The Middle Bronze The Middle Bronze AgeAgeInstructor PacasInstructor Pacas

Mesopotamia- Babylonian Civilization 2000 – Mesopotamia- Babylonian Civilization 2000 – 1600 BCE1600 BCE

Around 2000 BCE a group of Semitic semi Around 2000 BCE a group of Semitic semi nomadic tribes known as Amorites which had nomadic tribes known as Amorites which had early contact with the Akkadian empire began to early contact with the Akkadian empire began to filter in and make a much larger presence in filter in and make a much larger presence in Mesopotamian society. Eventually around 1800 Mesopotamian society. Eventually around 1800 BCE the historical and archaeological record BCE the historical and archaeological record shows that many of the kings and government shows that many of the kings and government officials had Amorite names. Amorites were officials had Amorite names. Amorites were also the group that composed the majority of the also the group that composed the majority of the Mesopotamian military machine.Mesopotamian military machine.

The Mesopotamian Empire of this period continued the The Mesopotamian Empire of this period continued the set norms that had existed under the Akkadians. That set norms that had existed under the Akkadians. That is to say that women and men were divided more along is to say that women and men were divided more along lines of classes instead of gender. Women enjoyed the lines of classes instead of gender. Women enjoyed the same rights as men in their social class i.e. able to own same rights as men in their social class i.e. able to own businesses, land, property, etc.businesses, land, property, etc.

Women and men both were still able to practice Women and men both were still able to practice polygamy but we find in the historical record something polygamy but we find in the historical record something of interest. Marriages that are recorded usually show of interest. Marriages that are recorded usually show an age difference between grooms and their brides of an age difference between grooms and their brides of 18+ years. Men were expected to marry at age 30 and 18+ years. Men were expected to marry at age 30 and over to girls 12 and up.over to girls 12 and up.

Though primogeniture was not practice the first Though primogeniture was not practice the first born did get the better part of the inheritance born did get the better part of the inheritance with younger sons and daughters dividing the with younger sons and daughters dividing the remainder of the inheritance between each remainder of the inheritance between each other. What is the importance or significance other. What is the importance or significance of practicing a degree of primogeniture in order of practicing a degree of primogeniture in order to maintain the system stable?to maintain the system stable?

Another interesting feature of Mesopotamian Another interesting feature of Mesopotamian culture that we are able to witness at this time culture that we are able to witness at this time is the large degree of literate people referred to is the large degree of literate people referred to in the sources. It seems that a large percent of in the sources. It seems that a large percent of the population were literate.the population were literate.

We also see a clearer definition of the division of labor We also see a clearer definition of the division of labor among the classes in society. The male government among the classes in society. The male government laborers were expected to give 10 days of service out laborers were expected to give 10 days of service out of each month to the royal fields.of each month to the royal fields.

One of the strongest city states of the time was One of the strongest city states of the time was Babylon which has given the name to the civilization of Babylon which has given the name to the civilization of the time period. Babylonian society is best the time period. Babylonian society is best remembered for the set of legal codes that the famous remembered for the set of legal codes that the famous king Hammurrapi (1795 – 1750 BCE) gave to his city king Hammurrapi (1795 – 1750 BCE) gave to his city delineating what punishment to exact for specific delineating what punishment to exact for specific crimes. As well as dealing with other legal matters.crimes. As well as dealing with other legal matters.

Under the reign of Hammurrapi Babylonian Under the reign of Hammurrapi Babylonian Civilization enjoyed prosperous trade with other Civilization enjoyed prosperous trade with other civilizations as far as India, Anatolia and Egypt.civilizations as far as India, Anatolia and Egypt.

Around 1700 BCE social and economic conditions Around 1700 BCE social and economic conditions began to deteriorate and it is not clear why. It is began to deteriorate and it is not clear why. It is probable that government officials began to probable that government officials began to overtax the peasantry and times of drought had overtax the peasantry and times of drought had made many farms run into financial problems. made many farms run into financial problems. The king passed an edict that forgave many debts The king passed an edict that forgave many debts and regulated certain prices of goods so that and regulated certain prices of goods so that farmers’ economic conditions could be alleviated.farmers’ economic conditions could be alleviated.

