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facts about

facts about

BACKPACK BOOKS

dinosAurs

FACTSABOUT

SAUROPELTA

IGUANODON

MEGALOSAURUSTOOTH

DORLING KINDERSLEYLondon • New York • Stuttgart

HYPSILOPHODON

TRICERATOPSSKULL

STEGOSAURUS

Written byNEIL CLARK

and WILLIAM LINDSAYWith additional material

from Dougal Dixon

BACKPACK BOOKS

dinosAurs

FACTSABOUT

LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH, MELBOURNE AND DELHI

Editor Simon MugfordDesigner Dan Green

Senior editor Andrew MacintyreDesign manager Jane Thomas

Category Publisher Sue GrabhamProduction Nicola Torode

With thanks to the original teamEditor Bernadette Crowley

Art editors Ann Cannings / Sheilagh NobleSenior editor Susan McKeever

Senior art editor Helen SeniorPicture research Caroline Brooke

First American Edition, 2002

Published in the United States byDK Publishing, Inc.,375 Hudson Street,

New York, NY 10014

This edition copyright © 2002 Dorling Kindersley LimitedPockets Dinosaur copyright © 1995 Dorling Kindersley Ltd

Some of the material in this book originally appeared in PocketsDinosaur, published by Dorling Kindersley Ltd.

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American CopyrightConventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic,photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission

of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by DorlingKindersley Limited.

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 0-7894-8448-XColor reproduction by Colourscan

Printed and bound in Singapore by Star StandardSee our complete product line at

www.dk.com

INTRODUCTION TO DINOSAURS 8

What are dinosaurs? 10Discovering dinosaurs 16

Dinosaur world 22Dinosaur anatomy 32 Dinosaur lifestyles 46The first dinosaurs 56

Dinosaur extinction 58

SAURISCHIAN DINOSAURS 60

About saurischians 62 Theropods 64 Carnosaurs 66

Ornithomimosaurs 72Oviraptosaurs 74Troodontids 76

Dromaeosaurids 78

CONTENTS

Other theropods 80 Dinosaurs and birds 82 Sauropodomorphs 84

Prosauropods 86 Sauropods 88

ORNITHISCHIAN DINOSAURS 92

About ornithischians 94 Stegosaurs 96

Ankylosaurs 100 Ornithopods 104Iguanodonts 106 Hadrosaurs 108

Pachycephalosaurs 114Ceratopsians 116

REPTILES OF THE SEA AND AIR 122

About sea and air reptiles 124 Reptiles at sea 126

Reptiles in the air 130

DINOSAUR FACTS 134

Early discoveries 136The dinosaur hunters 138

The world of the dinosaurs 140Meat-eaters 142Plant-eaters 144

Armored dinosaurs 146Zoogeography 148

Dinosaur preservation 150More dinosaur peers 154

Trace fossils 156Dinosaur lifestyles 158

Dinosaur controversies 160Fantasy and fiction 162Dinosaur records 164

Dinosaur miscellany 166

REFERENCE SECTION 168

Dinosaur discoverers 170Reptiles classified 174Dinosaurs classified 176Records and myths 178

Digging up dinosaurs 180

Resources 182 Pronunciation guide 184

Glossary 186 Index 188

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INTRODUCTIONTO DINOSAURS

WHAT ARE DINOSAURS? 10

DISCOVERING DINOSAURS 16

DINOSAUR WORLD 22

DINOSAUR ANATOMY 32

DINOSAUR LIFESTYLES 46

THE FIRST DINOSAURS 56

DINOSAUR EXTINCTION 58

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WHAT ARE DINOSAURS?ABOUT 225 MILLION YEARS AGO, a new group of reptiles appeared on Earth. Like all reptiles, they hadwaterproof, scaly skin and young that hatched fromeggs. These were the dinosaurs. For the next 160million years they ruled the Earth,before finally becoming extinct.

LAND LEGS

Dinosaurs were land animals –they could not swim or fly. Alldinosaurs had four limbs, but many,such as Tyrannosaurus rex, walkedon only their two back legs, leaving thefront legs free for other tasks.

Tyrannosaurus killedprey with its strong jaws

and sharp teeth.Clawedhands

DINOSAUR DIVISIONS

Dinosaurs are divided into two groups based on theshape of their hips: saurischians (lizard-hipped)and ornithischians (bird-hipped). Saurischians had

one lower hipbone pointing downward andforward, and the other downward

and backward. Ornithischianshad their two lowerhipbones pointingdownward andbackward.

TYRANNOSAURUSREX

(LIZARD-HIPPED)

IGUANODON(BIRD-HIPPED)

Powerful neckmuscles were needed

for ripping flesh from prey.

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TIME LINES

Dinosaurs lived throughthree periods in the Earth’shistory – Triassic, Jurassic,and Cretaceous. Differentspecies of dinosaur livedand died throughout thesethree periods.Each speciesmay havesurvived for only 2-3 million years.

Millions ofyears ago

Waterproof skin was covered

in scales

Muscular tailbalanced the front

of the body

Powerfullegs

CRETACEOUS

JURASSIC

TRIASSIC

Triceratops

Stegosaurus

Herrerasaurus

LIVING REPTILES

Modern reptiles, such as this iguana, havemany features in common with dinosaurs,such as scaly skin and sharp claws.But many scientists believe thatbirds, rather than modernreptiles, are the closestliving relatives ofthe dinosaurs.

65-145

145-208

208-245

Period Examples of dinosaurs from each periodW

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Types of dinosaurDinosaur designs were varied andspectacular. A group of dinosaurs calledthe sauropods were the largest land animalsthat ever lived. The smallest dinosaurswere dog-sized. Large or small, all wouldhave been wary of hungry meat eaters. Somedinosaurs had armored skin for protection.

Others were fast runnersand could escape

predators by fleeingto safer ground.

DINOSAUR TERROR

Tyrannosaurus rex andother fierce meateaters had huge, sharpteeth with which theykilled prey.

HERBIVORES

There were many more herbivores(plant eaters) than carnivores(meat eaters) in the dinosaur world.A herbivore called Stegosaurus hada sharp beak for cropping leavesoff plants.

ONE OF THE BIGGEST

Heavier than eight elephants and more than80 ft (24 m) long, Barosaurus, a sauropod,was one of the biggest dinosaurs.

Compsognathusreached just below

Barosaurus’s ankle.

Barosaurus’ tailwas about 43 ft(13 m) long.

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ONE OF THE SMALLEST

Fully grown when only 3 ft(1m) long, Compsognathus,a carnivore, was oneof the smallestdinosaurs.

SPIKY PROTECTION

The slow-moving ankylosaurs, which wereherbivores, had armored skin for protection fromsharp-toothed carnivores. Edmontonia had bonyplates and spikes on its skin. It lived at the sametime and in the same places as Tyrannosaurus rex,so it needed all the protection its armor could give.

Thicklegs

Rows ofthick plates

Sharp spinesat the side

Barosaurus’extremely long neckwas balanced by its

very long tail.

See the size of Compsognathus compared

to Barosaurus at the bottom of page 12.

Compsognathus had longlegs for running fast.

DINOSAUR FACTS

• There were aboutthirty times moreherbivores thancarnivores.• The fastest dinosaurswere the theropods,which ran on two legs.• Dinosaurs did not flyor live in the sea.• The sauropods werethe largest dinosaurs.

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More types of dinosaurWe will never know how many differentkinds of dinosaur existed over the 160million years of their existence.We do know that somefossil remains belong notto the dinosaurs butto swimming andflying relatives.

Iguanodontraveled around

in herds.

Armssometimes used

for walking

Strong plant-chewing

jaws

VERY RARE

Baryonyx is one ofthe rarest dinosaurs

known. Only onespecimen of this

hook-clawed carnivore has been

found so far.

A hookedclaw on

each hand Baryonyxwalked ontwo legs.

Baryonyx wasabout 33 ft

(10 m) long.

Longjaws

Flexibleneck

VERY COMMON

Iguanodon was a commondinosaur. In one

location, between1878-81, coal miners in Belgium dug up

more than 39 Iguanodon skeletons.

Iguanodon wasabout 291⁄2 ft (9 m) long.

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FAST RUNNER

Hypsilophodon, a small, nimbleherbivore, had no armour orsharp, fighting claws. Onedefence when in dangerwas to run off on itslong, bird-like legs. At high speed,Hypsilophodon might have reachedspeeds of around 25 km/h (15 mph).

Stiff tail helpedHypsilophodon keep its

balance when running fast.

Short armshad five-fingeredhands.

THESE ARE NOT DINOSAURS

While the dinosaurs ruled the land, their reptilerelatives, the pterosaurs, ruled the air above, andthe ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs ruled the oceans.Dinosaurs did not fly or live in water.

At about 50 ft(51m) long,

Shonisaurus was the largest

ichthyosaur known.

