The Ordeal of The Ordeal of ReconstructionReconstruction

1865-18771865-1877

““With Malice toward none, with charity for With Malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish us to see the right, let us strive to finish

the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for him who shall have wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and borne the battle and for his widow and

orphan, to do all which may achieve and orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among cherish a just and lasting peace among

ourselves and with all nations”ourselves and with all nations”Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural, March Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural, March

4, 1865 4, 1865

The US Permanently AlteredThe US Permanently Altered 1.1. ReunificationReunification- we are a “singular nation” not a - we are a “singular nation” not a

“collection of states”.“collection of states”.

2.2. Slavery officially bannedSlavery officially banned by 13 by 13thth Amendment Amendment

3.3. Northern industrial power= industrial growth= Northern industrial power= industrial growth= (steel, oil, RR)(steel, oil, RR)

4.4. Expansion of federal powerExpansion of federal power Homestead ActHomestead Act (1862) “free land” up to 160 acres. (1862) “free land” up to 160 acres. Pacific Railway ActPacific Railway Act (1862) began federally funded (1862) began federally funded

Transcontinental RR. Transcontinental RR. 13th, 1413th, 14thth, 15, 15thth amendments- amendments- first 12 limited first 12 limited

government power; these expandgovernment power; these expand it. it.

•13th AmendmentAbolished slavery

(1865)

•14th Amendment Provided citizenship & equal protection

under the law. (1868)

•15th Amendment Provided the right to

vote for all men which included white

and black men. (1870)Voting rightsVoting rightsGiving the Black man the right to vote was

truly revolutionary……..A victory for A victory for democracy!democracy!

A War of First’sA War of First’s 11STST Income Tax- Income Tax- declared unconstitutional in declared unconstitutional in

the 1870’s; reinstated with 16the 1870’s; reinstated with 16thth Amendment in Amendment in 1913.1913.

First Conscription/DraftFirst Conscription/Draft – “forced service’ – “forced service’

11stst Social Welfare Agency- Social Welfare Agency- The Freedman’s The Freedman’s Bureau Bureau

Printing of greenbacks-Printing of greenbacks- 1 1stst time; national time; national bank system last until 1913 bank system last until 1913

Reconstruction 1865-1877Reconstruction 1865-1877What were Lincoln’s intentions before his death?What were Lincoln’s intentions before his death? 22ndnd Inaugural address Inaugural address

President can decide fate of states because President can decide fate of states because they never really left the Union.they never really left the Union.

Reconstruction Plans1. The “10 Percent Plan”: advocated by Abraham

Lincoln in 1863; believed that the Southern states had never legally withdrawn from the Union

• state could be reintegrated into the Union when: a)10% of its voters in the 1860 had taken an oath of loyalty to the US & acknowledged that slavery was over.

• next, the state could set a state governmentReactions:• Republicans feared the restoration of the planter class

to power & re-enslavement of blacks.

2. The Wade-Davis Bill (Proposed by “moderate Republicans” in 1864)

• 50% of a state’s voters take an oath of loyalty & stronger protections for emancipation

• each state’s convention had to abolish slavery & deprive all former Confederate government officials the right to vote or hold office.

• Lincoln used the “pocket-veto” to kill this bill.

Split in Republican Party over Split in Republican Party over ReconstructionReconstruction

Moderate Republicans-Moderate Republicans- supported more easy readmission supported more easy readmission of the South.of the South.

““Radical” RepublicansRadical” Republicans1.1. South punishedSouth punished2.2. Social system destroyedSocial system destroyed3.3. Planter Aristocracy should not be Planter Aristocracy should not be

reinstated. reinstated. 4.4. Blacks protected by federal power. Blacks protected by federal power.

President Andrew Johnson• Born in NC to poor parents- orphaned early on•Never attended school- apprenticed at age 10 to a tailor• taught himself to read; his wife taught him to write & complete simple math•Moved to Tenn. At 17 years old- engaged in politics•Champion of poor whites-elected to Congress•Refused to secede with Tenn.•Appointed War Governor over Tenn. after Union troops marched through• champion of state’s rights & the US Constitution•Became a heavy drinker after a bout with typhoid

Presidential Reconstruction

Andrew Johnson’s Plan (1865) agreed with Lincoln- seceding states had never legally left the Union- quick re-entry was best.