This has actually created a huge divide in history This has actually created a huge divide in history regarding the interpretation of how to view the royal regarding the interpretation of how to view the royal intervention on behalf of the lower classes within intervention on behalf of the lower classes within Babylonian society. Some historians see this action Babylonian society. Some historians see this action as akin to an elementary form of socialism or as akin to an elementary form of socialism or paternalism on behalf of the state while others who paternalism on behalf of the state while others who debunk the paternalism theory or are biased against debunk the paternalism theory or are biased against naming any ancient system of welfare as socialist naming any ancient system of welfare as socialist argue that it was difficult for the administration to argue that it was difficult for the administration to effectively enforce the decree of the king and effectively enforce the decree of the king and therefore none existing and a point without the need therefore none existing and a point without the need to discuss. What is the importance of discussing to discuss. What is the importance of discussing these issues though?these issues though?

Egypt 2000 – 1600 BCEEgypt 2000 – 1600 BCE Egypt from 2000 – 1800 BCE covers Egypt from 2000 – 1800 BCE covers

what Egyptologist call the Middle what Egyptologist call the Middle Kingdom Egypt. It is a time when the Kingdom Egypt. It is a time when the Egyptians once again assert their Egyptians once again assert their hegemony over the territory south and hegemony over the territory south and east of them.east of them.

Egyptians were carrying mining operations for Egyptians were carrying mining operations for gold and other precious metals in the Sinai area gold and other precious metals in the Sinai area east of the Nile and invading and setting up forts east of the Nile and invading and setting up forts as far south as the Sudan. It is also a period as far south as the Sudan. It is also a period that witnessed a reestablishment of trade with that witnessed a reestablishment of trade with Syria and Palestine.Syria and Palestine.

Egyptian culture also begins to influence many Egyptian culture also begins to influence many cultures of the Levant particularly the city of cultures of the Levant particularly the city of Byblos which began to adopt and emulate much Byblos which began to adopt and emulate much of Egyptian culture.of Egyptian culture.

Under the king Amunemhet I (1991-1962 BCE) the Nile Under the king Amunemhet I (1991-1962 BCE) the Nile valley underwent massive irrigation improvements so valley underwent massive irrigation improvements so that more land was cultivated effectively. Amunemhet I that more land was cultivated effectively. Amunemhet I was also responsible for the building of the Fayyum was also responsible for the building of the Fayyum Oasis popular in antiquity.Oasis popular in antiquity.

The sources of this period also allow us to glimpse the The sources of this period also allow us to glimpse the class divisions apparent in Egyptian society by the class divisions apparent in Egyptian society by the administering of food rations to workers. Laborers at administering of food rations to workers. Laborers at the bottom of the ladder would receive 5/6 of the typical the bottom of the ladder would receive 5/6 of the typical rations of bread and beer while ‘supervisors’ would rations of bread and beer while ‘supervisors’ would receive 5 times as much.receive 5 times as much.

Buildings such as pyramids in this time period Buildings such as pyramids in this time period became much smaller as the king did not became much smaller as the king did not possess the authority enjoyed by his possess the authority enjoyed by his predecessors to build the magnificent buildings predecessors to build the magnificent buildings of the previous millennia.of the previous millennia.

In the upper classes polygamy was practiced In the upper classes polygamy was practiced by the men, which differed from Mesopotamian by the men, which differed from Mesopotamian society in which both men and women were society in which both men and women were allowed to marry more than one person.allowed to marry more than one person.

Egypt, Nubians, and Hyksos 18Egypt, Nubians, and Hyksos 18thth--1616thth centuries BCE centuries BCE

Around 1786 BCE and lasting roughly 230 Around 1786 BCE and lasting roughly 230 years the Egyptian Empire underwent a years the Egyptian Empire underwent a decline and was invaded by Nubian people decline and was invaded by Nubian people in the south who conquered Upper Egypt in the south who conquered Upper Egypt and ruled as pharaohs from 1700 – 1540 and ruled as pharaohs from 1700 – 1540 BCE and a people known as Hyksos (from BCE and a people known as Hyksos (from Heqa-Khase ‘rulers of foreign lands’) 1630-Heqa-Khase ‘rulers of foreign lands’) 1630-1520’s BCE who ruled in Lower Egypt.1520’s BCE who ruled in Lower Egypt.

Hyksos were an amalgamation of a possible Hyksos were an amalgamation of a possible Amorite majority mixed with Hurrians, other Amorite majority mixed with Hurrians, other Anatolians, some Indo Europeans and some Anatolians, some Indo Europeans and some other Semitic groups- who were pushed into other Semitic groups- who were pushed into migrations by the expanding Hittite (Nes) migrations by the expanding Hittite (Nes) Empire in Anatolia. Empire in Anatolia.

