFE PeatlandsProject� A wide range of people andorganisations has shaped the content=through invaluable contributions tomeetings= workshops and theconsultation process� The strategy hasbeen developed in the context of EUpolicy on biodiversity= and relevantnational and local biodiversity and landuse policies�

How to find your wayaround the strategy

The strategy starts with a vision= aim=and four overarching objectives� Thencomes an introduction to why thepeatlands are special and to the variousaccolades they carry� There are then fourtopic sections= each related to one of theobjectives� Each section describesrelevant issues= and a list of actions thatare needed to achieve the objective andaddress the issues� There is inevitablysome overlap between the sections assome themes= such as economicdevelopment= underlie the wholestrategy�

‘The peatlandscannot beconsidered inisolation’

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � �

Strath Halladale= Sutherland

Otter

T h e v i s i o n o f t h e s t r a t e g y

Our vision for the peatlands is one of a revitalised landscape= with extensive sweeps of hill and bog intersected by fertile straths� These straths and coastal strips supporta mosaic of productive crofts and farms= rivers= forestry and woodland� Above and between the straths lie the world�renowned peatlands= which= together with their lochs and lochans= support a spectacular assemblage of birds= plants and other wildlife= including internationally important numbers of raptors= waders and waterfowl� The straths= bogs= hills= lochs= rivers= woodlands and forestry are managed together for the wide range of services they provide and interests they support� No one land use dominates to the detriment of others� Rather there is mutual support= with everything underpinned by a healthy environment= at the centre of which is the great peatland of the north� Everyone who lives= works in or visits the area values the peatlands�

O v e r a l l a i m f o r t h e s t r a t e g y

To enhance and promote the special values of the peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland= through the promotion of sustainable land management= the encouragement of sustainable community and economic development= and through co�ordinated action�

S t r a t e g y o b j e c t i v e s

OBJECTIVE � To promote and carry out land management that benefits nationally and internationally important areas of peatland= and associated habitats and species�

OBJECTIVE � To promote and undertake sustainable woodland management= with an appropriate balance between woodlands and peatlands�

OBJECTIVE # To encourage community and economic development that is compatible with safeguarding those features that make the peatlands important�

OBJECTIVE $ To promote greater awareness= understanding and enjoyment of the special wildlife= landscape= historical and cultural values of the peatlands�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � %

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � '

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � (

Multi�purpose native and exoticconiferous woodlands on mineral soilsand shallow peat� Fencing use minimised�

Rivers support healthy fisheries andother wildlife� Water quality good�

Rough ground supports peatlandbirds and other wildlife�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � G

In�bye managed toencourage use bypeatland birds�

Heather well managed throughgood muirburn practice�

Condition of blanket bog and wet heathenhanced through drain blocking= avoidance ofmuirburn on wet areas and careful use of ATVs�

Sustainable deer and stock numbers=supporting local employment�

S O M E O F T H E K E Y E L E M E N T S O F T H EF U T U R E P E A T L A N D S L A N D S C A P E

E N V I S A G E D B Y T H I S S T R A T E G Y

W h a t ’s s o s p e c i a l a b o u t t h e p e a t l a n d s ?

The habitat

Caithness and Sutherland are home tothe largest and most intact area ofblanket bog in Europe and possibly theworld= with $H of the world’s resource�Blanket bog develops where a cool wetclimate allows the growth of vegetationdominated by Sphagnum bog mossesover extensive areas of sloping ground=hollows and flat areas� Where rainfall

levels are high it candevelop on slopes up to#�o� It typicallyoverlies deep peat andreceives all its nutrientsthrough rainfall� Inaddition to bog mosses=other widespreadplants of blanket bogsare heather= cross�leaved heath= deergrass and cotton grass�

For blanket bog to form= water levelsneed to be near the surface� Where theground is not so waterlogged= otherhabitats occur� Wet heath is found onthinner= better drained peat or wheremanagement has caused the peat to dryout� This community has many of thesame plants as blanket bog= but the bogmosses are less dominant= cotton grass isabsent and heather is more widespread�Dry heath and acid grassland are foundon drier ground with mineral soils oroccasionally very shallow peat�

To the non�specialist= the diversity of thebogs of Caithness and Sutherland maynot be immediately apparent� There ishowever great variation in form andvegetation= thanks to the differences inclimate= geology and underlyinglandform from west to east and north tosouth� Water is a critical ingredient ofthe bogs and a particularly specialfeature is the patterning of pools oftenfound on level and gently slopingground� Lochs of all sizes and with adiversity of chemical make�up areabundant throughout the area� The cleanwaters of the peatlands also feed intomany rivers and streams= which sustaininternationally important populations ofotter= Atlantic salmon and freshwaterpearl mussel� These watercourses alsosupport important fisheries and providewater supplies�

The wildlife

Within any given area of bog= the lochsand dubh lochans= hummocks= hollowsand smaller pools provide niches for awide range of plants and invertebrates�The rich insect life in turn helps tosupport many bird species� The most

2

The terms peatland and blanket bog may appear tobe used interchangeably in this document= but there aresome differences between them which can be important�Peatland is a general term for any area with a peat soil=regardless of the vegetation or land use� Blanket bog isone type of peatland� When drained= it will normally stillbe called blanket bog= although it may no longer be peat�forming= or ‘active’� Peat formation can only take placewhere waterlogging slows the decomposition of deadmaterial= which then accumulates as peat� Once the keyspecies are no longer present= or only very rare= such asunder closed canopy forestry= it ceases to be blanket bogbut remains a peatland�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � ��

The peatlands are home to a high proportion

($(H) of the UK’s breeding population of

common scoters= with the UK population

having declined by �H over the last �

years� This duck nests on moorland around

peatland lochs and lochans� Reasons for the

duck’s decline have not been established= but

may relate to water quality changes in lochs

in afforested catchments and changes in

predators present around the lochs�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � ��Left to right: Sphagnum bog mosses= Greenshank= Cotton grass

notable breeding birds are red�throateddiver= black�throated diver= wigeon= teal=common scoter= golden plover=greenshank= dunlin= wood sandpiper=greylag goose= short�eared owl= goldeneagle= hen harrier= merlin and peregrine�Many of the birds are typically northernspecies that are at the southern limit oftheir range here (see Annex �)� Peatlandmammals include the native red deer=otters and water voles�

As is the case with bird populationselsewhere= the bird numbers on thepeatlands are not static� Unfortunatelysome species such as dunlin= goldenplover= snipe and curlew are declining innumber� The reasons for this are not fullyknown= although in the case of goldenplover there are indications that forestplantations may be having an impact onthe peatland breeding sites� In contrastsome species such as greenshank andstonechat are stable or increasing�Marked differences in population changehave occurred between the western andthe eastern parts of the peatlands= withmost species faring better in the westthan the east� This may be due todifferential changes in land use and/ orclimate change�

Whilst some of the peatland birds spendall of the breeding season on thepeatlands= others make use of areaseither close by or further afield forfeeding� Close by= the enclosed pasture orin�bye ground in some parts of thestraths provides important feeding forpeatland wading birds= particularly thegolden plover and dunlin� On the northcoast= the calmer sandy bays providefeeding for red throated divers= andgreenshank make use of the bays= riversand areas of saltmarsh� Once the all�important breeding season is over= manyof the birds disperse to other parts ofCaithness and Sutherland= the UK orbeyond�

Climate change�the carbon store

More recently= with growing concernsregarding climate change= the value ofpeatland as a massive carbon store hasbegun to be recognised� As peat is largelymade up of the remains of plants= whichare themselves made of carbon= it locksup large stores of carbon for thousands ofyears� This carbon would otherwise bereleased to the atmosphere andcontribute to global warming� By contrast