The wings ofpterosaurs, such as

Pterodactylus, weremade of skin

stretched between the body and thelong finger bones,

somewhat liketoday’s bats.

Ankle

Hypsilophodonwas about 61⁄2 ft

(2 m) long.Long foot

bones increasedleg length

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DISCOVERING DINOSAURSEVERYTHING WE KNOW about dinosaurs isbased on their fossilized remains. These arepieced together to make the skeletons wesee in museums. Sir Richard Owen, thefamous dinosaur expert, first named somereptile fossils as dinosaurs in 1841.

FossilsFossils are the remains of ancient living things buriedand preserved in rocks. Most fossils were formed fromtough body parts, such as the bones of animals or thewoody parts of plants. Fossilization is a very slowprocess – it usually takes millions of years.

TOUGH TOOTH

Worn surfaces onfossilized teeth showhow different dinosaursate in different ways.

FOSSIL EGGSHELL

Dinosaur eggshells,such as this fragment from asauropod egg, were hard enoughto be preserved as fossils.

OLD CONES

These pine conesfrom the Cretaceousperiod weretough enoughto fossilize.

FOSSIL BONES

Sometimeswhen bones

fossilize, slowchemical processes

capture every detail oftheir original innerstructure and outer

shape. Even when bonesare cracked and crushed, itis possible to identify scars

where muscles were attached.

SAUROPODTOOTH

FOSSILIZEDCONES

SAUROPODEGGSHELL

FRAGMENT

SIR RICHARD OWEN(1804-92)

IGUANODONCALF BONE

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STORY OF A DINOSAUR FOSSIL

The dinosaur Struthiomimus lies deadon a riverbank. For Struthiomimus to

have a chance of fossilization, it must be buried quickly before it rots away.

Buried under many layers of sediment,over millions of years, the hard parts

of Struthiomimus change to stony fossils.

Earth movements and erosion exposethe skeleton at the surface. A scientist

starts to chip away the surrounding rock.

UNCOVERED FOSSIL

An almost perfect fossil ofStruthiomimus, lying in its deathpose, has been carefully uncovered.Studying this skeleton gives scientistsmore clues in the dinosaur puzzle.

Longrear leg

Saurischianpelvis

It is rare to find a perfectlypreserved whole

skeleton.

Fossilization occursmainly in silt or clay

underwater.

1 2

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Finebones

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Preparing dinosaursAs scientists gain a better under-standing of the way dinosaurs lived,museums try to arrange dinosaurskeletons in a variety of poses.Scientists at the American Museumof Natural History in New Yorkbuilt an exciting display. Theyshowed a Barosaurus skeletonrearing up, defending its youngagainst an attacking Allosaurus.Since the fossil bones of Barosauruswere very fragile and too heavy todisplay in such a pose, a lightweightreplica of the skeleton was made.

MAKING A MOLD

To make a mold of an originalbone, liquid rubber is painted onto the surface of the bone andleft to set. When the rubber hasset, it is removed from the bonein sections. It is then supportedby cotton gauze and surroundedwith a plastic jacket.

POURING THE MOLD

The inside of the rubber moldsare painted with liquid plasticand strengthened by sheets offiberglass. The mold sectionsare then joined together torecreate thebone’s shape,and are filledwith plasticfoam.

Pouring theplastic foam

into the bone cast

FINISHING TOUCHES

The joins in the cast bonesare smoothed by filing. The plastic bones are thenpainted to match the colours of the original bones.

Filing awaythe rough edges

of the joins

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MOVING THE CAST

The skeleton is completed in sectionsbefore being mounted in its finalposition. Since the casts are light-weight, it is quite easy to movethe skeleton in large sections,such as the entire ribcage.

Several museumworkers move

Barosaurus’ ribcage. PLACING THE NECK

Barosaurus ismounted on afiberglass replica ofa natural landscape.The height of theBarosaurus skeletonrearing up is over 50 ft (15 m). The neck has to be lifted by a craneand placedcarefully into itsfinal position.

A guide ropesteadies the neck asit is being raised.

WELDING TOGETHER

A supporting steel frameruns through the skeleton

sections. This frame waswelded to join the

sections together. Theoperation was carefully

planned, since anymistake would have

been very costly.

The welded jointsmust be very

strong to supportthe skeleton.

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Dinosaurs on displayThe most popular feature of manymuseums with natural history collectionsare the dinosaurs. Natural historymuseums around the world have dinosaurdisplays. Scientists use these museums forstoring fossils, and as laboratories forstudying dinosaurs and other fossils.

LIFE-SIZE SKELETON

Scientists and museum staff work together toconstruct a skeleton for display, such as this replicaTyrannosaurus rex skeleton. Full-size reconstructionsof dinosaurs give us an impression of how they mayhave looked. This is particularly effectivewith awesome giants likeTyrannosaurus.

STORING FOSSILS

The dinosaur fossils ondisplay in museums areoften just a fraction ofthe fossils the museumpossesses. Sometimesthousands of fossils arehoused in storerooms.

When running,Tyrannosaurus rexwould have held its

tail rigid forbalance.

The back leg boneswere thick to supportTyrannosaurus rex’s

enormous weight.

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PREPARING A SKELETON

Fossil dinosaur bones can be fragile and are often inpieces when first collected.Scientists use special tools toremove the rock surroundinga newly excavated fossil bone.This scientist is working on aTriceratops skull.

DINOSAUR DRAMAS

Many films and books portraydinosaurs and people as livingat the same time, althoughdinosaurs became extinct over60 million years before the firsthumans existed. Despite thisinaccuracy, dinosaur films andstories make people more awareof these fascinating animals.

Leg bone is astall as an

adult human

Large chest cavityheld the powerfulheart and lungs

The large hips werethe pivotal center

of the body.

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DINOSAUR WORLDTHE WORLD HAS NOT always looked the way it doestoday. Continents are constantly moving, and this very gradually changes the appearance of the Earth.The Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous worlds all lookedvery different from one another. Mountains grew up;erosion wore land away, and plants and animals,including the dinosaurs, appeared and disappeared.

Changing EarthThe Earth’s lithosphere (outer layer) is made up ofmassive plates, which move on the semimolten rockunderneath. Over millions of years plate movement has

caused continents to join together and separateto produce the distribution of land today.

MOVING PLATES

As the plates move, they either collide, whichsometimes forms mountain ranges, or theymove apart, forming new crust. When platesmove apart, molten mantle rock rises betweenthem, cools, and adds to the Earth’s crust.

Two platescolliding forms

mountainranges

Moltenmantle rocksurfaces toform new

crust.

The layer ofsemimolten rock

beneath thelithosphere is called

the mantle.

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PLATE BOUNDERIES

There are nine main plates andseveral smaller ones. The plates arein constant motion, moving at a rateof only a few inches each year.

TRIASSIC WORLD

In the Triassic period, whendinosaurs first appeared onEarth, all the land was joinedtogether forming one giganticcontinent. Scientists call thissupercontinent Pangaea.

JURASSIC WORLD

In the Jurassic period, Pangaeagradually split into twocontinents. The continentin the north, made of largelandmasses and smallerislands, is called Laurasia.The continent in the southis called Gondwanaland.

CRETACEOUS WORLD

Toward the end of theCretaceous period, thecontinents broke up intosmaller landmasses. Platescollided, forming the RockyMountains in North Americaand other mountain ranges.

Sometimes when twoplates meet, one slides

beneath the other.

WORLD MAP OF PLATES

Edge ofplate

TethysSea

Land wasjoined

together

Gondwanaland

Laurasia was madeup of northernlandmasses.

This landmassbecame South

America.

The constantmovement of theplates is called

continental drift.

Triassic worldThe Triassic period was the beginning of the Mesozoic era, whichlasted until the end of the Cretaceous period. The first dinosaursappeared in the Triassic period. These dinosaurs were agilecarnivores that evolved rapidly. Some became herbivores. Smallmammals also appeared at this time, as did the flying reptiles,

called pterosaurs.

PLANT LIFE

The biggest trees were conifers.These formed huge forests, together with cycads and ferns.Squat cycads and ferns wereground plants fed on by smalleranimals.

ORNITHOSUCHUS

CROCODILES

COELOPHYSIS

PLATEOSAURUS

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DINOSAUR LIFE

The number of herbivores, suchas Plateosaurus, increased during theTriassic period. They were stalked bycarnivorous dinosaurs, such as Herrerasaurus.Other reptiles lived alongside the dinosaurs,such as the piglike dicynodonts.

HERRERASAURUS

PLATEOSAURUS

DICYNODONTS

MELANOROSAURUS

This pterosaur,Preondactylus,had a wingspan

of about 5 ft (1.5 m).

LIFE IN THE AIR

The pterosaurs were cousins ofthe dinosaurs, and were theonly reptiles ever to fly. Theyflew above the conifer forestscatching insects. They mayalso have skimmed the waterof the rivers and seas for fish.