• Johnson recognized several of Lincoln’s “10% governments” & developed his own plan.

• Offered a pardon to all former citizens of the Confederacy who took an oath of loyalty & returned their property.

• Excluded from pardon former Confederates who owned more than $20,000 in property- these people would have to apply personally to Johnson for a pardon.

• state conventions must:1. repeal ordinance of secession,2. repudiate all Confederate debts, 3. ratify the 13th amendment. **DEC. 6, 1865- Johnson says that ALL SOUTHERN STATES

HAD BEEN RECONSTRUCTED- READMITTED.

pardonpardon

Effects of Presidential (Johnson’s) ReconstructionDecember 1865, when Congress re-adjourned former Confederate leaders had joined Congress under Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan (4 former Confederate generals, 5 colonels, & various members of the Confederate Congress & cabinet).• Republican power was threatened- slaves now counted as 5/5 of a person for representation= southern states get 12 more votes in Congress & 12 more electoral votes.

Cause for Concern •1861-1865 Republicans had enjoyed almost complete control of Congress•Southern states could gain 12 more votes in Congress & 12 more electoral votes.

Problems with Peace• Former Confederate leaders were not hanged for treason- the only former Confederate hanged was the commandant of the Andersonville Prison.• Jefferson Davis- imprisoned for 2 years; pardoned by Pres. Johnson in 1868.• Robert E. Lee- became president of Washington University (located in Virginia) now known as Washington & Lee University.•Why? It was believed that no Virginia jury would convict them.

State of the South at End of the War1.Major Cities destroyed- Atlanta, Charleston,

Richmond2.Economy was destroyed- banks & businesses

closed (9,000% inflation).3.The Transportation system was destroyed4.Agriculture crippled- slave labor system

collapsed, seed scarce• Not until 1870- would the South produce as

large a cotton crop as they had in 1860.5. Planter Class- disrupted; many reduced to

poverty ($2 billion invested in slaves=lost)• Southerners remained defiant & cursed the

Yankees for their troubles (where the military did not have control- southerners retake control).

• Who will decide Reconstruction, the South, Congress or President?

South after war 1South after war 1

“I felt like a bird out of a cage. Amen. Amen. Amen. I could

hardly ask to feel any better than I did that day…….The week passed off in a blaze of glory “Men are taking their wives and children,

families which had been for a long time broken up are united and oh!

Such happiness. I am glad I am here.”

emancipation

“The end of the war, it come just like that---like you snap

your fingers….Soldiers, all of a sudden, was everywhere---

coming in bunches, crossing and walking and riding.

Everyone was a-singing. We was all walking on golden

clouds. Hallelujah! Everybody went wild. We all felt like heroes, and nobody had made us that way but

ourselves. We was free. Just like that, we was free.”

emancipation

Mississippi Governor, 1866: Mississippi Governor, 1866: “The Negro is free”“The Negro is free”

“Whether we like it or not; we must realize that fact now and forever.

To be free, however, does not make him a citizen or entitle him to

social or political equality with the white man.”

Gov of MissGov of Miss

Freedmen define their freedomThe South was unsure the meaning of “freedom” for blacks= emancipation took effect unevenly across the South.•Many blacks were emancipated & then re-enslaved as the Union Army marched through.• Many whites resisted freedom for former slaves•Some slaves resisted the liberating Union army•Some emancipated slaves joined Union troops in pillaging & looting former masters•Many emancipated slaves took new names• Tens of thousands took to the roads: search for spouses, children etc.•The “Exodusters”- 1878-1880; 25,000 blacks left Louisiana, Texas, & Mississippi to go to Kansas.• The church became the center of community life• Freedmen- raised money purchase land, build schools & hire teachers

**The Freedmen’s BureauCongress created it on March 3, 1865 to provide food, clothing, medical care, and education to freedmen & white refugees (1st federal relief agency ever!)• was an early type of primitive welfare agency• Headed by Union Gen. Oliver O. Howard (later president of Howard University).•Greatest achievement: taught @ 200,000 blacks to read•Shortcomings: failed to give blacks forty acres of land confiscated from Southerners, local Freedmen administrators collaborated with planters to keep blacks in labor contracts •White South resented the Bureau

Oliver O. Howard

Forsyth, Georgia, July 22, 1867Dear Sir,

I write to inform you of a most cowardly outrage that I write to inform you of a most cowardly outrage that took place last Saturday night. took place last Saturday night. Our teacher whom Our teacher whom we have employed here was shot down by a crowd we have employed here was shot down by a crowd of Rebel Ruffians for no other cause than teaching of Rebel Ruffians for no other cause than teaching

school.school. General, this is the second teacher that has General, this is the second teacher that has been assaulted. been assaulted.