The archaeological record seems to show that The archaeological record seems to show that throughout the Ancient world from India, throughout the Ancient world from India, Mesopotamia, Middle East, Anatolia and Egypt Mesopotamia, Middle East, Anatolia and Egypt many of these civilizations underwent some many of these civilizations underwent some kind of territorial invasions of groups of people kind of territorial invasions of groups of people identified as Indo-Europeans.identified as Indo-Europeans.

This could quite possibly be the second wave This could quite possibly be the second wave of Indo-European invasions throughout the of Indo-European invasions throughout the ancient world.ancient world.

This period is known as the Second This period is known as the Second Intermediate Period in Egypt and the Hyksos Intermediate Period in Egypt and the Hyksos ruled the Nile Delta and conquered as far down ruled the Nile Delta and conquered as far down as certain areas of Upper Egypt.as certain areas of Upper Egypt.

Their capital in Egypt was in Avaris.Their capital in Egypt was in Avaris. Art from Avaris has parallels with Minoan art in Art from Avaris has parallels with Minoan art in

Thera and Knossos.Thera and Knossos.

The Hyksos are perhaps the first group to The Hyksos are perhaps the first group to develop a writing system that is develop a writing system that is representative of the system in use representative of the system in use today. Each consonant is assigned a today. Each consonant is assigned a symbol. This writing system has symbol. This writing system has arguably been dated between 1700 – arguably been dated between 1700 – 1500 BCE and it was found at the foot of 1500 BCE and it was found at the foot of Mt. Sinai.Mt. Sinai.

The Hyksos allowed further expansion of The Hyksos allowed further expansion of Egyptian culture not only throughout the Middle Egyptian culture not only throughout the Middle East but possibly the Aegean as well. East but possibly the Aegean as well.

Inter-cultural diffusion of ideas but with huge Inter-cultural diffusion of ideas but with huge Egyptian cultural supremacy permeated to Egyptian cultural supremacy permeated to Syria, Palestine, Israel, and Byblos under the Syria, Palestine, Israel, and Byblos under the Hyksos. Hyksos.

What is interesting though is that the Hyksos What is interesting though is that the Hyksos retained the Cuneiform of writing of retained the Cuneiform of writing of Mesopotamia during this exchange of ideas Mesopotamia during this exchange of ideas and culture.and culture.

By 1523 BCE the Egyptians overthrew By 1523 BCE the Egyptians overthrew the Hyksos and reestablished native the Hyksos and reestablished native control over the Nile Delta. control over the Nile Delta.

They pushed the Hyksos out of Egypt and They pushed the Hyksos out of Egypt and gave them a final defeat in Sharuhen.gave them a final defeat in Sharuhen.

It is possible that remnants of the Hyksos It is possible that remnants of the Hyksos joined other groups that were escaping joined other groups that were escaping harsh taxing conditions in Mesopotamia harsh taxing conditions in Mesopotamia and formed communities that engaged in and formed communities that engaged in marauding desert caravans-Hapiru or marauding desert caravans-Hapiru or Habiru.Habiru.

Mesopotamia 1600 – 1400 BCEMesopotamia 1600 – 1400 BCE The period between 1600 – 1100 is one in The period between 1600 – 1100 is one in

which Mesopotamian history experiences a which Mesopotamian history experiences a lack of written sources so that not much is lack of written sources so that not much is known about the period. What we have been known about the period. What we have been able to recover though leaves no doubt that it able to recover though leaves no doubt that it was a period that witnessed many dynamics was a period that witnessed many dynamics that reshaped Mesopotamia and its neighbors.that reshaped Mesopotamia and its neighbors.

Mesopotamia was invaded again by semi-Mesopotamia was invaded again by semi-nomadic groups between 1600 – 1400. The nomadic groups between 1600 – 1400. The Kassites took possession of the south and Kassites took possession of the south and many Babylonian kings of the period seem to many Babylonian kings of the period seem to be of Kassite origin. be of Kassite origin.

In the north a war like group of people took In the north a war like group of people took possession of the region and eventually possession of the region and eventually expanded their empire to incorporate parts of expanded their empire to incorporate parts of Turkey and territory to the east. Turkey and territory to the east.

These people were the Assyrians a military These people were the Assyrians a military technologically advance group of people.technologically advance group of people.

It is possible that developments in It is possible that developments in Anatolia regarding military technology Anatolia regarding military technology were adopted and adapted by Assyrians were adopted and adapted by Assyrians which in turn helped the Assyrians which in turn helped the Assyrians become a military superpower.become a military superpower.