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Jurassic worldEarly in the Jurassic period, the herbivorous dinosaurs weremainly prosauropods and small ornithopods. By the late Jurassic,herds of giant sauropods roamed the land. These dinosaurs, aswell as other reptiles and mammals, fed on the lush plant life.The first birds appeared, but the pterosaurs remained the rulers of the skies.

RIVER LIFE

Crocodiles hunted in the rivers, feeding onother river animals suchas turtles, frogs, and fish.

TURTLE

CROCODILE

Dead dinosaurs were eaten by other

dinosaurs andscavenging crocodiles.

FROGS

STEGOSAURUS

DRYOSAURUS

ORNITHOLESTES

HERD OFSAUROPODSD

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PLANT LIFE

Cycads, conifers, and ginkgoesdominated the forests. Ferns andhorsetails provided a dense ground cover.

DINOSAUR LIFE

This was the age of thegiant dinosaurs. Herds of sauropods marched across plains feeding on treetops. Fiercecarnosaurs, such as Allosaurus, preyed on herbivoreslike Stegosaurus. Not all the dinosaurs were giants –tiny Compsognathus also lived in this period.

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Cretaceous worldIn the Cretaceous period, North America, Europe, and Asia were part of a much larger continent called Laurasia.Herbivorous dinosaurs, which included the ceratopsians andthe hadrosaurids, browsed among marshy lowlands. Thegiant sauropods became rare. In the late Cretaceousthe terrifying tyrannosaurids appeared.They were the top predators untilthe extinction of the dinosaurs,at the end of this period.

POLACANTHUS

CROCODILE

BARYONYX

DINOSAUR LIFE

Small herbivores were more common inthis period. Carnivores like Baryonyx mayhave lived on fish, while tyrannosauridsprobably fed on other dinosaurs.

BEETLEDRAGONFLY

COCKROACH

CRICKET

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PLANT LIFE

The early Cretaceous landscape abounded in conifersand ginkgoes, as in Jurassic times. Later in this period,flowering plants and shrubs became common, as didtrees such as oaks, maples, and walnuts.

IGUANODON

HERD OFHYPSILOPHODON

TURTLE

The herbivoreIguanodon ate

leaves from conifersand tall cycads.

Dinosaurs todayThe remains of dinosaurs have been discovered on every continent,and new dinosaur fossils are constantly being discovered. They may be found by scientists on expeditions, by amateur fossil hunters, or byaccident in places like building sites and underground mines. This mapof the modern world shows the locations of the major dinosaur finds.

NORTH AMERICA

Expeditions are alwaysbeing organized to searchfor dinosaurs in North America,since rocks from the dinosaur age are exposed over vast areas.The dinosaurs discovered hereinclude:

• Allosaurus • Corythosaurus• Triceratops • Stegosaurus• Deinonychus • Apatosaurus• Camarasaurus • Coelophysis• Parasaurolophus

ANTARCTICA

The climate in Antarctica

was much warmerin the dinosaur age than it istoday. The bones of several smallCretaceous period dinosaurshave been found here, includinga relative of the smallornithopod Hypsilophodon.

SOUTH

AMERICA

Most South Americandinosaurs have beenfound in Argentina andBrazil. Some of theearliest known dinosaurshave been found here. The South Americandinosaurs include:

• Saltasaurus• Herrerasaurus• Patagosaurus• Staurikosaurus• Piatnitzkyosaurus

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Africa is a rich source ofdinosaur fossils. A site inTanzania has held somemajor discoveries. Dinosaurs foundin Africa include:

• Spinosaurus • Barosaurus• Brachiosaurus • Massospondylus

AUSTRALIA AND

NEW ZEALAND

There have been many fossil findsin Australia, and onein New Zealand. Thereare probably many sitesrich in dinosaur fossilsin these countries, butthey have yet to befound. Dinosaurs foundin these countriesinclude:

• Muttaburrasaurus• Leaellynosaura• Austrosaurus• Rhoetosaurus• Minmi

ASIA

Manyexciting

discoveries ofdinosaurs have beenmade in the GobiDesert. Scientists arestill making newdiscoveries in Chinaand India. Dinosaursfound in Asia include:

• Velociraptor• Oviraptor• Protoceratops• Tuojiangosaurus• Mamenchisaurus• Gallimimus

EUROPE

It was here in the 19th centurythat the first dinosaur fossilswere collected and recorded, andwhere the name “dinosaur” was firstused. Dinosaurs found in Europe include:

• Hypsilophodon • Baryonyx• Iguanodon • Compsognathus• Plateosaurus • Eustreptospondylus

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Body powerThe shoulder and pelvic muscles were crucial areasof power for light, fast runners as well as slow,heavy plodders. The largestdinosaurs were not alwaysthe mightiest. Some of the smallestdinosaurs werepowerfulrunners.

PROTECTIVE CAGE

Like all dinosaurs,Brachiosaurus hada cage, formed fromvertebrae, ribs, andsheets of muscle, toprotect the vital

internal organs.

DINOSAUR ANATOMYTHE SIZE AND SHAPE of a dinosaur’s head, body, and legshelp us to tell one dinosaur from another, and also tellus how the body parts were used. From the skeletoninside to the scaly skin outside, each part of a dinosaurhelps build a picture of these amazing animals.

Shouldermuscles

Pelvicmuscles

Thighbone

Shinbone

Elbowjoint

Wristjoint

Toebone

Neckmuscles

Ribcage

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FIGHTING MALES

Strength and powerwere not always used to

kill. Male dinosaurs mayhave fought each otherover females or to winor defend territory. Beaten,and possibly bruised, theloser would need to moveon to other hunting grounds.

TWO MALECERATOSAURUS

FIGHTING

STRONG MUSCLES

Centrosaurus neededpowerful muscles tomove its heavy, bulky

body. Muscles attachedto the pelvis and shoulders pulled andlifted strong legs. When running fast,Centrosaurus would have been difficultto stop in its tracks.

ORNITHOLESTES

Small and lightweight, Ornitholestesused much of its energy poweringlong legs when chasingsmall prey such aslizards andmammals.

RibsBack

vertebrae

Slender legbones

Clawedhands

Ornitholesteswas 61⁄2 ft

(2 m) long.

Musclesin neck

frill

Shouldermuscles

Neckmuscles

Hipmuscles

Wristjoint

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HeadsCrests, frills, horns, and spikesadorned the heads of manydinosaurs. These decorationshelped dinosaurs identify oneanother and were sometimesused for signaling. In acompetition for territory, orcontrol of a herd, the dinosaurwith the most spectacular head mightwell have been the winner. Hornedherbivores may have used their weaponfor defense against hungry carnivores.

BIRD BEAK

Gallimimus ate plants, insects, and lizards with its

long, toothless beak. Itslarge-eyed skull looks very

much like that of a big bird.

Large eyesocket

Toothlessjaws

HEAD CREST

Oviraptors may have usedtheir head crest to signal to one another. Althoughtoothless, their beaked jawsmay have been powerfulenough to crush shellfish.

Strong jawswith beak

The size of the headcrest may have beenrecognized as a sign

of strength.

HORNS AND FRILLS

The ceratopsian group ofdinosaurs had heads with avariety of frills and horns. Theseplant eaters probably used suchdecorations to frighten offattackers or to attract a mate.

CENTROSAURUSHEAD

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STRONG SKULL

The massive head ofAlbertosaurus was built for strength. It couldwithstand the shock asAlbertosaurus crashed,open-mouthed, into itsprey. Huge jaws carriedthe deadly sharp teeth,and spaces in the skull leftroom for bulging muscles.

Toothedjaw

Large lowerjaw

Enormousteeth

CROSS-SECTION OFCORYTHOSAURUS SKULL

Hollowcrest

Nosepassages

NOISY CRESTS

Corythosauruscarried a plate of bonehigh on its head whichformed a crest. Males and femalesprobably had different-sized crestsfor recognizing each other. The crestsalso had tubes inside them with whichCorythosaurus was able to make sounds.

Air traveled throughthe crest tubes,making loud,

honking noises.

Nostril

Space formuscles

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STRONG AND LIGHT

The long neck of Diplodocus wasmade up of 15 vertebrae. These bones haddeep hollows inside them to make themlightweight, although they remained verystrong. A notch on top of the vertebrae carrieda strong ligament which supported the neck inthe way that wires support a suspension bridge.

NecksFor dinosaurs, as with other animals, the neckwas a vital channel between the head and body.Food passed from the mouth to the stomachthrough the neck; air was fed along the windpipebetween the nostrils and lungs; nerves carriedmessages to and from the brain and body, and

blood traveled through arteries and veins.All of these lifelines, as well as powerfulmuscles, were supported on the frame-work of neck vertebrae (neck bones).

LONG AND FLEXIBLE

Herbivorous long-necked dinosaurs like Barosaurusprobably used their flexible necks for cropping

leaves from a large area of low-lying foliage whilestanding still. But if they needed to, they could havereached up to the leaves in tall trees.