The rebels make their brags to kill every Yankee The rebels make their brags to kill every Yankee teacher that they find.teacher that they find. We do not know what we may We do not know what we may do if the military does not assist us. The Freedmen do if the military does not assist us. The Freedmen

are much excited at such an outrage.are much excited at such an outrage.

George H. Clower, William Wilkes, FreedmenGeorge H. Clower, William Wilkes, Freedmen

Importance of Educ to freedmen

Letter by a Teacher teaching freedmen on Letter by a Teacher teaching freedmen on the importance of education, 1869:the importance of education, 1869:

“It is surprising to me to see the amount of suffering which many of the people endure for

the sake of sending their children to school. Men get very low wages here---from $2.50 to $8.00 month usually, while a first rate hand may get $10.00, and a peck or two of meal per week for

rations-----and a great many men cannot get work at all.

The women take in sewing and washing, go out by day to sour, etc. There is one woman who

supports three children and keeps them at school; she says, “ I don’t care how hard I has to

work, if I can only send Sallie and the boys to school looking respectable.”

Letter for teachers 1Letter for teachers 1

Letter to the Editor of the National EraLetter to the Editor of the National EraCreswell, Texas, November 29, 1867Creswell, Texas, November 29, 1867

W.V. Tunstall, School Board, Houston, TexasW.V. Tunstall, School Board, Houston, Texas

To the Editor:We need immediately 500 teachers for colored

schools in Texas. The colored people in this state cannot supply the demand. There are but a few

white Republicans who can engage in the profession of teaching and Rebels (Southern whites) will not

teach them. Therefore, our only prospect is to get teachers

among the educated colored people of the North or Christian white people who are willing to endure

privations among the heartless whites of the “sunny South.” The late elections have opened the South, I

trust, for the introduction of civilization. Send us teachers…….

Freedmen’s Bureau 2Freedmen’s Bureau 2

Freedmen’s Bureau 3Freedmen’s Bureau 3

Freedmen’s Freedmen’s Bureau 4Bureau 4

Freedmen’s Bureau Freedmen’s Bureau 55

•Similar toSimilar to Slave Slave CodesCodes. .

•Restricted the Restricted the

freedom of movement.freedom of movement.

•Limited theirLimited their rightsrights asas free people.free people.

As southern states were restored to the Union As southern states were restored to the Union under President Johnson’s plan, they began to under President Johnson’s plan, they began to

enact enact black codesblack codes,, laws that restricted freedmen’s laws that restricted freedmen’s rights. rights.

The The black codesblack codes established virtual slavery with established virtual slavery with provisions such as these:provisions such as these:

CurfewsCurfews: Generally, black people could not gather after sunset.: Generally, black people could not gather after sunset.Vagrancy lawsVagrancy laws: Freedmen convicted of vagrancy– that is, not : Freedmen convicted of vagrancy– that is, not

working– could be fined, whipped, or sold for a year’s labor.working– could be fined, whipped, or sold for a year’s labor.Labor contractsLabor contracts: Freedmen had to sign agreements in January for : Freedmen had to sign agreements in January for

a year of work. Those who quit in the middle of a contract often a year of work. Those who quit in the middle of a contract often lost all the wages they had earned.lost all the wages they had earned.

Land restrictionsLand restrictions: Freed people could rent land or homes only in : Freed people could rent land or homes only in rural areas. This restriction forced them to live on plantations.rural areas. This restriction forced them to live on plantations.

The Sharecropping System Thousands of poor blacks & whites became tenant farmers or sharecroppers.• sharecroppers paid ½ to 2/3 of their crops.• landlords sold seed & supplies on credit= debt peonage.• if a sharecropper could not pay his debts, crop liens were placed on the crops (merchants/landlords could take crops)• failure to pay debts= forced labor or imprisonment.Had Unions soldiers died in vain??