Towards the end of the period a group of Towards the end of the period a group of people that will populate more of the people that will populate more of the Levant start moving into Mesopotamia. Levant start moving into Mesopotamia. These Arameans will eventually become These Arameans will eventually become a large semi-nomadic group of people a large semi-nomadic group of people their cultural legacy will be to give their their cultural legacy will be to give their language to much of the region.language to much of the region.

Social conditions in Mesopotamia around this Social conditions in Mesopotamia around this time seemed to have undergone a decline in time seemed to have undergone a decline in stability. stability.

Less canals were built to assist in irrigation Less canals were built to assist in irrigation which in turn affected the agricultural which in turn affected the agricultural economy of which Mesopotamia was so economy of which Mesopotamia was so dependent. dependent.

This in turn led to higher taxes and in short a This in turn led to higher taxes and in short a chaotic period.chaotic period.

These exploitative mechanisms led to many These exploitative mechanisms led to many individuals escaping the cities in order to individuals escaping the cities in order to escape enslavement for debts, or escape their escape enslavement for debts, or escape their debts themselves and become brigands debts themselves and become brigands assaulting desert caravans. These brigands assaulting desert caravans. These brigands were known to the Mesopotamians as the were known to the Mesopotamians as the ‘dusty’ ones or apiru, habiru, hapiru from which ‘dusty’ ones or apiru, habiru, hapiru from which some historians claim the name Hebrew some historians claim the name Hebrew originated. originated.

This phenomenon coincides with the supposed This phenomenon coincides with the supposed story in the Bible of the Patriarchs of the Jews story in the Bible of the Patriarchs of the Jews who wondered the land.who wondered the land.

Habiru, Hapiru, or Habiru, Hapiru, or HebrewsHebrews

The Bible claims that the Exodus The Bible claims that the Exodus occurred 480 years before the occurred 480 years before the construction of King Solomon’s Temple.construction of King Solomon’s Temple.

From this information Judaic scholars From this information Judaic scholars calculate the Exodus occurring in 1313 calculate the Exodus occurring in 1313 BCE.BCE.

However the archaeologist do not However the archaeologist do not support this theory and have moved the support this theory and have moved the date to 1250-1200 BCE.date to 1250-1200 BCE.

This is contested This is contested by other group of by other group of scholars by claiming scholars by claiming that Canaanite that Canaanite cities (particularly Jericho) do not show cities (particularly Jericho) do not show signs of sieges or battles for 1250-1200 signs of sieges or battles for 1250-1200 BCE.BCE.

Scholars therefore have reached a Scholars therefore have reached a compromise that the group of people compromise that the group of people identifying themselves as Israelites identifying themselves as Israelites manifest themselves in the historical manifest themselves in the historical record before 1213 BCE but not before record before 1213 BCE but not before 1450 BCE1450 BCE

The system that existed at the time has been The system that existed at the time has been compared to medieval feudalism in Europe compared to medieval feudalism in Europe were a lord had possession of the land granted were a lord had possession of the land granted to him by a monarch. In turn the peasants on to him by a monarch. In turn the peasants on the land worked for the lord and in turn the lord the land worked for the lord and in turn the lord paid taxes to the monarch in money or kind. paid taxes to the monarch in money or kind. The system was different in that unlike his later The system was different in that unlike his later European counterpart the European counterpart the Mesopotamian/Babylonian lord did not have Mesopotamian/Babylonian lord did not have judicial or civil authority over the peasants on judicial or civil authority over the peasants on the land.the land.

This forces a question of why the This forces a question of why the European versions of slavery or European versions of slavery or feudalism were much harsher than the feudalism were much harsher than the ancient or contemporary versions of ancient or contemporary versions of these institutions in other these institutions in other civilizations? civilizations?

Harsh socio-economic conditions Harsh socio-economic conditions give rise to Assyrian military mightgive rise to Assyrian military might

Economic and social conditions deteriorated Economic and social conditions deteriorated quickly at the time that many free peasants quickly at the time that many free peasants who had fallen into debt had to sell their land to who had fallen into debt had to sell their land to the elite and at times either become indentured the elite and at times either become indentured servants or slaves in order to support their servants or slaves in order to support their families. Other times they sold the land and if families. Other times they sold the land and if this was not enough to get out of debt they this was not enough to get out of debt they would join the Assyrian military in order to get a would join the Assyrian military in order to get a set income plus ability to plunder in order to set income plus ability to plunder in order to feed families.feed families.