Muscles wereattached to

spines on thevertebrae

Barosaurus’sneck was 30 ft(9.1 m) long.

BAROSAURUSNECK VERTEBRA

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HEAD SUPPORT

Triceratops had anextension at theback of its skullmade of solidbone. This madethe skull very heavy. A short andvery strong neck was needed tosupport the huge weight.

LIKE AN OSTRICH

Gallimimus held its head high aboveits shoulders, like an ostrich. In thisposition, Gallimimus could swivelits head on its long neck to givegood vision in all directions.

Curvedneck

Veryshortneck

SHORT AND STOUT

Allosaurus, a fierce and terrifyingcarnivore, had a short and stout neck.

The neck bones were cuppedtightly together to give a very

mobile and curved neck. WhenAllosaurus’s jaws bit into prey,

powerful neck muscles pulled themassive head up and back, tearing

chunks of flesh from the victim.

Long,flexibleneck

The skull mayhave weighed asmuch as 113 lb

(51 kg ).

Powerful jawswith huge,sharp teeth

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Dinosaur limbsDinosaurs held their legsdirectly beneath the body,unlike other reptiles, whichcrawl with their legs held outfrom the sides of the body. Hugeherbivorous dinosaurs, such asDiplodocus, walked on all fours with

front and rear legs supporting bulky bodies.Most carnivores, such as Albertosaurus, walkedon the two back legs, leaving the front limbs

free for catching and holding prey.

FLESH AND BONE

The rear legs of Albertosauruswere powered by large musclesthat pulled on the bones tomake them move. The ankleand metatarsals worked as partof the leg, giving a longer stride.

MYSTERIOUS DINOSAUR

Almost all that is known ofDeinocheirus is this huge pairof arms and hands. Theseforelimbs are 8ft (2.4 m)long. It is thought thatDeinocheirus belonged toa group of dinosaurs calledornithomimosaurs. Thehuge hands would havebeen used to catch and hold prey.

Three clawedfingers oneach hand

Long,slenderarms

Muscle

Knee

Ankle

Metatarsals

Toe

Fingers have8 in (26 cm)

claws

IGUANODONFOOT BONE

Femur (thigh bone)

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FLEET FOOT

Ornithomimus was one of thespeediest dinosaurs. Its three foot bones were locked together,making a long extension to the leg. Running on the tips of its toes, it could take long strides.Ornithomimus may have reached topspeeds of 37 mph (60 km/h) – fastenough to escape most predators.

LEGS LIKE PILLARS

The heaviest dinosaurs had pillar-like legs, like those of elephants.

Brachiosaurus weighed about 50 tons (tonnes) so it

needed thick, strong legsto supportits body.

Elephants arethe biggest landanimals alive

today

ELEPHANT

BRACHIOSAURUS

Anklejoint

Birdliketoes

Foot boneextension

GOOD SUPPORT

Five widely spread toes on the rearfeet of Diplodocus helped support the dinosaur’s enormous weight.The first three toes had claws. Apadded heel, like that of an

elephant, cushioned thethundering footsteps.

Large clawon first toe

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STOUT LIMBS

Widely spaced toes and thick, stoutlimb bones helped Triceratops spreadthe weight of its massive body. Theshorter forelimbs carried the weight ofTriceratops’ huge head. Much of thebody weight was supported by thelong and powerful rear legs. Shortand stubby toes on all four feetended in hoof-shaped claws.

Longrear leg

Stoutfront leg

Hoof-shapedclaw

GIANT CLAW

The powerful carnivore Baryonyx had one of the largest dinosaur claws known. Thecurved talon, which was 12 in (31 cm) long,formed a huge weapon on Baryonyx’s hand.

More aboutlimbs

The shape of a dinosaur’s feet depended on whether

it walked on two or four legs.Four-legged dinosaurs hadsimilar front and rear feet,spreading their weight onhooflike toes. Two-legged

dinosaurs could use theirfront feet like hands,grasping at prey orholding plant food.

Widelyspaced toes

The claw was the firstpart of Baryonyx tobe discovered, giving

the dinosaur thenickname “Claws.’’

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CLAW FOR PROTECTION

Apatosaurus, a giant sauropoddinosaur, had a pointed clawon each front foot, which itmay have used for defense.

IGUANODON HAND

Iguanodon could useits hands in several

ways. It could usethe hoofed middle

fingers for walking,and the long fifth

fingers could hook on-to plants. The thumbspikes were probably

defensive weapons usedfor stabbing enemies.

Large thumb spike

Middlefingers joined

together

IGUANODONFOSSILIZED

FOOT BONES

PRESERVEDIGUANODONFOOTPRINT

The broad, three-toedfootprint matches thefossilized foot bones.

Fifthfinger

DINOSAUR PRINT

Iguanodon left many clues behindwhen it became extinct. When it walkedon damp sand or mud it left footprints,which dried and became preserved. Thefootprints of an adult Iguanodon would havebeen about 35 in (90 cm) long.

This clawis 10 in(25cm)

long.

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TailsDinosaur tails had manyuses, and tail bones cantell us a lot about theirowners. Flexible tailsending with long, thinbones were the trademarkof the giant sauropod dinosaurs.Dinosaurs that ran on two legs hadtail bones that locked stiffly togetherto help give balance. Tails ending inlumps and spikes were used as weaponsagainst attacking enemies.

BALANCING ACT

Scientists once believed thatParasaurolophus used its thick tail for

swimming by sweeping it from side to sidelike a fish’s tail. But they now think that the

tail counterbalanced the front of the body.

TAIL WHIP

When defending itself, Diplodocus used its long tail like ahuge whip to swipe at its attacker. The tail had 73 bones

joined together, and made a powerful weapon with itsthin, whiplike ending.

Tail bonestightly locked

together

Deinonychuscould run very

fast whenchasing prey.

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TAIL RUDDER

The tail bones of Deinonychus were locked together by long bony rods, which made the tail stiff. WhenDeinonychus was running or jumping, it could steerand balance itself by moving its tail from side to side.

SWINGING CLUB

Euoplocephalus’ tail ended in solid, bony lumps. Enemies risked

serious injury from a swing ofthe tail club.

TAIL SPINES

Spiny Stegosaurus kept itsattackers at bay by swinging

its spiked tail toward theirhead or soft underside.

Whiplikeend of tail

Spikes weremade of

bone

Heavytail club

Tail held stifflybehind body

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SkinLizards and snakes, crocodiles and turtles –all have the tough scaly skin which is atrademark of reptiles. Dinosaurs were noexception. Their skin, preserved longenough in silt or clay to leave fossilizedimprints, shows patterns of large and smalllumps. Some dinosaurs, like the ankylosaurs,had spikes and plates of bone embedded intheir thick skin – armour against attackfrom more dangerous dinosaurs.

SKIN SHAPE

Bony nodules, such as this one, wereembedded in the skinof the armoureddinosaur Polacanthus.

WELL ARMOURED

Polacanthus had aprotective coat of nodules and overlappingbony plates. Such tougharmour would havedeterred hungry enemies.

CROCODILE SCALES

Crocodiles have a toughand leathery skin oflumpy scales. Just belowthe skin along the back,large bony plates, called scutes,add to the skin’s toughness. Theskin of crocodiles and other reptilesis also waterproof, keeping bodymoisture in but water out.

Bonynodule

Crocodile skinin close-up

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BONY PLATE

Ankylosaurs were among the mostknobbly-skinned of the dinosaurs.Large bony plates, like this one,lay side by side forming a thickarmour along the upper part ofthe body.

SKIN PATTERN

Corythosaurus had no protectivearmour. Its skin, a mosaic ofsmall bumpy scales, was wrinkledand folded around the movingparts of the body.

WRAPPED IN SKIN

In rare cases, a dinosaur’s deadbody dried and shrivelled instead

of rotting away. This Edmontosaurus fossil has the skin impression preserved andwrapped around

the skeleton.

NODULES AND SPIKES

Euoplocephalus had bony nodulesset into its leathery skin. Pointedspikes across the shoulders gaveadded protection.

Shoulderspike

FOSSILANKYLOSAUR

NODULE

Nodules wereridged in the

middle.

EUOPLOCEPHALUS

This fossil is65 millionyears old.

Smallbumps

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Slashing talon flicked

forward

Long,slender

legs

Clawedhands

gripped prey

FAST FOOD

Dromaeosaurus hadfeatures common to manycarnivores. It was fast,agile, and armed withsharp teeth and claws.Dromaeosaurus may havehunted in packs,chasing andbringing downmuch larger animals.

DINOSAUR LIFESTYLESALTHOUGH DINOSAURS died out 65 million years ago, we know a lot about their lifestyles. Herbivoresand carnivores lived in the worldof dinosaurs. Some dinosaurscared for their young. Butwhether they were warm-or cold-blooded has yet to be established.