Johnson vs. the Radical Republicans• Feb. 1866- Johnson vetoed a bill extending the

Freedmen’s Bureau (later it was re-instated).• March 1866- Republicans passed the *Civil Rights

Act 1866 (gave US citizenship to blacks)- Johnson vetoed it & Congress overrode his veto.

• June 1866 The 14th Amendment- pushed by Republicans because they feared that if southerners regained some control over Congress, they would repeal the Civil Rights Act.

1. gave civil rights (including citizenship) to freedmen (but not the vote).

2. reduced the representation in Congress & Electoral College of any state who refused blacks the ballot.

3. Disqualified former Confederates from state & federal office who had once held federal office & sworn loyalty.

4. guaranteed the federal debt & rejected Confederate debts.

* Pres. Johnson was opposed to the 14th Amendment & urged southern states to reject it- all did except Tenn.

Civil Civil Rights: What Blacks wantRights: What Blacks want

““All persons born in the U.S. are citizens of this country and the state they reside in. No state No state shall make or enforce any law shall make or enforce any law

which deprives any person of life, which deprives any person of life, liberty, or property, without due liberty, or property, without due process of lawprocess of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction to

the equal protection of the lawsequal protection of the laws.”

The CongressCongress shall have power to enforceenforce by appropriate

legislation, the provisions of this article.

14th 14th 14th: Rights of Citizens14th: Rights of Citizens

•Women rights supporters refused to support the 14th Amendment giving African American Men citizenship unless women were added to it.

•Abolitionists would not support women’s rights

Abolitionists vs Women’s rightsAbolitionists vs Women’s rights

•President Johnson vetoed the Civil

Rights Act of 1866

•Which gave $$$$ to Freedmen’s Bureau

for schools and granted citizenship to the Freedmen

•Congress believed Johnson was working

against Reconstruction and overrode his veto.

•President Johnson vetoed the Civil

Rights Act of 1866

•Which gave $$$$ to Freedmen’s Bureau

for schools and granted citizenship to the Freedmen

•Congress believed Johnson was working

against Reconstruction and overrode his veto.

Johnson’s VetoJohnson’s Veto

An inflexible President, 1866: Republican cartoon shows Johnson knocking Blacks of the Freedmen’s

Bureau by his veto.

An inflexible President, 1866: Republican cartoon shows Johnson knocking Blacks of the Freedmen’s

Bureau by his veto.

The Big QuestionWould Reconstruction be carried out with or without the 14th Amendment?Congressional Elections 1866 Johnson wanted to get a majority elected to Congress who would favor his soft-on-the South approach.• “the swing around the circle” - late summer of 1866- Johnson was asked to dedicate a monument to Stephen Douglas- he used the opportunity to speak at various venues to support his views.• accused radicals of planning anti-Black riots & murder in the South.• backfired- his approach built strength for the radical view= 1866 elections= Republicans built more than 2/3 majority in both houses= Republicans will dominate Reconstruction.

The Radical RepublicansLed by Charles Sumner (Senate) & Thaddeus Stevens (House) -Leader of Joint Committee on Reconstruction.

Thaddeus Stevens, in Congress, Thaddeus Stevens, in Congress, 18661866

“Strip a proud nobility of their bloated estates, send them forth to labor and you

will thus humble the proud traitors.”

Thaddeus Steven, in Congress, Thaddeus Steven, in Congress, 18671867

“I am for Negro suffrage in every rebel state. If it be just, it should not be denied: if it be necessary, it should be adopted: if it be a punishment of traitors, they deserve

it.”

Quotes of RadicalsQuotes of Radicals

Thaddeus Stevens Charles Summner

•Wanted to the see the South punished.

•Advocated political, social and economic equality for the Freedmen.

•Would go after President Johnson through the impeachment process after he vetoes

the Civil Rights Act of 1866.Radical RepublicansRadical Republicans

Republican Views on ReadmissionRepublican Views on Readmission““Radical” Republicans-Radical” Republicans- wanted to keep wanted to keep

the South from readmission as long as the South from readmission as long as possible.possible.