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � ��

Strath Halladale= Sutherland

Stonechat

forests only store carbon for the lifetimeof the trees= although the use of timberproducts can extend this until they tooare destroyed or decay� Disturbance ofthe peat surface= for example throughdrainage= burning or erosion= allows thepeat to break down and carbon dioxide= a“greenhouse gas”= is given off to theatmosphere�

Restoration of damaged peatland mayreduce carbon dioxide emissions= as everyhectare of intact bog is reckoned to storearound �� kg of carbon every year=whereas every cubic metre of peatremoved releases

kg of carbon� It ispossible that global warming could havea negative impact on the extent ofpeatland� Good land management= andactivities such as drain blocking= may bevaluable in buffering them against thepotential reduction in extent�

The landscape

Aside from its nature conservationinterest= the landscape value of the areais much appreciated both nationally andin a Highland context� Much of thelandscape of the interior of Sutherlandand west Caithness is made up ofsweeping moorland= slopes and hills= andflatter areas of peatland� The scale of thelandscape is vast in UK terms and muchof the area is remote� Although thepeatlands have a long history ofmanagement= this has been mostly low�intensity grazing of livestock and deerstalking= neither of which has left muchevidence in the way of builtdevelopment�

Such “wild land” is a diminishing resourcein Scotland= but is very much part of theregional character of Caithness andSutherland and the national identity ofScotland� It provides opportunities forpeople to experience solitude andcloseness to nature and attracts peopleto the area�

The straths of Kildonan= Halladale andNaver= that cut through to the interior ofSutherland and west Caithness= are more

populated= often supporting forestry=fragments of native woodland= andfarming and crofting activity� Bycontrast the peatlands in the east ofCaithness are surrounded by a moreintimate landscape of mixed agricultureand forestry�

Social and economic uses

Despite this strong wild land character=the peatlands support and are shaped byagriculture= sporting management andconservation� These activities providevaluable local employment and income�The peatlands also contribute to the localtourism industry= with many visitorscoming to enjoy the wildlife= landscapeand archaeology� Use of the area forrecreation is at a relatively low intensity=although increasing as it is elsewhere inScotland�

The archaeology

The activities of the past inhabitants ofthe peatlands are often visible= and thegood state of preservation of many sitesmakes them an important archive�Examples are important prehistoric sitessuch as Camster Cairns and thewidespread remains of the pre clearancescommunities= for example along StrathNaver�

The peat itself can also hold importantinformation on the past activities of manand about past environments� Whilstmost areas of peat are likely to haveformed in response to a wet climate andpoor drainage= there is evidence that insome areas peat formation has beeninfluenced by man’s activities� Researchon the peat deposit suggests thatextensive areas of the Caithness andSutherland landscape have been treelessfor at least the last $��� years� Moreresearch still needs to be done on therelative significance of the influence ofman and the changing climate on peatextent�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �#

‘The scale of thelandscape is vastin UK terms’

Camster Cairns

In January �G(( the then Secretary ofState for Scotland supported theprotection of a large area (up to�'=���ha) of the peatlands through asubstantial expansion of the SSSInetwork� During the �GG�s= followingdetailed survey and assessment= almost��=��� hectares of blanket bog andassociated habitats were subsequentlydesignated as Sites of Special ScientificInterest (SSSI) under the Wildlife andCountryside Act (�G(�)�

In �GGG all or part of #G peatland SSSI(�$=#'� ha)= were classified as a SpecialProtection Area (SPA) under the EU’sBirds Directive ('G/$�G/EEC)= on accountof the populations of breeding waders=wildfowl and raptors (see Annex �)� Thesame area was also designated in thesame year as a Wetland of InternationalImportance= a worldwide accolade underthe Ramsar Convention�

Active blanket bog is a priority habitatunder the EU’s Habitats Directive(G�/$#/EEC)� An area encompassed by=but slightly smaller than the SPA (�$#='�ha)= was designated on �' March ��� asa Special Area of Conservation (SAC)under this Directive� The SAC qualifies fordesignation on the basis of varioushabitats including blanket bog= wetheath= and certain types of lochs and alsoits otter populations (see Annex � for fulllist)� Conservation objectives for the SACand SPA are given at Annex ��

Outside the area covered by theEuropean designations is a considerablearea of undesignated blanket bog= muchof which is still of high natureconservation interest� These areas makean important contribution to the UKGovernment’s wider responsibilities underthe Habitats Directive= Birds Directive=Ramsar Convention and UK BiodiversityAction Plan (UKBAP) and should bemanaged sympathetically�

S o m a n y t i t l e s . . .

3

The UK Biodiversity Action Plan identifiesa series of habitats and species for whichpriority action is required= as part of thegovernment’s contribution to theInternational Convention on BiologicalDiversity� Those present in and aroundthe peatlands include blanket bog= uplandheathland= upland birch woodland= watervole and common scoter� LocalBiodiversity Action Plans (LBAPs) haverecently been prepared for both Caithnessand Sutherland and outline how the UKBAP will be implemented at a local level�

Several of the rivers in the peatlands areSACs= namely the Rivers Borgie= Naverand Thurso= on account of thepopulations of freshwater pearl mussels=Atlantic salmon or otters� Although themain focus of this strategy is thepeatlands= there is an intimate linkbetween the management of thepeatlands and the health of the rivers�

The Kyle of Tongue is a National ScenicArea (a national landscape designation)�A number of other coastal and uplandareas have either been identified or areunder consideration for local landscapedesignations through the Local Planprocess� Parts of the peatlands areincluded in areas of search for “wild land”=identified by SNH in its policy statementon ‘Wildness in the Scottish Countryside’�

In �GGG the Caithness and Sutherlandpeatlands were placed on the UKgovernment’s “tentative list” of sites fornomination as World Heritage Sites (seesection ' below)� If nominated= it wouldbe in recognition of the peatlandsoutstanding natural importance as one onthe largest and most intact areas ofblanket bog in the world� There arecurrently only three sites in Scotland withthis prestigious title= and of these onlyone (St Kilda) holds the title in respect ofits natural rather than its culturalattributes�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �$

Pool system

Pool system near Forsinard= Sutherland

A high proportion of the peatlands is inexcellent condition= but the area hasbeen and is still affected by a number ofland use impacts� This section reviewscurrent land management of the openpeatlands= summarises the impacts it ishaving on the nature conservationinterest= and then identifies actions toaddress these impacts and supportObjective �� The proposed actions reflectrecent and ongoing shifts in policies andsupport mechanisms for agriculture=sporting management and the naturalheritage= including A Forward Strategyfor Scottish Agriculture and the ScottishBiodiversity Strategy� These seek agreater synergy between theenvironment and our activities�

Objective 1:

To promote and

carry out land

management that

benefits nationally

and internationally

important areas of

peatland and

associated habitats

and species.