LIFESTYLE FACTS

• Some dinosaurs mayhave lived for 200 years.• Tyrannosaurus rex isthe largest land-livingcarnivore we know of.• The largest dinosaureggs probably belongedto the sauropodHypselosaurus.• Dinosaur embryoshave been foundfossilized in their eggs.Carnivores

Most carnivores had deadly sharp teeth andclaws. Some hunted in packs, somehunted alone, and others may havescavenged on dead animals which

were possiblykilled by

disease.

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BARYONYX

From the side, Baryonyx’s skullappears crocodile shaped.Baryonyx may have used itslong and narrow snoutfor catching fish.

MEATY DIET

Tyrannosaurus rex was perhapsthe fiercest carnivore. With its powerful body andmassive head, it overwhelmedvictims, delivering a fatal,

biting blow with itsdeadly jaws.

LOWER JAW OFALBERTOSAURUS

Small handscould tearfood apart

CUTTING CLAW

Like Dromaeosaurus, Deinonychushad a lethal weapon – a 6-in-long

(15 cm) curved claw on each hindfoot. When Deinonychus caughtprey, it flicked the claw forward

to cut deep into its victim.TERRIBLE TEETH

The teeth ofcarnivorous dinosaurs

were sharp with serrated(sawlike) edges for cuttingthrough flesh and bones.

Sharp, serratedteeth lined the

long jaws. Lethalclaw

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HerbivoresPlant-eating dinosaurs had to eat large

amounts of plants every day to fuel theirbodies. An herbivore’s special diet needed

special ways of eating and digestingfood. Some herbivores’ teeth were

shaped for chopping, raking, orcrushing. Other herbivores hadsharp beaks for snipping leavesand twigs. Once swallowed,these tough plants may havetaken days to digest.

SMOOTH STONES

Gastroliths have beenfound near the skeletonsof several dinosaurs.

GRINDING GUT

Barosaurus did not chew its food – it swallowed toughleaves and twigswhole. In a part of itsstomach, stones calledgastroliths ground thefood for digestion.

HERBIVORE FACTS

• All ornithischiandinosaurs wereherbivores.

• Some herbivores hadup to 960 teeth.

• There were noflowers for dinosaursto eat until about 125million years ago.

• Herds of herbivoresmay have migratedduring dry seasons tofind fresh food supplies.

• Some of the plantsthe dinosaurs ate, suchas pine trees, ferns, andcycads, still grow today.

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LEAF CUTTERS

The teeth of sauropodssuch as Rebbachisauruswere designed for cuttingrather than chewing.

PLANT PULP

Edmontosaurus had hundreds of tough teethpacked together in its upper and lower jaws.The two sets of teeth worked together like apair of coarse files, grindingleaves, fruits, and seeds.

EDMONTOSAURUSLOWER JAW

Toothlessfront of

jaw

Teeth packedtogether

Lever for muscleattachment

TOUGH TO EAT

We can see which plants wereavailable to dinosaurs by studyingplant fossils. Herbivores such asParasaurolophus had strong teethfor chewing tough plants suchas ferns and conifers.

MONKEYPUZZLE

CONIFER

PARASAUROLOPHUS

GINKGO

MAGNOLIA

Serrated cuttingedge

Root oftooth

DINOSAUR MENU

Many of the plants thedinosaurs ate can be seenin gardens and parks today.

Parasaurolophusfeeding on a

conifer.

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SensesWell-developed sight, smell,and hearing were crucial to thedinosaurs’ long-running success.Dinosaurs used these vital sensesdaily for survival in their hostileworld. Dinosaurs that were activehunters tracked prey by followingnoises and scents. Many dinosaurslived in groups, and protected theiryoung by listening andwatching forpredators.

BRAIN CASTS

Tyrannosaurus rex’s brain wasbigger than Barosaurus’. Brainsare too soft to fossilize, but castsfrom the inside of dinosaur skullsshow us their shapes and sizes.

MAKING NOISES

Parasaurolophus and other cresteddinosaurs could produce noisy signalsfrom their head crests, identifyingthemselves to each other or warningof danger. Tubular sound chambersran from the nose of Parasaurolophusup into its crest. Air traveledthrough this prehistoric “trombone,”where it vibrated as sound.

SKULL OFPARASAUROLOPHUS

Long airpassages

Nasal openingwhere air

enters

Teeth

CROSS-SECTIONOF SKULL OF

PARASAUROLOPHUS

BAROSAURUSBRAIN CAST

TYRANNOSAURUS REXBRAIN CAST

Crest was

3 ft (1 m)long

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SINGLE VISION

Brain size is not always a signof intelligence, but big-brained

Troodon was probably one of thesmartest dinosaurs. Troodon had

large eyes and good vision. Itbenefitted from stereoscopic sight,

which means it saw one image, theway that we do. Whether it could seein color or black and white, Troodon

could judge distance when chasing or catching its prey.

DOUBLE VISION

We do not know if dinosaurs could see in color, but eye positionaffected the kind of image seen.Eyes on the sides of the head,common in herbivores, sent twodifferent pictures to the brain.

VIEW FROM LEFT

VIEW FROM RIGHT

COLOR

BLACK AND WHITE

COLOR

BLACK AND WHITE

VIEW FROM RIGHT

VIEW FROM LEFT

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Warm and cold bloodReptiles are cold-blooded, which means that they depend on conditions outside their body, such as the Sun’s heat, fortemperature control. Warm-blooded animals, such as mammals,produce heat from food energy, have hair for warmth, and sweatto cool down. Although dinosaurs were reptiles, much of theirbehavior, such as agile running, has more in common with

mammals. Scientists are thereforepuzzled over whether dinosaurswere warm- or cold-blooded.

BACK PLATES

Stegosaurus used its back platesfor warming up and coolingdown. To warm up, Stegosaurusstood with its side to the Sunto heat the blood as itflowed through the plates.To cool down, it stood inthe shade and lost heatthrough the plates.

Side view: bloodvessels passed throughholes in the bony plate

Cross-section: holefor blood vessel

BLOOD AND BONES

Dinosaurs had bones morelike mammals than reptiles.Mammal bones containfar more blood vesselsthan reptile bones.

Plates werepointed at

the top

CROSS-SECTION OFMAMMAL BONE

CROSS-SECTION OFREPTILE BONE

Blood vessels Blood vessels

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COLD-BLOODED SUNBATHER

A typical cold-blooded creature, such asa lizard, spends hours sunbathing toraise the body’s temperature to a levelwhere it can work effectively. To avoidoverheating, the lizard can cool off inthe shade. When it is cold at night, orin the winter, reptiles are inactive.

GOOD EXAMPLE

Dromaeosaurus is one of the best arguments for dinosaursbeing warm-blooded animals. Fast-movingand agile, Dromaeosaurus had a lifestylebetter suited to warm-blooded killers likewolves rather than reptiles like lizards.

BLOOD PRESSURE

Tall dinosaursneeded high bloodpressure to pump

blood to theirbrain. But down at the level of

their lungs, such high pressure would be fatal. Warm-blooded animals

have a twin pressure system. Perhapsdinosaurs had a similar system.

High bloodpressure was

needed to reach abrain 50 ft

(15 m) above the ground.

Lizardsunbathing

BRACHIOSAURUS

Eggs, nests, and youngDinosaurs laid eggs, like most other reptiles aswell as birds. In recent years, scientists havediscovered dinosaur nesting sites that gavethem an insight into the early life of dinosaurs.These sites showed that some young stayed intheir nests, cared for by adults, until they wereold enough to leave. They also showed thatdinosaurs, like many birds, used the samenesting sites year after year. EGG FIND

The discovery ofclutches of Proto-ceratops eggs was thefirst evidence thatdinosaurs had nests.The shell of each egghad tiny air passages topermit gas excharge.

SMALL EGGS

These fossilizedsauropod eggs, which areonly 6 in (15 cm) in diameter, could haveproduced young that grew to an adult lengthof 39 ft (12 m). It probably took sauropodsseveral years to reach their adult size.

Young set off in search

of food

Fossil egg withbroken eggshell

fragments

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HOME LIFE

Female Maiasaura laid about25 eggs in a nest that was dugin the ground and lined withleaves and twigs. YoungMaiasaura were about 12 in(30 cm) long when theyhatched. They were reared inthe nest until they grew toabout 5 ft (1.5 m), when theywould be old enough to startfending for themselves.

FOSSILIZEDMAIASAURA

EGG ANDSKELETON OF

YOUNG

EARLY START

Unlike the Maiasaura young, who were looked after by their mother forseveral weeks, Orodromeus young lefttheir nests as soon they hatched fromtheir eggs. The young Orodromeuswould have been preyed upon bycarnivorous dinosaurs, such as sharp-sighted Troodon.

Newly hatchedOrodromeusleaving nest

Maiasaurahatchlings were

very weak.