Bring drastic social & economic Bring drastic social & economic transformation in the Southtransformation in the South

Moderate Republicans-Moderate Republicans- Respected states-rights & self-governmentRespected states-rights & self-government Restrain states from infringing on citizen’s Restrain states from infringing on citizen’s

rightsrights No large federal role infringing on people’s No large federal role infringing on people’s

private lives. private lives.

Johnson & Impeachment1867- Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act- required president to get consent of Senate before he could remove appointees (meant to protect Sec. of War Stanton). •1868- Johnson fired Stanton & House voted 126 -47 to impeach for “high crimes & misdemeanors”.• the trial was held in the Senate- Radicals failed to get 2/3 vote needed to expel the president.• New Precedent was set! • Johnson agreed to stop interfering with Reconstruction policy- he stayed in office.

“Seward’s Folly” 1867- Sec. of State William Seward signed a treaty with Russia that transferred Alaska to the US for $7.2 million. • Russia had been friendly to the North during the war• territory believed to be teeming with furs, gold etc.

Brought up on 11 charges of high

crimes and misdemeanors.

Tenure in Office Tenure in Office Act:Act: Law Congress passed. President can’t fire any of his cabinet members

without consulting Congress.

fired Edwin Stanton

Missed being removed from office by 1 vote in Senate

Reconstruction will NOW be carried out

by Radical Republicans!

Presidency would suffer as a result of this failed

impeachment. Johnson agreed not to

interfere with Reconstruction

Saved the separation of powers of 3 branches govt.

Impeachment:Impeachment: Bringing charges against the President. Two steps

involved……

1st Step: U. S. House of Representatives hold hearings to decide if there are crimes committed. They then vote on the charges

and if there is a majority, then, charges are brought against the President.

2nd Step: U.S. Senate becomes a courtroom. The President is tried for the charges brought against him. The Chief

Justice of the Supreme Court is the judge. Once trial is completed, Senators must

vote to remove President with a 2/3’s vote.

Impeachment processImpeachment process

Once Johnson is impeached,

Congress passes Reconstruction

Act of 1867.

The South would be reconstructed under the Radical Republicans plan.

Republicans would elect Grant as their President

and he would carry out the

Radical Reconstruction.“The Strong

Government”, 1869-1877. Grant

enforcing the Reconstruction Act of 1867 and

“forcing” the South to change.

March 2,1867- **Congressional (Military)

Reconstruction Act 1. Divided the South into 5 military districts with a Union

general in charge of each district (20,000 Union troops in each district used to enforce Reconstruction).

• Temporarily disfranchised former Confederates 2. States had to ratify the 14th Amendment3. State constitutions had to guarantee all adult black males

the vote (angered white women!) ** DESIGNED TO FREE THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FROM

DIRECT RESPONSIBILITY OF PROTECTING BLACK RIGHTS.

** Susan Anthony & others lobbied against it**15th Amendment (1870)- gave black men the right to vote. -

angered white women suffragists• Lincoln & Johnson had supported giving the ballot to blacks

gradually-after education, property ownership etc.. • Most Northern states denied blacks voting rights before

the 15th.

Military Military ReconstructiReconstructi

onon

Each number indicates the Military Districts

An “Oasis” of FreedomA. Black Political Organizationa) Union League- based in the North; educated members

about civic duty & campaigned for Republican candidates.

b) African-American women- attended parades, assembled mass meetings in churches

c) African-American men were elected to state, local, and national offices- helped write new state constitutions= true universal male suffrage!

• 1868-1876- 14 black Congressmen elected, 2 black senators (Hiram Revels &Blanche K. Bruce)

• Blacks served as Lt. Governors, state reps, sheriffs, justices of the peace – no state governors.

Blanche K. Bruce

Hiram Revels

Radical Legislatures (Regimes)Radical Legislatures (Regimes)

Legislatures formed in the southLegislatures formed in the south under military Reconstruction to form new state under military Reconstruction to form new state

constitutions.constitutions. Passed badly needed reforms:Passed badly needed reforms:

1.1. Adequate public schoolsAdequate public schools

2.2. Tax system streamlinedTax system streamlined

3.3. Public works projectsPublic works projects

4.4. Property rights guaranteed to womenProperty rights guaranteed to women GraftGraft- rampant in southern state government - rampant in southern state government

reconstruction= gave negative impression about reconstruction= gave negative impression about Reconstruction in general. Reconstruction in general.