From the surviving documentation of From the surviving documentation of Mesopotamian society we are able to Mesopotamian society we are able to determine that men constituted the higher determine that men constituted the higher percentage of slaves within Mesopotamian percentage of slaves within Mesopotamian society.society.

In fact economic conditions in towards the In fact economic conditions in towards the 1100’s seem to show that whole villages had 1100’s seem to show that whole villages had fallen into debt and in turn the entire village fallen into debt and in turn the entire village became enslaved to the elite.became enslaved to the elite.

Some documents in the Assyrian capital Some documents in the Assyrian capital cities have come to light that show some cities have come to light that show some men becoming indentured servants for men becoming indentured servants for ten years after which time if they have ten years after which time if they have survived their term of service they can survived their term of service they can get a wife from the household they have get a wife from the household they have served.served.

This forces us to reevaluate what This forces us to reevaluate what many feminist scholars claim has many feminist scholars claim has been the systematic oppression of been the systematic oppression of women throughout history when we women throughout history when we see men willingly submitting see men willingly submitting themselves to indentured servitude to themselves to indentured servitude to get a wife on the one hand and get a wife on the one hand and enslave themselves to feed their enslave themselves to feed their families on the other. How so?families on the other. How so?

Some documents from Assyria do Some documents from Assyria do demonstrate that women in society had demonstrate that women in society had to live fairly restrictive lives for example in to live fairly restrictive lives for example in public they had to wear veils and cover public they had to wear veils and cover their faces but at the same time we have their faces but at the same time we have documents that show that they enjoyed documents that show that they enjoyed legal rights and were able to own legal rights and were able to own property much like in previous centuries property much like in previous centuries of Mesopotamian history.of Mesopotamian history.

Some scholars see in the arranged marriages Some scholars see in the arranged marriages of the period for political reasons the of the period for political reasons the oppression and exploitation of the females in oppression and exploitation of the females in royal families but what is failed to mention is royal families but what is failed to mention is that these women exercised a lot of control in that these women exercised a lot of control in the households that they were married into. the households that they were married into. We have examples of female royalty after they We have examples of female royalty after they have become widowed making demands that have become widowed making demands that they want foreign princes that is male royalty of they want foreign princes that is male royalty of another civilization for a groom.another civilization for a groom.

Egypt 1600 – 1400 BCEEgypt 1600 – 1400 BCE New kingdom Egypt during this period New kingdom Egypt during this period

became an offensive power in order to try became an offensive power in order to try to minimize the possibility of the period to minimize the possibility of the period that had preceded it and the Hyksos that had preceded it and the Hyksos invasion of the 1800 BCE. invasion of the 1800 BCE.

Egyptian power chose to expand its sphere of Egyptian power chose to expand its sphere of military power and borders in order to ensure military power and borders in order to ensure governmental stability at home. This is the era governmental stability at home. This is the era in which Egypt begins to clash with the Semitic in which Egypt begins to clash with the Semitic powers in the Levant and farther north with the powers in the Levant and farther north with the Hittites.Hittites.

Marriage alliances in order to ensure the peace Marriage alliances in order to ensure the peace became fairly common place between Hittites, became fairly common place between Hittites, Egyptians, and Mesopotamian civilizations.Egyptians, and Mesopotamian civilizations.

Aegean 1600 – 1400 BCEAegean 1600 – 1400 BCE In the islands of the Aegean and other In the islands of the Aegean and other

parts of the Mediterranean there were parts of the Mediterranean there were many sophisticated civilizations many sophisticated civilizations progressing during this period though the progressing during this period though the fact that the writing system has not been fact that the writing system has not been deciphered hampers any ability to deciphered hampers any ability to understand the extent of their understand the extent of their sophistication. sophistication.

In the island of Crete a civilization called Minoan had In the island of Crete a civilization called Minoan had already developed a sophisticated writing system already developed a sophisticated writing system known as Linear A that has yet to be deciphered by known as Linear A that has yet to be deciphered by scholars.scholars.

Minoan society built complex palace structures with Minoan society built complex palace structures with sophisticated systems of irrigation and indoor sophisticated systems of irrigation and indoor plumbing. They also had complex store houses and plumbing. They also had complex store houses and seem to have been a maritime empire in the sense that seem to have been a maritime empire in the sense that they controlled a large monopoly in trade of the they controlled a large monopoly in trade of the Mediterranean. Nothing that has emerged from the Mediterranean. Nothing that has emerged from the archaeological record sheds any light to the Minoans archaeological record sheds any light to the Minoans being a military power.being a military power.