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THE FIRST DINOSAURSSEVERAL GROUPS of reptilesexisted before the dinosaursappeared. One group was thethecodonts. These were theancestors of the dinosaurs, andthey probably also gave rise to the pterosaurs and the crocodiles.Thecodonts were large carnivoresthat had straighter legs than otherreptiles. The first dinosaurs werealso carnivores, and the earliestknown dinosaur, Eoraptor, firstappeared 228 million years ago.

A VERY EARLY DINOSAUR

Eoraptor may have beenthe first dinosaur. It wasdiscovered in 1992 inArgentina. Eoraptor had acrocodile-like skull withsharp, curved teeth.

STAURIKOSAURUS

Speedy Staurikosaurus was one ofthe first carnivorous dinosaurs. It had long, tooth-lined jaws forcatching its prey, which it chasedon its long and slender back legs.

Staurikosauruswas about 61⁄2 ft

(2 m) long.

Long tail acted as acounterbalance to the

front of the body

Long, birdlikeback legs

Jaws were lined with sharp

teeth

Long, stifftail

STAURIKOSAURUS

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HERRERASAURUS

A light and slenderskeleton madeHerrerasaurus anagile hunter. It wasabout 10 ft (3 m)long and ate othersmall reptiles.

EARLY CARNIVORE

Herrerasaurus lived about 230million years ago. It had manyfeatures in common with later

carnivorous dinosaurs, such as sharpteeth and claws, and strong back legs.

TWO-LEGGED RUNNER

Ornithosuchus is the ancestorof the large carnivorousdinosaurs of the Jurassicand Cretaceous periods.

It was about 13 ft (4 m) long andwalked on all fours, although it ranon its two back legs.

Long andnarrowhead

Sharpteeth

Scaly skin typicalof reptiles

HERRERASAURUS

ORNITHOSUCHUS

FIRST DINOSAURS

FACTS

• The earliestdinosaurs havecome from Triassicperiod rocks.• Mammals werearound at the same timeas the dinosaurs.• The earliest dinosaurswere all carnivores.• The first herbivoresappeared in the lateTriassic period.

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DINOSAUR EXTINCTIONAROUND 65 MILLION years ago, the dinosaurs becameextinct. At the same time, other creatures, such asthe sea and air reptiles, also died out.There are many theories for thisextinction. But, as with somany facts about dino-saurs, no one reallyknows for surewhat happened.

ASTEROID THEORY

At the end of the Cretaceousperiod a giant asteroid struckEarth. The impact resulted ina dust cloud which circledthe globe, blocking out thesunlight and bringing cold,stormy weather.

SLOW DEATH

The dinosaurs diedout gradually,

perhaps over aperiod of several

million years.Tyrannosaurus

rex was one of the last

dinosaurs tobecome extinct.

Even the mightyTyrannosaurus

rex could not surviveextinction.

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SURVIVING REPTILES

Crocodiles werearound beforethe dinosaurs,and are still alive today. Thereason these reptiles survivedwhile the dinosaurs died outis a complete mystery.

Crocodiles have notchanged much in

appearance over the years.

VOLCANO THEORY

Many volcanoes were active during theCretaceous period. There were vast lava flowsin the area that is now India. This would havepoured huge amounts of carbon dioxide intothe air, causing overheating, acid rain, and the destruction ofthe protectiveozone layer.

FLOWERS

Flowering plantsmay have contributed to theextinction of the dinosaurs. Manyof these plants would have beenpoisonous, and any herbivorousdinosaur that ate them may havedied. Many carnivores, which fedon herbivores, would then havedied because of lack of food.

MAMMALS

Mammals appearedduring the Triassic period,when they lived alongside thedinosaurs. They became thedominant land animals afterthe dinosaurs’ extinction.

MAGNOLIA

Megazostrodonwas a mammal

that lived in the Triassic

period.

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SAURISCHIANDINOSAURS

ABOUT SAURISCHIANS 62

THEROPODS 64

DINOSAURS AND BIRDS 82

SAUROPODOMORPHS 84

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ABOUT SAURISCHIANSTHERE WERE two maingroups of saurischians –the theropods and thesauropodomorphs. Thelargest dinosaurs, andsome of the smallest, weresaurischians. This group differed from ornithischiansmainly because of the shapeof the hipbones.

THEROPODS

All theropods were carnivores, and were bipedal(walked on two legs only). One of the smallestdinosaurs, Compsognathus, and the largest land-based carnivore, Tyrannosaurus rex, belonged in the theropod group.

SAUROPODOMORPHS

Members of the sauropodomorphgroup were mainly herbivorous and

quadrupedal (walked on four legs).The sauropodomorphs included

the largest of all dinosaurs,Seismosaurus, which

was about 130 ft(40 m) long.

Sharp-toothedjaws typical of the

meat-eatingtheropods

COMPSOGNATHUS

TYRANNOSAURUSREX BAROSAURUS – A

SAUROPODOMORPH

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DILOPHOSAURUS

This skeleton of Dilophosaurus shows the hipboneswith the forward-pointing pubis, characteristic ofsaurischians. Hipbones support the huge muscles

that move the legs. This agile carnivorehad powerful legs, and its fingers

and toes had the sharpclaws typical of

theropods.

HIPBONE

The name saurischianmeans “lizard-hipped,” and saurischiandinosaurs were so called because their

hipbones were like those of lizards.This means that the pubis bone

pointed forward, while the ischiumbone pointed backward.

Forward-pointingpubis

Pubis

Ischium

Backward-pointing ischium

Clawedfeet

Long,slender

legs

Kneejoint

Anklejoint

Dilophosauruswas 191⁄2 ft (6 m) long.

THEROPOD FACTS

• All theropods werecarnivores.

• Coelophysis wasone of the firsttheropods, livingabout 220 millionyears ago.

• Tyrannosaurus rex was one of the lasttheropods, living 65million years ago.

• Many theropodshad no fourth or fifthfingers.

• At least fivevertebrae supportedthe pelvis of theropods.

THEROPODSTHE GROUP OF dinosaurscalled the theropodswere the killers of the dinosaurworld. Often large and ferocious,these carnivores usually walked ontheir two clawed rear feet. Theropodmeans “beast feet,” but their feet werevery birdlike. Each foot had three toes forwalking on, with long foot bones that added tothe length of the legs. Sharp-clawed hands wereoften used for attacking and catching hold of prey.

FOSSIL FIND

Coelophysis hunted lizardsand small dinosaurs. But

in this fossilized Coelophysis skeleton,there are skeletons of young of the same

species among the ribs, indicating thatCoelophysis was also a cannibal.

Bones ofyoung inribcage

EARLY THEROPOD

Dilophosaurus lived during the early part of the Jurassic

period. An agile predator,it was one of the first

large carnivorousdinosaurs.

Coelophysiswas 10 ft

(3 m) long.

Tail

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LIKE OSTRICHES

The ornithomimosaurs are alsoknown as “ostrich dinosaurs”because of their resemblance tomodern ostriches. They hadtoothless beaks and long, flexiblenecks. The legs were very longand slender – well designed forfast running.

Grasping,clawed fingers

Birdlikefoot DILOPHOSAURUS

SKULL

Crests were madeof thin ridges

of bone

Long, flexibleneck

Strong andslender

back legs

The end of the tail wasvery stiff and probablyhelped Ornithomimus

steer when running.

Backbones were heldstiffly in place by

ligaments.

Long,slenderneckToothless

beak

Slender armsand hands mayhave held prey

to mouth

Longtoes

Extended footbones added to

length of leg

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CarnosaursOf all the theropods, the ferocious carnosaurs areprobably the most famous. Some carnosaurs couldrun as fast as 22 mph (35 km/h) on their largeand powerful back legs. Massive heads carrieda fearsome array of enormous serrated andcurved teeth. Tyrannosaurus rex was thelargest of the carnosaurs, and the mostsuccessful predator in the Cretaceousperiod. During the Jurassic,Allosaurus was the top predator.

ALLOSAURUS FOOT

Like all carnosaurs, Allosaurus walked on threelarge, clawed toes. The feet were strong becausethey had to bear the weight of the body. The firsttoe was small and faced backward, off the ground.

ALLOSAURUS

Complete carnosaur skeletons are a rare find. Therehave been many finds of Allosaurus parts, includingmore than 60 skeletons in one quarry, so a completepicture of this powerful carnivore can be created.

Large, three-fingered hands

had hooked claws

Long, tooth-lined jaws could open wide

to swallow lumps of meat.

Long foot bones increased

leg length

Front limbs were small and weak

compared to the restof the body

Curvedneck

Smallfirst toe

Ischium

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CARNOSAUR FACTS

• Piatnitzkysaurus,from the Jurassicperiod, is the oldestknown carnosaur.

• Most carnosaurspecies existed in thelast 10 million years ofthe Cretaceous period.

• Carnosaur remainshave been found inNorth and SouthAmerica, Asia, Africa,Europe, and Australia.

• Allosaurus has beenknown by more thannine different namessince the first fossilremains were found.