Black CongressmenBlack Congressmen

First Black Senators and

representatives in the 42st and 42nd Congress.

Senator Hiram Revels, on the

left was elected in 1870 to

replace the seat vacated by

Jefferson Davis.

First Black Senators and

representatives in the 42st and 42nd Congress.

Senator Hiram Revels, on the

left was elected in 1870 to

replace the seat vacated by

Jefferson Davis.

Reaction of white southerners to ReconstructionFormer slaves- now holding office offended some Southern whites.• Scalawag- name given to any white southerner who (former Unionists or Whigs) who supported Republican Reconstruction. • Carpetbaggers- name given to Northerners who came South; believed to be coming to take advantage of the war torn region- most former Union soldiers or businessmen who wanted to modernize the “New South”.

Southern Reaction to ReconstructionMany whites resented the success & ability of black legislators & the Reconstruction.• Ku Klux Klan (Invisible Empire of the South)- founded in Tenn. 1866; hooded riders traveled at night to scare blacks.• intimidated blacks & white carpetbaggers.

Congress attempts to THWART the KKK•1870- The Force Acts- Congress passed a law outlawing Klan activities.• whites continued to undermine the empowerment of blacks-disregarded the 14th & 15th amendments• 1890- disfranchisement- poll taxes & literacy tests (fewer & fewer blacks voted) •The Solid South- predominantly voted democrat not Republican until 1980.

Effects of Military Reconstruction (1868-1876) Congress carried out some of the president’s functions as commander in chief• set up questionable courts (martial or military courts)• the US Supreme Court had already ruled military tribunals could not try civilians (even in wartime) in areas where civil courts existed (Ex parte Milligan 1866)• By 1870, the Southern states had reorganized their governments & had received full rights.• as federal troops left a state---the government passed back to the hands of white --“Redeemers” (whites who wanted to reverse advances made by Reconstruction)

Presidents during Reconstruction1.Andrew Johnson- 1865-18682.U.S. Grant – 1868-1876– supported

Reconstruction to get votes from newly freed black men who could vote.

3.Rutherford B. Hayes – 1877– became president after disputed election of 1877- in exchange-he removed troops from the South= Military Reconstruction ends.

Election 1876-1877- Dem. Samuel Tilden received more pop. Votes (re: Bush v. Gore 2000)

* Electoral votes disputed in 3 Reconstruction states (La., Fl., SC).

* Congressional commission of Dems. & Rep. made a deal= **Compromise of 1877= Hayes named winner= US troops out of the South= Reconstruction ends!= Jim crow era begins.

Other EventsOther Events “Seward’s Folly” 1867- Sec. of State William Seward signed a treaty

with Russia that transferred Alaska to the US for $7.2 million.

Russia had been friendly to the North during the war, territory believed to be teeming with furs, gold etc

Civil Rights Act 1875- forbade discrimination in public places

1896- Plessy v. Ferguson- court rules that public accommodations may be “separate but equal”.

New New SouthSouth

New South•Becomes more industrialized

•Cities rebuilt

•Railroads

•Schools, over a thousand

•Hospitals, 45 in 14 states

•Diversify economy.

Questions/Issues RaisedQuestions/Issues Raised Rise of urban industrial Centers= greed, fall of rural Rise of urban industrial Centers= greed, fall of rural

agriculture= influences values/moralsagriculture= influences values/morals Gender/racial inequality grows- Jim Crow laws, nativism, Gender/racial inequality grows- Jim Crow laws, nativism,

“white mans burden”, cult of domesticity. “white mans burden”, cult of domesticity. Growing American imperialismGrowing American imperialism

QuestionsQuestions Were the Radical Republicans motivated by greed & Were the Radical Republicans motivated by greed &

victimized the south to benefit northern interests?victimized the south to benefit northern interests? W.E.B. Dubois- Reconstruction was a noble but, failed W.E.B. Dubois- Reconstruction was a noble but, failed

attempt at a “city upon a hill”?attempt at a “city upon a hill”? Foner- Reconstruction laid foundation for success of the Foner- Reconstruction laid foundation for success of the

civil rights movement of the 1960’s? civil rights movement of the 1960’s?