Agriculture

Away from the more fertile land in theeast of Caithness= the majority of theagricultural land in the peatlands is givenover to rough grazing= with improved in�bye ground being restricted to parts ofthe coast and the straths� Very little landis under crops= with sheep dominatingand only limited cattle numbers� Croftingtenure predominates in the north andwest= coexisting with large sportingestates� Recent years have seen areduction in the number of activecrofters= with a few crofters running alarge number of holdings in some areas�

In�bye ground can play an important rolein supporting many of the birds that liveon the peatlands� Species making use offarmland close to the peatlands includedunlin= golden plover= snipe= curlew= henharrier= short�eared owl= merlin= greylaggoose and lapwing� Active managementis needed to ensure the conditions areright to provide plenty of food and= forsome species= nesting sites� Some fieldsare known to be particularly importantfor golden plover and dunlin= with birdstravelling considerable distances overseemingly similar fields to reach favouredfields to feed= although knowledge of thereasons for this is incomplete�Mechanisms such as machinery sharingrings may be required in future topromote continued management of in�bye ground�

Major Common Agricultural Policyreforms came into force on � January���= with the introduction of the LandManagement Contract Menu Scheme�

M a n a g e m e n t o f t h e o p e n p e a t l a n d s a n d

a s s o c i a t e d l a n d

4

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �%

Red deer

Farmers and crofters now claim a SingleFarm Payment (SFP) under “Tier one” ofthe scheme= which is subject tocompliance with a number of standardsand with the framework of GoodAgricultural and EnvironmentalCondition� The SFP is not a headagepayment and so many anticipate thatthere will be a reduction in stocknumbers in more marginal areas�

“Tier two” of the new payments is a“Menu Scheme” which is non�competitiveand seeks to deliver additionalenvironment= social and economicbenefits� A number of the managementoptions are relevant to the peatlands=including “Management of moorlandgrazing”= although the payments arecurrently less attractive than SNH’sPeatland Management Scheme (seebelow)� “Tier three” will be launchedfrom ���' and will involve more detailedmanagement prescriptions= incorporatingexisting agri�environment schemes=including the Rural Stewardship Scheme�

A limited number of farmers and croftersin the area are in the Rural StewardshipScheme (RSS)= which promotesmanagement to improve the biodiversityand landscape value of a holding� Entry ismore difficult however for those holdingswith a restricted number of habitats= as isoften the case here� Furthermore the

scheme does not encompass non�agricultural holdings� In order to addressthe conservation needs of the peatlandsmore effectively= the prescriptionsavailable under Tier three will need to bemore locally targeted than is currentlythe case under RSS�

Deer and Gamemanagement

Much of the open ground in thepeatlands is managed for sport= with asignificant proportion being in theownership of a small number of largeestates� Deer management is undertakenby individual landowners= and co�ordination is provided by DeerManagement Groups (DMGs)� Therewere dramatic rises in deer numbersfrom the �G%�s to the �G(�s= but someestates have made significant efforts toreverse these trends� Densities varyconsiderably across the area� Thetraditional deer range was reduced withthe widespread afforestation of the �G'�sand �G(�s and deer movements havebeen affected�

A recent development is the erection offences to prevent deer movement ontoagricultural and crofting ground� This hashappened to the east of Broubster andShurrery= along Strath Naver and aroundStrath Halladale� It is not yet known

Management of in�byefields for peatland birds

large= open= old= damp pasture fields are preferred by golden plover and dunlinshort sward height of under (�mm from February to July preferred for golden plover and dunlinavoid rolling and grass�harrowing between mid�March and mid�Julyavoid using herbicides and pesticidesencourage earthworm and leatherjacket (cranefly larvae) population create or retain wet patches= and spread farmyard manurecontrol rushes by regular cutting and grazing= as birds like to be able to see around them areas of arable crops provide nesting= feeing and roosting areastussocky sward created by cattle is more beneficial thanthat created by sheepavoid planting trees= shrubs or hedges within at least

�m of farmland wader nesting and feeding areas

Houstry= Caithness

Golden plover

whether these fences are likely toincrease deer grazing and tramplingpressure on the adjacent peatlands= orwhether more fencing of this type islikely to be erected elsewhere�

Grouse management occurs in the driermoorland areas in the east= but isrestricted in extent� In recent years it hasbeen hampered by reductions in grousenumbers� These may be due to a range offactors including loss of heather ground=land use changes= changes in burningpractice= poor weather in June in recentyears (which has affected breeding)=heather beetle attacks= changes in keeperactivity and the presence of a significanttick problem in some areas� There is noevidence from the limited study to datethat ticks have a significant effect onother moorland birds= although theyfrequently carry obvious tick loadings�

Many land managers are concernedabout loss of heather cover across thearea= as heather provides feeding forboth deer and grouse� The causes of thisare not known= but contributory factorscan be inappropriate grazing andtrampling levels by deer and sheep= andpoor burning practice� Recent attacks ofheather beetle have exacerbated theproblem� Current management guidanceto combat heather beetle is to continueto carry out muirburn in accordance withthe Muirburn Code= as heather that iswell managed and not degenerate ismore likely to recover fully�

Fisheries management

Atlantic salmon= sea trout and browntrout fisheries make an importantcontribution to the economy of the area�Atlantic salmon and sea troutpopulations have declined markedlythrough most of their ranges over recentdecades= due to a combination of factorsincluding higher mortality at sea andchanges in land and river management�Populations have however remainedhealthy over much of north and eastCaithness and Sutherland� This is perhapsin part due to the naturally high

productivity of the rivers= resulting fromthe underlying geology� In contrastpopulations have declined on the westcoast= where natural productivity levelsof the shorter river systems are lowerand marine mortality higher�

The Rivers Borgie= Naver and Thurso areall SACs for nature conservation intereststhat include Atlantic salmon= and have aregular monitoring programme� Aconservation strategy has also beenprepared for the River Borgie� SNH iscurrently undertaking a number ofdemonstration projects on riverselsewhere in Scotland= with a view toextending its programme of positivemanagement agreements (Natural Careprogramme) to cover river management�Obligations under the Water FrameworkDirective will involve additional river andloch monitoring in the future�

Brown trout are found in lochs and riversacross the area and include the uniqueIce Age relict Crocach Trout in lochsabove Loch Hope� Brown Troutpopulations are generally good andreflect the productivity of the waters �high in those areas with limestonefeaturing in the geology= and low wherepeat predominates in dubh lochans�Angling pressure remains light tomoderate in the most part�

There is an intimate link betweenmanagement of the peatlands andfisheries� Fish spawning areas andjuvenile habitats are often found in thepeatlands= miles from any main river orburn= and care needs to be taken toensure their protection� The quality of

Top: Red grouse= Bottom: Freshwater pearl mussel

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �(

water emanating from the peatlands intothe rivers is also a key issue= andpotential impacts need to be assessedwhen planning any landuse change�

Management for natureconservation

Until the �G(�s the national andinternational importance of thepeatlands was not widely recognised�Since then however= there has been agrowth in the management of landspecifically for nature conservation� In�GG� SNH introduced its PeatlandManagement Scheme (PMS) thatencourages environmentally friendly landmanagement on both agricultural groundand sporting estates� It is a voluntaryscheme open to people managingpeatland SSSI in Caithness andSutherland� Those who participatereceive annual payments for the five�year agreement term� Payment levelsreflect the extra costs of carrying outbest practice management that isadditional to the requirements of anyagricultural funding�

Uptake and support of the scheme hasbeen good= with about %H of the SACbeing covered by PMS agreements� Someland managers would like to see thescheme put greater emphasis on morepositive work such as drain blocking= butresource constraints are an issue� To datethe PMS has also not covered the wholegamut of deer related managementissues= but relevant ongoingdemonstration projects elsewhere inScotland and the development of bestpractice guidance will inform any futureamendments to cover this�

The RSPB has become very active in thearea since the mid �GG�s= and is now amajor landowner (�=�� ha)= withmanagement agreements in place topromote their objectives over a stilllarger area� They are also a significantemployer= with seven full�time staffequivalents involved directly in thepeatlands�

Since �GG$ two tranches of funding fromthe EU LIFE Programme have supporteda partnership project carrying out arange of management and restorationwork= largely on RSPB and ForestryCommission Scotland land= but also to amore limited extent on private ground�Large scale drain blocking is ongoingwithin the European designatedpeatland� Targeted tree removal andpeatland restoration is also taking placeon adjacent areas= with a view toprotecting the Natura site features�

Plantlife International= a charity focusingon plant conservation= also has a reservein the peatlands at Munsary in Caithness=and this too has benefited from drainblocking and other work under the LIFEProject� The Management Group for thereserve is drawn largely from the localcommunity�

Drains

Through the �G�s and �G%�s= financialincentives were provided for the drainingof agricultural land= as part of a post�warpolicy to promote food production� Inreality these drains did little to improveagricultural output in most areas of thepeatlands= and are now often detrimentalto the nature conservation interest�Drains affect over half of the SAC= with��H of the area seriously affected�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �G