Wider skull ofTyrannosaurus rex

Long and narrowskull of

Allosaurus

BIG PREDATOR

About 145 million years ago,Allosaurus was theterror of sauropods,ornithopods, andstegosaurs. At about36 ft (11 m) long, andweighing as much as 2 tons (tonnes),Allosaurus was one of the most commondinosaurs during this time, and wouldhave been well supplied with prey.

Tail was powerfuland balanced front of body

Thicktail

Powerful legs for

chasing prey

SNOUT SIZES

Allosaurus had anarrower snoutthan Tyrannosaurusrex, and thereforeprobably bit outlumps of flesh rather than makingbone-crushingattacks on prey.

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More carnosaursFossilized remains of carnosaurs have been foundworldwide. Many of the carnosaur skeletons thathave been found are very incomplete.Consequently, they are difficult to study andunderstand, since pictures of whole dinosaurshave to be built up from small fragments ofevidence. Scientists cannot even be surethat all of the dinosaurs they havegrouped in the carnosaur groupare, in fact, carnosaurs.

SPINOSAURUS

A large sail of skin supported on long verticalspines ran along the back of Spinosaurus. Thissail is thought to have acted as aheat regulator, like the backplates of Stegosaurus. Thesail may also have beenused for recognitionbetween rivals, or toattract a mate.

Thickcarnosaur

tail

The spines wereup to 6 ft

(1.8 m) in length.

Tail held out to counterbalance

front of body

CARNOTAURUSHEAD

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Found only in Argentina, Carnotauruswas about 40 ft (12 m) long. Its short,stubby head had the unusual feature oftwo pointed horns above the eyes.These horns may have been usedas weapons when fighting rivals.

FOSSIL TOOTH

This large carnosaurtooth belonged to

Megalosaurus – the firstdinosaur to be named in1824. Many fossils have

been wronglyidentified as

Megalosaurus remains,but very few real

Megalosaurus fossilshave been found.

The cracksoccurred during

fossilization.ONE OF A KIND

The remains of only oneEustreptospondylus have ever beendiscovered. It is among many of thecarnosaurs whose fossils were

originally thought to belong toMegalosaurus. Like other

carnosaurs, Eustreptospondyluswould have walked on its

three clawed toes.

Slender toes

Short, bonyhorns

Rows of prominent, ball-like scales ran along

the back and sides

Very short,weak arms

cannot have beenof much use

Powerfulrear legs

Sharp,meat-eating

teeth

TyrannosauridsOf all the carnosaurs, those in thetyrannosaurid family were the largest andprobably the fiercest. The most famousmember, Tyrannosaurus rex, was about 46 ft(14 m) long and 8 tons (tonnes) in weight.It is the largest land-based carnivore weknow of. Tyrannosaurids not only caughtand killed prey, they also scavenged deadcreatures. They lived near the end of theCretaceous period, and their remains have

been found inNorth Americaand eastern Asia.

BIRD FOOT

The leg bones ofTyrannosaurus rexwere thick andheavy to supportits enormousweight. Themetatarsal footbones were lockedinto a singlesupport, takingthe weight abovethe three toes.

TYRANNOSAURUS REX

As the mightiest hunter, Tyrannosaurus rexwould have had only another Tyrannosaurusrex to fear. But, like other animals, twoTyrannosaurus rex wouldhave avoided confron-tations, unless it was overfemales, territory, or food.

BIG TEETH

Tyrannosaurids hadhuge mouths, rimmedwith huge, curved,serrated teeth. SomeTyrannosaurus rexteeth were 7 in(18 cm) long.

Knee

Ankle

Metatarsals

Claws onend of toes

Toebones

Tail raisedfor balance

TYRANNOSAURUSREX TOOTH

Serratededge

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TERRIBLE TEETH

Daspletosaurus had the massive jawtypical of the tyrannosaurids, capableof delivering a deadly blow in onebite. Flesh and bones were slicedand crushed by thedagger-edged jaw.

Clawed feetpin the food to

the ground.

A weakerTyrannosaurus

might retreatrather than risk injury.

A loud roarwarns intruderto stay away

This hungryTyrannosaurus has

spotted anotherTyrannosaurus with

a meal.

A fight between twoTyrannosaurus

would be a ferociousand bloody battle.

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ORNITHOMIMOSAUR

FACTS

• The nameornithomimosaur means“bird-mimic reptile.’’• Ornithomimosaursmay have ran as fast as43 mph (70 km/h).• Predators: carnosaursand dromaeosaurs

OrnithomimosaursWith their toothless beaks and slenderfeet, the ornithomimosaurs looked likegiant, featherless birds. But their ostrich-like appearance also had the dinosaurfeatures of clawed hands and a long tail.Ornithomimosaurs were long-necked andlarge – up to 16 ft (5 m) long. They wereamong the fastest dinosaurs, racing on slimand powerful rear legs. A wide mouthenabled them to swallow sizable prey,such as small mammals, as well asinsects and fruits.

DROMICEIOMIMUS

This dinosaur had ten neckvertebrae that made aflexible stem for itslarge-eyed head. Itused its slenderarms and three-fingered handsfor grasping orholding prey.

Large eyesockets

Fingers werethin with long,

sharp claws

Anklejoint farup leg

Only thetoes touchedthe ground

Long footbones

Kneejoint

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LIKE AN OSTRICH

Struthiomimus had a similarrunning style to an ostrich.But unlike an ostrich,Struthiomimus hadlong, mobile armswhich helped its clawedfingers grasp and holdprey. Its long tail wasan important balancerat high speed.

FOOT AND LEG

As in all other ornithomimosaurs, thefeet and legs of Dromiceiomimus were

built to give fast acceleration. Only the toes touched the ground – the foot

bones were locked into a single,birdlike extension of the leg.

Three lockedfoot bones

Sharpclaws

GALLIMIMUS

The largest ornithomimosaurwas Gallimimus. It had a longand narrow, snouted head withlarge eyes for good sight. Itsweak jaws were covered by asharp, horny beak.

Long,flexibleneck

Mobilewrist

Ostrich speed –up to 50mph(80 km/h)

Struthiomimusspeed – less than

30 mph (50km/h)

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OviraptosaursThe first oviraptosaur to be discoveredhad a crushed skull and was lying on anest of fossilized dinosaur eggs. Theeggs belonged to an herbivore calledProtoceratops. At the time of its death, theoviraptosaur was probably trying to stealthe eggs to eat, and since its skull wascrushed, it may have been caught andkilled by an adult Protoceratops.Oviraptosaurs probably alsoate berries and insects, aswell as scavenging onthe carcasses ofdead animals.

STEALING EGGS

Nests of Protoceratopseggs may have been afavorite hunting groundfor hungry oviraptosaurs.

FOSSILIZED NEST OFPROTOCERATOPS EGGS

OVIRAPTOR PHILOCERATOPS

This oviraptosaur had a short head with powerful,toothless jaws. Two bony prongs pointed down fromthe roof of the mouth. The prongs may have been usedto crush eggs or the shells of freshwater mollusks.

Head crestmade of

bone

Oviraptorphiloceratops

was about 61⁄2 ft (2 m)

long.

Bonyprong

Tongue

Ear

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OVIRAPTOSAUR FACTS

• The name Oviraptormeans “egg stealer.”• Oviraptosaurslived toward the endof the Cretaceousperiod.• Their brain cavitywas large, whichsuggests that they wereintelligent.• Skeletonshave been foundonly in Mongolia.

HEAD DECORATIONS

Many oviraptosaurshad tall, bony headcrests. Ingenia lackeda head crest, but itmight have hadbrightly coloredskin instead.

SLIM AND AGILE

Oviraptosaurs were small and lightly built, with hollow

bones. They had slim butmuscular back legs and

could run quite fast.Their large hands hadcurved fingers endingin large, grasping claws.

HEAD CRESTS

Different oviraptosaurshad differently shapedcrests. A modern bird, thecassowary, has a crest to butt its way throughforest undergrowth.Perhaps oviraptosaurs used theircrest for a similar purpose.

Bony headcrest

CASSOWARYHEAD

OVIRAPTORMONGOLIENSIS

HEAD

Brightlycoloured skin

Cassowaries also butt their way

through vegetationwhen escapingfrom predators.

Slenderskeleton

Muscleon tail

Largehands

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TroodontidsNear the end of the Cretaceous

period, a very rare group ofdinosaurs appeared.Scientists have called

them troodontids. Although theirbody design was similar to the ornitho-mimosaurs, they were a distinct group oftheropods. Troodontids had large brains for their body size. This, coupled with well-developed senses, has given them thereputation as the most intelligent of the dinosaurs.

TROODON

The best-known troodontid isTroodon. It had a light and delicateskeleton with slim rear limbs.Troodontid fossils are rare, partlybecause their thin bones were noteasily preserved.

SHARP EDGE

Troodon had a long, narrowmouth lined withcurved and serratedbladelike teeth.