There seems to have been contact There seems to have been contact between Minoan Civilization and the between Minoan Civilization and the islands off the coast of Sicily, the islands off the coast of Sicily, the Cyclades, Thera and smaller islands Cyclades, Thera and smaller islands throughout the Mediterranean though to throughout the Mediterranean though to what extent is hard to decipher.what extent is hard to decipher.

Hittites 1600-1400 BCEHittites 1600-1400 BCE Around 1700 BCE in the second wave of Indo-Around 1700 BCE in the second wave of Indo-

European migrations throughout Eurasia a European migrations throughout Eurasia a group of people came to settle the Central group of people came to settle the Central Anatolian region. These warriors soon Anatolian region. These warriors soon incorporated the native elements of Hurrians incorporated the native elements of Hurrians and other Indo-European elements into their and other Indo-European elements into their ranks and established a capital at a city called ranks and established a capital at a city called Hattusa from which they derived their name: Hattusa from which they derived their name: Hittites.Hittites.

The Hittites were a sophisticated group of The Hittites were a sophisticated group of mix people who by 1500 BCE had begun mix people who by 1500 BCE had begun to use iron as a metal for their arsenal of to use iron as a metal for their arsenal of war. Much stronger than bronze and war. Much stronger than bronze and able to hold an edge the warriors thus able to hold an edge the warriors thus equipped were far superior to any of their equipped were far superior to any of their contemporaries in the Levant, contemporaries in the Levant, Mesopotamia or the Aegean.Mesopotamia or the Aegean.

The Hittite military also are the first group in the ancient The Hittite military also are the first group in the ancient world that we have a record of employing advanced world that we have a record of employing advanced mobile military tactics. They are the inventors of the mobile military tactics. They are the inventors of the horse drawn war chariot that would eventually spread horse drawn war chariot that would eventually spread throughout Europe, North Africa, Middle East, India throughout Europe, North Africa, Middle East, India and as far as China (250 years later). These fast and as far as China (250 years later). These fast moving mobile units were able to destroy the standing moving mobile units were able to destroy the standing armies of Hittite enemies by means of missile weapons armies of Hittite enemies by means of missile weapons (archery and javelins) and fast hit and run tactics that (archery and javelins) and fast hit and run tactics that often caused the disintegration of the foot soldier ranks often caused the disintegration of the foot soldier ranks in the press of battle.in the press of battle.

The Hittites employed a form of script The Hittites employed a form of script that is related to Cuneiform but by the that is related to Cuneiform but by the late 1200’s they had begun to employ a late 1200’s they had begun to employ a more consonant phonetic alphabet with more consonant phonetic alphabet with 30 characters representative of the 30 characters representative of the sound of the first letter of a word i.e. Beth sound of the first letter of a word i.e. Beth (cow) (b) or Gamil (camel) (g) etc.(cow) (b) or Gamil (camel) (g) etc.

The Hittites by 1400 BCE had expanded east The Hittites by 1400 BCE had expanded east and west and had come into conflict with the and west and had come into conflict with the Hurrians to the east and the Egyptians to the Hurrians to the east and the Egyptians to the south. The Hittites with their superior military south. The Hittites with their superior military technology were exercising control of the technology were exercising control of the Levant as far south as Syria, Lebanon and part Levant as far south as Syria, Lebanon and part of what would become Israel. Contact between of what would become Israel. Contact between Egypt and Hittite Empire was made up of Egypt and Hittite Empire was made up of constant war and border disputes as well as constant war and border disputes as well as challenge to areas of economic and political challenge to areas of economic and political influence.influence.

The Hittite language itself is described as The Hittite language itself is described as having foreign indiscernible elements as well having foreign indiscernible elements as well as much Semitic Canaanite features. The as much Semitic Canaanite features. The Hittites had ongoing contact with island Hittites had ongoing contact with island civilizations of the Aegean including Cyprus civilizations of the Aegean including Cyprus and Minoan Crete.and Minoan Crete.

Hittite religion seemed to incorporate the Hittite religion seemed to incorporate the deities of groups they had conquered and deities of groups they had conquered and assimilated into their empire and it is believed assimilated into their empire and it is believed that Hittite religion would eventually come to that Hittite religion would eventually come to influence later Greek pantheon. influence later Greek pantheon.