‘���there has beena growth in themanagement ofland specificallyfor natureconservation’

Agricultural drains= Cross Lochs= Forsinard

Typically the water table is lowered for adistance of up to four metres either sideof a drain= with other less obvious effectspotentially extending further� Gradualslumping of the peat occurs towards thedrain and in older drains deep lateralcracking and collapse are observable� Thedrier conditions allow better heathergrowth and halt peat formation� Thisdrying out may also reduce the numberof invertebrates= which will have a knockon effect on birds�

Where drains were dug on the mostgentle of gradients and wheremaintenance has not taken place=infilling is gradually taking place� Bycontrast on steeper slopes= the impact ofthe drains has increased over time= asscouring by rock and debris from furtherup the hill has increased the size anderosive power of the drains� The siltcarried into streams and rivers by thesedrains may have negative effects ongame fisheries� Periods of high rainfallexaggerate the problems of erosion andlead to high flows in adjacentwatercourses� In recent years there hasbeen an increasing tendency towardsflash floods in rivers locally�

Over the last � years some localiseddrain blocking has been undertaken=largely by the RSPB� Not all are keen onthe idea however; some livestockmanagers have concerns that stock maybecome attracted to the sweeter growthin blocked drains and then become stuck�Drain blocking may be beneficial tofisheries interests= as it could help tomoderate river flows and reduce siltinputs� Ongoing research suggests thatdrain blocking might also reduce carbonemissions from peatland and socontribute to efforts to abate globalwarming�

Muirburn

Muirburn is a traditional landmanagement practice= carried out topromote new vegetation growth and soincrease the amount of feeding availablefor stock= deer or grouse� It is regulated

by legislation and guided by a code ofpractice known as the Muirburn Code�When practised in accordance with theMuirburn Code= muirburn is compatiblewith maintaining the natureconservation interest of the peatlands�The Code recommends that blanket bogsshould not be burnt= and so the focus ofactivity should be on the steeper drierheather areas� Extensive less well�controlled burns sometimes encroach onareas of blanket bog= particularly whenfires are set in drier or windier conditionsusing limited manpower� On SSSIsmuirburn practice is subject toconsultation= and under the PMS amuirburn plan is required� RSS schemescan also cover muirburn activities�

In many areas muirburn is carried outmore sporadically than in the past= asnumbers of people with available timeand knowledge have fallen� This canmean that when burning does take place=there is a higher chance of fires spreadingquickly over large areas that haveaccumulated tall leggy heather andpurple moor grass litter� The presence ofdry dead heather damaged by heatherbeetle can also add to the risk of firespreading�

Some habitats are extremely sensitive toburning= and many of the rare andsensitive plants found in peatlandscannot survive fires� Although thevegetation of an area burnt in the pastmay superficially appear unchanged=regular or severe burning reduces thevariety of plants found and removessome sensitive peat forming species�Erosion can also result from severeburns= and once established on thesesensitive peat soils it can be very difficultor impossible to reverse�

Grazing and trampling

Due to slow vegetation growth and poornutritional quality= blanket bogs can onlysupport low densities of grazing animals�Sheep and/or red deer graze most of thedesignated peatlands= with the impactsof the two being difficult to distinguish�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � ��

Top: MuirburnMiddle: Eroded peatland= KnockfinBottom: Drain blocking

Over much of the area= grazing levels areconsidered to be appropriate formaintaining the nature conservationinterest= but there are areas withovergrazing and= less frequently=undergrazing� There is also localisedevidence of trampling damage= generallywhere animals are constrained by fencing�Where pools and wetter areas lie adjacentto fences= trampling damage can be moreextensive�

Trampling can have a more significantimpact than grazing= particularly in thewetter “flows”= as grazing is onlyattractive in these areas for a short periodin the early winter and spring� Tramplingcan kill off bog mosses and other plants=leaving bare peat= and can be exacerbatedby fencing= which can channel deerthrough narrow areas� Overgrazing andexcessive trampling can both lead toerosion= with the slow growth of

vegetation and cool wet climate slowingor preventing vegetation recovery�

Deer numbers are counted regularlyacross the area= but further survey workis required to assess the impact of bothdeer and sheep on the vegetation� SNHand DCS are currently developing surveymethods� Repeat surveys will then beable to detect any changes that may needto be addressed by modifications tomanagement� Close joint working=training and guidance would be beneficialto develop a common understanding ofthe impacts of management onvegetation= what constitutes goodvegetation condition= and how this can beachieved to support all interests�

Vehicle use

All�terrain vehicles (ATVs) and quad bikesare now seen as an essential tool for both

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � ��

Inset: Eroding hill drain on deep peatnear AltnabreacMain photo: The same drain severaldays after blocking

Localised ATV damage

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � ��

sporting and agricultural work� Thecumulative effects of the last forty yearsof use are however now evident in someplaces� When used in softer and wetterareas of peatland they can causesignificant damage to the fragile plantcommunities= with recovery either beingvery slow or bare ground becomingeroded� Use of vehicles can be controlledon SSSI= and some practical work tominimise damage can be funded throughPMS agreements�

It is likely that in the future moreconstructed tracks will be proposed asinformal ATV routes become moredamaged by greater use� It is also possiblethat fishing activity may increase in someareas and may result in the desire forincreased vehicle use� Whilst constructedtracks can limit the incremental spread of

damage= they have their own direct andindirect effects on the vegetation and onwater movement� In terms of vehicletechnology= ATVs with front wheelsteering are likely to cause less damagethan those that rely on skid steering�

Peat cutting

No commercial peat cutting takes placewithin the Natura site= and elsewhere inthe peatlands there is just one site wherethere is ongoing extraction� No futureexpansion is anticipated� Domestic peatcutting still takes place= but is much lesswidespread than it used to be� Where itstill occurs= it has become increasinglymechanised� On designated peatland it issubject to discussion under both SSSIprocedures and the PMS to minimise anyimpacts�

To be suitable for peatland waders= in�bye fields in key areas need to be actively managed�

RSS is a positive tool= but uptake here is low= perhaps because entry is more difficult for those holdings with a restricted number of habitats= as is often the case here�

New fences to restrict deer movements may affect grazing and trampling levels of adjacent areas�

There is concern that heather cover has reduced in the area�

The Peatland Management Scheme is valuable and should be continued= but could be more proactive in addressing positive management works�

Summary of key open peatland management issues that may affect thenature conservation interest of the peatlands

Drains are often detrimental to the nature conservation interest and may impact on fisheries interests and river flow rates�

Poor muirburn practice can damage sensitive peatland habitats�

More guidance and training are needed on vegetation assessment and what constitutes good condition�

Regular monitoring is needed to identify any changes in vegetation and their causes�

ATVs and quad bikes can cause damage to sensitive peatland habitats�

Cut peats for domestic use

TIMESCALEOngoingShort ��# yearsMedium #� yearsLong ��� years

ACTION REQUIRED TO ACHIEVEOBJECTIVE � AND ADDRESS ISSUESRELATING TO MANAGEMENT OFOPEN PEATLAND

PARTNERS*Indicates lead partner

PRIORITY

��� Promote changes to Rural StewardshipScheme to ensure applicability and availabilityin the peatlands and associated habitatsincluding inbye�

��� Promote easily accessible land use supportsystems through ongoing CAP reform thatmaximise the opportunities for the sustainablemanagement of the peatlands�

��# Promote continued management of in� byeground�

��$ Seek to reduce and reverse trends of loss of heather from areas of heath and bog�

�� Promote continued funding for anddevelopment of the Peatland ManagementScheme�

��% Facilitate the blocking of agricultural drainsand consider the introduction of additionalfunding for this through PMS or RSS�

��' Promote best practice and training in thesustainable management of the peatlands=including on muirburn and habitat assessmente�g� through RSS= PMS= DMGs= North HighlandCollege�

��( Maintain deer and stock numbers at levelsthat sustain the natural heritage interest of thepeatlands= and are compatible with other landuses�

��G Undertake regular assessment of deer andsheep numbers and the habitat to identify anyimpacts that might be occurring�

���� Support Deer Management Groups as aforum for collaborative deer management= witha view to balancing private and publicobjectives in relation to deer�

���� Embed habitat impact assessments intoDeer Management Plans and use to inform culltargets�

���� Promote DCS Best Practice Guidance andconsider implementation of accreditationscheme�

���# Investigate management and engineeringsolutions to impacts of ATVs on peatland

���$ Facilitate implementation of LocalBiodiversity Action Plans for Caithness andSutherland and the Scottish BiodiversityStrategy�

SEERAD*= CC= SNH= SAC=RSPB= SEPA= Landmanagement interest groups

SEERAD= CC= SNH= SAC=RSPB= SEPA= Landmanagement interest groups

Land managers= SNH= RSPB=CC= SEERAD= SAC

Land managers= Landmanagement interestgroups= SEERAD= SNH

SNH*

SEERAD= SNH*

SEERAD= SNH= SAC= CC= DCS=North Highland College=RSPB= Fire Brigade= NorthernConstabulary= Landmanagement interestgroups= SEPA

Land managers= DCS= SEERAD= SNH

DCS= SNH= SEERAD=Land managers= NorthHighland College

Land managers= DCS= FCS=RSPB= SNH= SEERAD

Land managers= DCS= SNH=Land management interestgroups

DCS*= SNH= RSPB

SEERAD= SNH= DCS= SEPA

THC*= FCS= SNH= RSPB= CC=Land managers= Communitygroups and interest groups=CASE= SEPA= Scottish Water

High

High

High

Medium

High

Medium

Low

High

High

High

High

High

Low

Medium

Short

Ongoing

Short

Medium

Short

Medium

Ongoing

Short

Ongoing

Ongoing

Short

Ongoing

Medium

Short� Medium

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �#

OBJECTIVE �: To promote and carry out land management that benefits nationally and internationally important areas of peatland and associated habitats and species�

TABLE �

The overall aim of this strategy is tomaintain and enhance the special valuesof the peatlands� This cannot be doneeffectively without consideration of themanagement of forests and woodlands inand around the peatlands� Since the early�GG�s more than �$=��� hectares of newnative forest have been establishedacross Caithness and Sutherland=benefiting both biodiversity andlandscape� By contrast most of the treesplanted in the �G'�s and �G(�s wereexotic conifers�

In some cases= where coniferous treeswere planted on or near peat= there has

M a n a g e m e n t o fw o o d l a n d s i n a n d

a r o u n d t h e p e a t l a n d s

5

been a detrimental impact on underlyingand adjacent blanket bog and associatedhabitats and species� In considering thefuture of these areas of forest= there is anopportunity to restore areas of blanketbog and associated habitats= helping toachieve a better balance betweenwoodland and peatlands� In seeking thisbalance= there is also an opportunity toreview the scope for new woodlands inthe area= to benefit biodiversity= localeconomies and landscape� This section ofthe strategy looks at issues in relation towoodlands and identifies actions tosupport Objective ��

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �$

Objective 2:

To promote and

undertake

sustainable

woodland

management, with

an appropriate

balance between

woodlands and

peatlands.

Native woodlands

Mature broadleaved woodlands are nowscarce around the peatlands= beingmostly restricted to a few of the moresheltered straths and gorges� The ScottishSemi�natural Woodland Inventoryidentifies ��#'( ha of semi�naturalwoodland in Caithness and Sutherland=with the majority of this being aroundAssynt and the Kyle of Sutherland� It islikely that broadleaved woods were oncemore extensive= particularly in the southand west= but clearance by man= burningand grazing have reduced their extentsignificantly� Those fragments thatremain tend to be heavily grazed both bydomestic stock and deer� This not onlyrestricts regeneration= but may alsoreduce the diversity of species that arepresent�

Birch is the dominant tree species= withother key species including rowan= alder=aspen= grey willow= eared willow= andbird cherry� Hazel is locally commonwhere conditions are slightly richer= andgoat willow and wych elm occur locallyin gorges= again favoured by slightlyricher conditions� Oak reaches its

northern limit in the southern part of thepeatlands= occurring only infrequently onbetter mineral soils� The nearestextensive pinewoods are at Amat= butCaledonian pine would have been asignificant component of manywoodlands in the past in the southernpart of Sutherland= decreasingnorthwards as conditions became lessfavourable� Juniper occurs locally= mainlyin gorges but also on some exposedhillsides� Dwarf birch (Betula nana) alsodeserves a mention= as this nationallyscarce plant occurs in the peatlands=albeit with a restricted range�

The plant and animal species supportedby the native woodlands in this area areconsidered to be typical of birchdominated woodlands= with plant speciesbeing more diverse in gorges or ledgesout of the reach of grazing animals� Thespecies present are those that survivewell in woodland edge conditions= ratherthan those that require large blocks ofunbroken woodland� The more westernwoodlands have richer= more oceanicmoss= liverwort and fern communities�

In the north of Scandinavia= there iscommonly a transitional zone of treegrowth of decreasing size on the edge ofbogs� It is used by a number of peatlandbirds that also occur or have occurred inCaithness and Sutherland= namely woodsandpiper= ruff= Temminck’s stint and red�necked phalarope� Although there are afew places in Caithness and Sutherlandwhere native woodlands border the edgeof bogs= there is no transitional woodlandof this type� Research could determinewhether this habitat ever existed hereand if so= its extent� This would help withplanning future management�

The forestry resource

A significant proportion of the forests inCaithness and Sutherland form part ofthe National Forest Estate managed byForest Enterprise Scotland� These forestsare managed within the framework ofthe UK Woodland Assurance Schemewith the aim of providing a balance of

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �

‘Maturebroadleavedwoodlands arenow scarcearound thepeatlands’

Scattered riverside trees near Altnaharra

environmental= economic and socialbenefits� Many of the forests are stillrelatively young but as they matureopportunities are being sought todevelop a more diverse structure and tointroduce a wider range of tree species�This restructuring also providesopportunities to ensure peatlandinterests are protected and nativewoodland habitats enhanced andextended�

In many of the privately ownedplantations however the focus is on theproduction of commercial timber� Thenature conservation value of thesewoodlands is currently limited in mostcases= but there is the opportunity overtime to improve this throughrestructuring� The presence of forestblocks in open landscapes may benefitsmall numbers of some rare bird speciessuch as merlin and hen harrier= and alsomore common woodland species�

The quality of the timber being producedvaries with species= provenance and siteconditions= with those plantations onshallower peats and mineral soil oftenproducing the best timber� Windthrow isalso an issue in more exposed areas= withthe majority of plantations beingmanaged on a clearfell system= to avoidthe risk of windthrow� With appropriatedesign and in some cases early thinnings=the impact of windthrow can be reduced�

Forestry now competes in a globalmarket and decisions about harvestingare affected by timber prices and thecosts of harvesting and transportation�Haulage costs are often the key factor indetermining viability= along with timberquality� Extraction by road is restricted inmany areas to agreed routes= set bybridge weight restrictions and the poorcondition of some single�track roads� Therailway is seen as providing a potentialalternative in the future and loadingfacilities have already been developed atKinbrace� Similar facilities are currentlybeing considered for the GeorgemasJunction in Caithness�

Haulage costs can be significantlyreduced where local markets areavailable� Wood as a fuel is nowrecognised as an important source ofrenewable energy and governmentagencies and the EU are encouraging thedevelopment of woodfuel “clusters”(users and suppliers) in various parts ofScotland� In addition to local communityinterest in Caithness and Sutherland= awoodfuel district heating scheme iscurrently under consideration for Wick=as is the development of a “cluster” ofbusinesses using locally sourced wood asfuel� Although woodfuel is a low valueproduct= it does provide the additionalpotential benefits of local employment=the opportunity to thin woodlands at anearly stage= a use for “waste” timber= andan end use for smaller timber felled forpeatbog restoration that is currentlybeing left on site�

As the forests mature and new localmarkets for timber develop= theopportunities for enhancing theireconomic= social and environmentalvalue are increasing� This= combined withthe creation of new well planned forests=integrated with native woodland=peatland and other land use interests=will form a key part of the sustainablemanagement of trees throughoutCaithness and Sutherland�

In locations where extraction is unlikelyto bring an economic return= throughpoor quality= distance from markets ordifficulty of extraction= some ownersnow anticipate that replanting withsimilar species will not be worthwhile orappropriate� Replacement with nativespecies is already under consideration insome areas= but there are difficulties withfinancing clearance of the existing crop�Whilst Christmas tree growing was oncea profitable option in the area= themargins for this have now shrunk�

In such a rural area= forestry represents asignificant employer� The jobs providedin forest management (including forestrangers)= timber extraction and haulage=particularly in the more mature Forest

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �%

Forest recreation and interpretation

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �'

Enterprise woodlands= can have a bigimpact in an area with such lowpopulation numbers and limitedemployment opportunities� Over #�people have been involved in contractforestry work for the current EU LIFEPeatlands Project�

A considerable investment has beenmade in forest recreation andinterpretation in the area= by ForestEnterprise in particular= and this willhave knock�on benefits for employmentin tourism� Private forest owners haveestablished recreational facilitiesthroughout Caithness and Sutherland=including the opening up of a continuoushorse= cycle and walking route throughthe peatland forests from Loch More toForsinain= with a circular route fromLoch More via Altnabreac�

There may also be future employmentopportunities from non�timber forestproducts= such as berries and fungi� Trialareas for berry growing already exist atBonar Bridge= Borgie and Helmsdale=under the auspices of the Highland BerryGrowers Group�

The impacts of forests onthe peatlands

In the �G'�s and �G(�s some plantationswere established on peatland of similarquality to that subsequently designated

as SSSI= leading to a direct loss of blanketbog and associated habitats� In somecases forestry is now having adetrimental impact not only onunderlying but also adjacent peatlandhabitat� An audit of damage and threatto the Natura site has identified forestryas one of the most significant activitieshaving a detrimental impact on theNatura site�

Where forests are on peat= the waterlevel in the peat is lowered throughdrainage works and through the takingup and interception of water by growingtrees� This can cause the peat to dry outand crack� Research has also identifiedhydrological impacts on peatland up to

�m beyond the edge of a forest=including changes in surface water flowand surface shape� Road building and theuse of fertilisers and herbicides can alsoaffect both underlying and adjacentpeatland�

Areas of peatland available for breedingpeatland birds may also be reduced byforestry� Studies have shown reduced useof peatland near to forest edges byspecies including golden plover= curlewand red grouse� This may be due toincreased predation= avoidance by birdsof tall structures (visual avoidance)= andchanges to habitat management nearforests (e�g� reduced burning leading totaller vegetation)� Research is ongoing=but suggests that impacts may extend upto ����m in some circumstances� Thereis incomplete knowledge of predatornumbers and impact�

Seeding of non�native tree species ontobogs from adjacent forests may be anissue in the longer term� Seeds can becarried up to about ���m= although birchseed can carry further in certain climaticconditions� Climate change mayexacerbate this impact= if bogs becomedrier in the summer as some modelspredict�

Since �G(( forestry activity has beengoverned by the “Forest and WaterGuidelines” and adherence to these has

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �(

‘Restoration ofafforested areasto bog and wetheath habitathas already beenhappening inCaithness andSutherland aspart of the LIFEPeatlandsProject�’

avoided a number of the problemsassociated with earlier forestry practices�Afforestation proposals undergo wideconsultation and are also now appraisedunder the Environmental ImpactAssessment (Forestry) (Scotland)Regulations �GGG before the ForestryCommission Scotland (FCS) determinewhether to give approval�

The future management offorests in Caithness andSutherland

There will be cases where replanting offorestry will not be required by FCS andwhere restoration to bog or wet heathwill be appropriate� Incentives will beconsidered to promote restoration= whichmay involve early felling� The highestpriority cases will be those areas offorestry which are affecting the interestsof the Natura site (see Annex �)� Wheretrees are causing or likely to causedeterioration of the interests of theNatura site (SPA/ SAC) or of the peatlandinterest of SSSI not within the Naturasite= replanting will not be required afterfelling� In most cases the Natura interestsare contained within the boundary of theNatura site= but in a few cases speciesmay also be dependent on groundoutside the boundary� FCS will take thisinto account in any assessment� This isrelevant on both private and public landand FCS may request an EnvironmentImpact Assessment to consider theimpacts of deforestation�

Outside the designated peatlands is aconsiderable area of undesignatedpeatland= much of which is still of highnature conservation interest� Under theUK Biodiversity Action Plan= the BlanketBog Habitat Action Plan seeks tointroduce management regimes torestore 'H of blanket bog which iscurrently degraded= such that it is in orapproaching favourable condition by���� This target will not be reachedunless both designated and undesignatedblanket bog is restored= and decisions onforestry affecting undesignated peatlandwill need to take this into account�

Restoration of afforestedareas to blanket bog andwet heath habitats

Restoration of afforested areas to bogand wet heath habitat has already beenhappening in Caithness and Sutherland aspart of the LIFE Peatlands Project� Thefirst phase of this work ran from �GG$�G(when a number of techniques weretested on a range of high priority sites�The trials clearly demonstrated therestorability of such areas= showing therecovery of key peatland species within��# years of felling� The second phase ofthe Project (from ���� to ���%) iscarrying out much more extensiverestoration= with a target of ���� ha by���%� To date= approximately �%�� hahave been restored�

The time taken for deforested sites torecover to blanket bog or wet heathvegetation will vary greatly= dependingon site history= site conditions andtechniques used� The longer that a treecrop has been on the land= the morelikely that more of the original bogvegetation will have been lost and thatthe peat will have been more damaged=such that recovery will take longer� Costsof restoration also vary depending on theage of the trees= with costs rising steeplyas the trees mature and so become moredifficult to handle� In priority areas thereis therefore an urgent need to undertakerestoration in the near future= so as toreduce both recovery times and costs�

Site characteristics that are likely toindicate and promote a more speedy

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � �G

Restoration of afforestedblanket bog= Altnabreacarea= ���$

Hen harrier nest= recentlyfelled area= Forsinard

recovery include the presence of ashallow water table (within ��cm inwinter)= the presence of pools and damphollows= and a drainage layoutfavourable to rewetting� Flatter areas orwith a slope of less than �º are also morelikely to recover more quickly asrestoration of water levels is likely to beeasier� Where the peat has already driedout to the extent that it is cracking= itwill be much more difficult to promoterecovery� Over time= cracks in the peatform an underground network� This canhinder attempts to rewet the surface= asthe network of cracks can carry wateraround dams that are put in to blockforestry drains�

Where the tree canopy closure isincomplete= there is more likely to beremnant bog vegetation surviving� Thiswill ensure a faster recovery as thesurviving bog vegetation can spread outonce the conditions become favourablefor it= as drains are blocked and the waterlevel rises� It is not anticipated that anyseeding of plants will be required= as thewetter conditions following restorationwill favour peatland plants and suppressother species�

The LIFE Peatlands Project has looked atvarious techniques of tree felling anddrain blocking= and established that bogrecovery is quicker where tree trunks arecut up and then laid into the forestryditches� This helps to block the ditchesand so slows any water flow= reducingthe risk of erosion and runoff� It alsoprovides a structure to knit the

vegetation together� Whilst ideally treeswould be removed from site and put tosome end use= this is currentlyprohibitively expensive� The creation oflocal markets for timber may change thisposition in the future� Removal of treeswould have to be done in a way thatminimised damage to the bog surface�

There are potential water qualityimplications from the clearance ofsignificant areas of forestry� The key issueis phosphate input to water courses= butthis is only likely to become a problem ifmore than ��H of a catchment isdeforested in any given �� month period�

Forests and deer

Forests can have an impact on deer in thepeatlands as they reduce the deer range=and forest fences restrict and channeldeer movements� This in turn can lead tohigher densities of deer on the peatlands=cause localised tracking and erosion alongfence lines� Where fences are notmaintained the forests also provideshelter= thus enabling deer condition toimprove and numbers of both red and roedeer to increase� In some areas deer arecausing significant damage tobroadleaved trees�

There is incomplete information on forestdeer populations= but densities varygreatly between different areas� It is alsonot yet known whether the rise in forestdeer populations is likely to haveimplications for the condition of thesurrounding peatlands� With thedownturn in the economic outlook forforestry= some forest blocks have nowbeen purchased by owners whose primaryobjective is to manage the deer for sport�

Deer numbers which may be appropriatefor management of the open peatlandsmay be higher than those that wouldenable the development of more naturalwoodlands� Determining and thenmaintaining populations to achieve thesevarying objectives is a significantchallenge still to be addressed�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #�

Mechanical ‘tree shear’ developed locally for clearing forestry off peatland

Restoration by hand felling nearForsinard

Planning for newwoodlands

There would be nature conservation andpotentially socio�economic benefits fromimproving the condition of the existingnative woodlands and where possibleexpanding them� Benefits could includerecreational use= landscape enhancement=timber for local use and stock shelteronce any woodland is fully established�Given the current low level of nativewoodland cover however= it is also apriority to encourage new nativewoodlands= preferably by naturalregeneration= or by planting where thatis unlikely to be successful� Changes inincentives in recent years have alreadyencouraged a significant number ofnative woodland schemes in the area onmineral soil or shallow peat� Some ofthese have been carried out by crofterstaking advantage of changes inlegislation� The North Highland ForestTrust is a useful support organisation forthis work�

There may also be areas on mineralground or shallow peat where it isappropriate to plant new areas of non�native woodlands= particularly wherethese bring multiple benefits such astimber for local use and habitat networklinks (see below)� The establishment ofboth native and non�native woodland onappropriate mineral and shallow peat canalso bring the benefit of locking upcarbon= and so support efforts to slowclimate change�

The nature conservation value of newwoodland can vary depending both onthe species used and on its location�Where new woodlands (either natives ornon�natives) are positioned near existingwoodlands= as part of a network= it iseasier for species to colonise the newwoods from the existing woodlandhabitat� The new woods can also becomea stepping�stone= a link in a woodlandhabitat network that allows animals andplants to move according to their needs�

To be part of a network= woods do notneed to be continuous but some specieswill find it easier to move betweenwoods than others= depending on boththe distances and also on the type of landto be crossed� Riparian or riversidewoodlands are of particular value in anetwork= as rivers form natural corridors�There are also additional benefits towater quality= flow regulation= and insome case to fisheries= from riversideplanting�

Consideration should also be given topromoting some areas of native scrub ormore open woodland of appropriatespecies on the edge of peatlands onmineral or shallow peat� The potentialimpact on peatland interests would needto be assessed�

Deer impacts are generally too high overmost of the area to allow any newplanting or regeneration schemeswithout fencing� Deer fencing addsconsiderably to the costs and bringsother disadvantages such as landscapeimpacts= tracking by deer and constraintson access� It can also lead to a lessnatural woodland structure= as grazinganimals are part of a natural woodlandsystem� Deer fences need to beconsidered in the light of the Jointagency statement and guidance on deerfencing� Any woodland proposals shouldtake into account the existing use of anarea by deer (for example for wintering)and plan for future deer management�

Map based computer�modelling can helpplan where new woodland might bestcontribute to a woodland habitatnetwork� Modelling has to take intoaccount the nature of woodlands in anarea and the species they support�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #�

Rowan

Native tree planting= Altnaharra Estate

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #�

Native woodlands are scarce and often heavily grazed�

No transitional zone of native scrub/ open woodland is present on edge of bogs�

In some cases forestry is having a detrimental impact on underlying and adjacent peatland= and restructuring and clearance may be needed�

The balance between woodlands and peatlands needs to be carefully planned and managed�

Summary of key forestry and woodland management issues in andaround the peatlands

The restructuring of existing forests= along with appropriate enhancement and extension of native woodland areas= has the potential to contribute significantly to the environmental= economic and social value of the peatlands�

The development of local markets for timber would benefit the local economy�

Forest deer are increasing in numbers and may have impacts on woodlands and peatlands�

Guidelines for new woodlands (native and non�native species)

Woodland establishment should be on mineral ground or shallow peat�

Where planting is proposed near peatland= consider any possible impacts on peatland interest= for example through harbouring of predators and through peatland birds avoiding nesting near woodland edge� More open woodland with a higher proportion of scrub species is likely to be more appropriate�

In�bye ground which is used by feeding peatland waders should be avoided�

Prioritise watercourse planting= in consultation with fisheries interests�

Prioritise establishment of new native woodlands close to existing native woodland�

Consider deer movements and use of the area�

For native woodlands birch will be the dominant species� Other appropriate species are rowan= alder= aspen= grey willow= eared willow= bird cherry and in some areas Scots pine� Hazel= goat willow and wych elm will be suitable in slightly richer conditions� Juniper may also be appropriate in small amounts�

Locate woodland so as to maximise the habitat network benefits�

Prioritise woodlands that can bring multiple benefits to the area�

Consider impacts on the NSA= any local landscape designations= the settings of designated cultural and historic sites= wild land search area= landscape character�

Consider opportunities to improve public access�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � ##

TIMESCALEOngoingShort ��# yearsMedium #� yearsLong ��� years

ACTION REQUIRED TO ACHIEVEOBJECTIVE � AND ADDRESS ISSUESRELATING TO FORESTS ANDWOODLANDS IN AND AROUNDPEATLANDS

PARTNERS*Indicates lead partner

PRIORITY

��� Promote incentives that support thesustainable management of woodlands and theexpansion of woodland habitat networks=including riparian woodlands�

��� Provide clear guidance on the location andtype of woodland that might be appropriate inand around the peatlands�

��# Develop guidelines on appropriate forestryrestructuring and clearance= and developincentives and mechanisms to enable these tobe implemented�

��$ Maximise the local economic andcommunity benefits from any forestrestructuring or clearance work�

�� Support the preparation of Forest Plans forindividual land ownerships

��% Determine the appropriateness ofpromoting scrub/ open woodland at the edgeof blanket bog�

��' Develop modelling to identify areas wherecreation of new woodland would havemaximum natural heritage benefits�

��( Promote the development of wood fueland other local timber markets�

��G Develop economic methods of extractingtrees off peat bogs whilst minimising damageto bogs�

���� Ensure forest and woodland planning anddesign take account of deer and future deermanagement�

���� Undertake bird modelling to assistprioritisation of clearance of forestry areas notcurrently affecting the Natura site but whererestoration to bog should be a priority�

���� Promote and implement national guidanceon fencing for deer management�

���# Encourage co�operation between deer andforestry managers to address forest deer issues�

FCS*= SNH= RSPB= THC= SEPA=CC

FCS*= SNH= SEERAD= THC=RSPB

FCS*= SNH= THC= RSPB

FCS= THC= RSPB= CASE=NHFT= CC

FCS*

FCS= SNH= SEERAD= RSPB

FCS*= SNH= THC= SEERAD=RSPB

FCS= THC= CASE= NHFT

FCS= CASE= RSPB= NHFT

DCS= FCS= THC

RSPB*= SNH

Land managers= Landmanagement interest groups=DCS= SEERAD= FCS= SNH

Land managers= Landmanagement interest groups=DCS*= FCS= SNH

High

High

High

High

Medium

Medium

High

High

High

High

Medium

High

Medium

Short

Short

Short

Short

Medium

Medium

Short

Short

Short

Ongoing

Medium

Ongoing

Short

OBJECTIVE �: To promote and undertake sustainable woodland management= with an appropriate balance between woodlands and peatlands�

TABLE �

C o m m u n i t y a n de c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t

6

The future long�term health of thepeatlands depends very much ondecisions that are made regardingcommunity and economic developmentin the area� It is likely that to besuccessful= the future economy of thearea will be a mixed one= with less of anemphasis on commercial timberproduction than has been the case in thepast� New opportunities for estates andcommunities are likely to come throughnew native woodlands= management ofexisting woodlands for more mixedobjectives including wood fuel=management for nature conservation=and “green” or wildlife tourism ventures�Small�scale renewable energy schemesmay be appropriate in some places wherethis is compatible with other interests�

The following section looks atdevelopment issues that already impacton the peatlands or may do so in thefuture and identifies actions to addressObjective #� Some aspects of socio�economic development are dealt with inother parts of the strategy= in particularwoodlands (section )= and tourism andinterpretation (section ')�

Objective 3:

To encourage

community and

economic

development that is

compatible with

safeguarding those

features that make

the peatlands

important.

Infrastructure and othereconomic developments

Developments likely to occur in the areaare infrastructure projects such asrenewable energy schemes (see below)=road and track repair or creation= watersupply provision and house building�Community and economic benefits willneed to be assessed against potentialenvironmental impacts= includingimpacts on the peatlands� Potentialimpacts for wind turbines are describedbelow= and the principles of many ofthese would also apply to otherinfrastructure developments= albeit thescale will vary� Major developmentslocated in peatland areas should alsodemonstrate that mitigation measuresare in place to minimise the potential

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #$

Drain blocking near Melvich

impact on the carbon balance and so onglobal warming� This includes minimisingpeat removal= drying and exposure�

There may be scope in the future todevelop the economic benefits arisingfrom the peatlands= through additionalmarketing or branding of products fromthe area� This could have the dual benefitof bringing additional income and alsoraising the profile of the area� Otherpossible future economic developmentsare covered in sections and '�

Renewable EnergyDevelopment

In �GG' at the Kyoto summit meeting=the UK government signed up to targetsfor reductions in the emissions of thegreenhouse gases that contribute toglobal warming� The promotion ofrenewable energy technologies is oneelement of the government’s programmeto meet these targets= and is supportedby financial incentives�

Along with other areas with consistentlyhigh average wind speeds= openlandscapes and relatively low populationdensities= Caithness and Sutherland haveseen a rapid rise in interest from would�be developers encouraged by theseincentives; particularly those looking atonshore wind technologies� There arecurrently over $� wind turbine schemesproposed in Caithness and Sutherland� Atpresent there is no national strategicframework to guide potential developers=although the Highland Council is nowembarking on a regional strategy�

The development of renewable energygeneration capacity is an important partof efforts to tackle global warming= butenvironmental standards should also bemaintained to ensure that environmentallosses do not outweigh gains� Withadequate planning it should be possibleto enable some schemes to progress inappropriate locations and at the correctscale� Smaller scale schemes that bringcommunity benefit are likely to be moreappropriate in this area� Highland and

Islands Enterprise’s Community EnergyCompany has been set up to promotesuch schemes�

Particular issues in relation to thepeatlands include the possible loss ofhabitats and wildlife� The impact on birdswill depend on the numbers and speciesof birds present= their flight patterns inrelation to the wind turbines= thenumber= size and characteristics of thewind turbines= and ancillarydevelopments including transmissionlines� Potential consequences include birdcollision and disturbance�

Other issues are the potential damage topeat soils= bog structure= hydrologicalintegrity= creation of access tracks intothe peatlands= associated changes in landuse= grazing= and disturbance to deer inthe construction phase� Consideration isalso needed of the impact on openlandscapes= where wind turbines can bevery visible= the potential attrition of thewild land resource and the cumulativeimpact of successive developments�Building on peat in the uplands= on a

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #

Wind turbines= Causeymire

slope or where previously disturbed byforestry are all very technicallydemanding situations= which canpotentially cause difficulties�

Whilst proposals may not themselves belocated on peatland= they may impact onthe flight lines of peatland birds and thefeeding range of eagles� Many of thebreeding birds fly daily to the north coastto feed= passing over large areas ofundesignated land� Migration routes alsotake birds across undesignated land�Information on bird flight lines iscurrently incomplete� There is a risk thatdevelopers will seek to fit proposalsbetween the designated peatland sites=and consideration will need to be given tothe impact this might have not only onthe peatlands= but also on any potentialWorld Heritage Site nomination�

The technology for harnessing tidal andwave energy is perhaps twenty yearsbehind that for wind energy�Nevertheless consideration is alreadybeing given to the north coast= given itspotential suitability� A particular issuehere will be the use of the coast bypeatland breeding birds� Red throateddivers feed in the calmer sandy baysduring the breeding season for example=and common scoters winter on the sealochs�

The development of the infrastructureand markets for wood fuel is consideredin Section � There are likely to bepotential benefits for the peatlands= ifwood fuel development can be linked toforest restructuring�

Community managementand ownership

Over recent years there has been anincreasing interest in communityinvolvement in land management andownership= spurred on by the creation ofthe Scottish Land Fund and theprovisions of the Land Reform Act� Thereare various ongoing local initiatives tosupport community development�Scottish Executive policy is also

encouraging greater communityinvolvement in planning= as a result ofwhich the Sutherland Partnership iscurrently preparing a Community Plan� Asimilar exercise is anticipated forCaithness under the CaithnessPartnership�

Community engagement in the peatlandshas the potential to ensure thatcommunity priorities are addressed= thatmore economic benefits are retainedlocally= and that a sense of ownership ismaintained or developed� On a localscale= Forest Enterprise and RSPB alreadyseek community involvement in themanagement planning for their holdingsin the area� There is also wideconsultation on both public and privateforestry proposals�

The various crofting Grazing Committeesare an existing mechanism for collectivemanagement= which has been usedwidely in recent years= with some nowplanning and carrying out drain blockingfor example� A number of GrazingCommittees have taken advantage ofchanges in legislation and have carriedout woodland regeneration or plantingschemes� Several have used income fromthe Peatland Management Scheme tosupport wider community initiatives suchas village halls (for example WestHalladale)= rather than retaining thebenefit solely for the crofting land�

The only peatland within the Natura sitein community ownership at present is onthe Melness Crofters Estate� The AssyntCrofters Trust= Kylesku Crofters Trust andCulag Community Woodland Trust alsoown areas of peatland� In addition theNorth Sutherland Community ForestTrust (NSCFT) owns several large shedsat Forsinain= to be used for woodprocessing� The NSCFT is currentlylooking at ways of developing localeconomic benefits from forestry= whichmay involve land ownership� They arealready involved as contractors in someof the forest clearance work beingundertaken at Forsinard as part of theLIFE Peatlands Project�

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #%

‘Communityengagement inthe peatlandshas the potentialto ensure thatcommunitypriorities areaddressed= thatmore economicbenefits areretained locally=and that a senseof ownership ismaintained ordeveloped’

The Peatlands of Caithness and Sutherland M A N A G E M E N T S T R A T E G Y � � � � � � � #'

TIMESCALEOngoingShort ��# yearsMedium #� yearsLong ��� years

ACTION REQUIRED TO ACHIEVEOBJECTIVE # AND