Serratededge

Slender headperched onlong neck

FAST RUNNER

Troodon could run very fast onits long back legs. It probablychased small prey such asinsects, small mammals,lizards, and baby dinosaurs.

Long, slenderleg bones

Scalyskin

Elongatedfoot boneslengthened

legs

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TROODONTID FACTS

• The nameTroodontid means“wounding tooth.”• Only three kinds oftroodontid are known –Troodon, Borogovia,and Saurornithoides.

• All that scientistsknew of Troodon forseveral years was asingle tooth.

Fine ribbones

Long,mobile arms

Long and strongclawed fingersgrabbed prey

LIKE TROODON

Saurornithoides was very similar to Troodon. It has been found only

in Mongolia.

NIGHT SIGHT

Troodon’s large braincontrolled its fast movement,

good hearing, and excellenteyesight. Large, forward-facing

eyes could focus on prey and,like today’s bushbaby, may havehelped Troodon see at night.

Large eyes absorb morelight, which improves

night vision.

BUSHBABY

TROODONLarge eyeand brain

spaces

Like Troodon,Saurornithoideswas a fast runner.

A large clawon each footslashed into

prey.

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DROMAEOSAURID FACTS

• The namedromaeosaurid means“swift reptile.’’• They are thought tobe among the mostintelligent and agile ofthe dinosaurs.• The largest were upto 61⁄2 ft (2 m) tall.• They lived in theCretaceous period.

DromaeosauridsThese razor-toothed carnivores were very agile and had largebrains and huge eyes with stereoscopic vision. They were amongthe most terrifying of all dinosaurs. A large sickle-shaped talon

on their inner toes could rotatethrough 180°, slicing

into their prey’stough hide.

DROMAEOSAURUS SKULL

The skull of Dromaeosaurus shows that ithad sharp teeth, large, forward-pointingeyes for judging distance, and a large brain that suggests that it was intelligent.

PACK HUNTING

Deinonychus hunted in packs, bringingdown prey with their sharp-clawed handsand slashing talons. A combined attack meantthat they could kill prey much larger thanthemselves, such as the herbivore Tenontosaurus.

Rigidtail

EyesocketSharp

teeth

Some of theDeinonychuspack might die

during an attack.

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DEINONYCHUS

The limbs and hands ofDeinonychus were long andpowerful and the skeleton waslightweight. This meant thatDeinonychus could run fastand leap up to grip ontoits prey. The tail washeld rigid by a lineof bony rodsalong the tailvertebrae.

VELOCIRAPTOR

The fearsome Velociraptor had all the mostdangerous features of the dromaeosaurids.

It could mutilate prey by cutting 3-ft-long(1 m) gashes with each swipe of its claws.

Claw

Velociraptorcould run at

speeds of over20 mph

(35 km/h).

The nameDeinonychus

means “terribleclaw.”

Long, slenderlegs for

leaping highonto prey

6-in-long (15 cm) claw

flicked forward to

cut into prey

Jaws couldopen wide

Long fingersheld onto

prey

Pubis

Ischium

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Other theropodsThere was a huge variety of theropods. Most have been put into groups, like thecarnosaurs, but some theropods, such asBaryonyx, Ornitholestes, and Compsognathus,do not fit into any of the established groups.

Baryonyx had an unusual, crocodile-like jaw, and a savage clawon each hand. Compsognathus and Ornitholestes were two of thesmallest dinosaurs.

LIGHTWEIGHT HEAD

Chicken-sizedCompsognathus had asmall, pointed headwith sharp, daggerliketeeth. The skull waslightly built and hadhuge openings,especially those of theorbits (eye sockets). Curved,

pointedteeth

COMPSOGNATHUSSKULL

SMALL AND FAST

Ornitholestes was swift and agile and mayhave hunted in packs. It grasped prey,such as small lizards and mammals, firmlybetween sharp thumb and finger claws.

Ornitholesteswas about 61⁄2 ft

(2 m) long.

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UNIQUE SKELETON

We know about Baryonyx from a singleskeleton, which includes a 6-in-long (30 cm) thumb claw. Its crocodile-likesnout, which had a crest on top, had128 finely serrated teeth. The maindiet of Baryonyx may have beenfish, which it could snatchfrom the river using itslong claws.

The Baryonyxskeleton that was

found was only 70percent complete.

Clawedfoot

STRAIGHT-NECKED

Baryonyx would have been about 34 ft (10.5 m) long and nearly 10 ft (3 m) tall. It held its head low, and its neck was straight,not curved like many other theropods.

DEATH POSE

This reconstruction of Baryonyx shows how it must havelooked shortly after dying.

Lowerjaw

Crocodile-likesnout

Neck heldstraight

Powerfullegs

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DINOSAURS AND BIRDSSURPRISING THOUGH it mightseem, scientists now recognizebirds as the closest living relativesof dinosaurs. The most primitivebird is Archaeopteryx. In 1861, anArchaeopteryx skeleton togetherwith fossil impressions of itsfeathers were found in a quarry inGermany. Archaeopteryx livedabout 140 million years ago,alongside thedinosaurs that it resembled in many ways.

SIMILARITIES

Small theropoddinosaurs, such

as Compsognathus,had many features

in common withArchaeopteryx.These included

a lightweightskull, a short body, long, thin

limbs, and in some theropods, awishbone. This helps confirmtheir close relationship.

Shortbody Long

tail

Longtail

Long,slenderleg bone

Elongatedfoot bone

Longfingers

COMPSOGNATHUS FOSSIL

The fossil skeletons ofCompsognathus (above) andArchaeopteryx look verysimilar. Scientists found anArchaeopteryx skeleton in1951, but for 22 years theymistakenly thought it was aCompsognathus skeleton.

Lightweightskull

ARCHAEOPTERYXSKELETON

COMPSOGNATHUSSKELETON

Shortbody

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ARCHAEOPTERYX FACTS

• The nameArchaeopteryx means“ancient wing.”• Archaeopteryx wasabout 2 ft (60 cm) long.• Lived toward the end of the Jurassicperiod.• Archaeopteryxskeletons have beenfound only in Germany.

ARCHAEOPTERYX FOSSIL

This fossil skeleton of Archaeopteryxwas found in 1877 in Germany. Fossilimpressions left by the feathers canbe seen clearly. Archaeopteryx was acarnivore. It ate small animalsand insects.

FLIGHTS

Archaeopteryxmay have spent alot of time intrees, from which itwould have launched

itself into flight.

Clawed hands– a feature

modern birds do not have

Delicateimpressions ofwing feathers

Clawedfoot

Tail feather

impressions

Long,dinosaur-like tail

Skull

The feathers ofArchaeopteryxwere similar tothose of modern

pigeons.

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SAUROPODOMORPHSTWO GROUPS, the prosauropods and the sauropods, are included in thesauropodomorphs. Unlike the theropods,

most sauropodomorphs werequadrupedal (walked on four legs) andwere herbivores. They had long necksand tails, and ranged in size from 61⁄2 ft(2 m) to 130 ft (40 m) in length. THUMB CLAW

Many sauropodomorphshad big, curved thumbclaws. They probablyused these dangerousweapons fordefense.

PLATEOSAURUS

Several complete skeletons of theprosauropod Plateosaurus havebeen found. It is one of the earliestand largest saurischian dinosaursof the Triassic period. Althoughquadrupedal, it could probablystand on its hind legs to reach upto feed on the higher branches.

Prosauropods suchas Plateosaurus

were the first largeland animals.

Long,flexibleneck

Smallskull

Plateosaurusmay have oftenwalked on only

two legs.Large frontfeet couldhold plants

when feeding

APATOSAURUSTHUMB CLAW

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SAUROPODOMORPH

FACTS

• The namesauropodomorph means“lizard-footed forms.”• The largest dinosaurwas a sauropod calledSeismosaurus.• All sauropodomorphswere herbivores,although some may haveeaten meat as well.

BAROSAURUS SKULL

Sauropods, such as Barosaurus, had nomolars or grinding teeth for chewing.

Their food was probably groundby pebbles in theirgizzards afterbeingswallowedwhole.

BRACHIOSAURUS

One of the largest land animals that weknow of, Brachiosaurus could weighover 68 tons (tonnes). Reaching 40 ft (12 m) in height it couldeat from the topsof the tallesttrees.

Teeth rakedin food

Front legswere longerthan back

legsThick legssupported

heavy weight

Tail was held offthe ground

when walking

BAROSAURUSSKULL

Longneck

STRONG

SUPPORT

Brachiosaurus’ dorsal(back) vertebrae hadto be extremelystrong to support itsenormous weight.

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ProsauropodsThe prosauropods are thought to be the ancestors of the sauropods. Bothgroups have long necks and small heads,but the prosauropods were generallysmaller in size. Most prosauropods wereherbivores, although some may havebeen omnivores (eating both meatand plants).

THUMB CLAW

Massospondylus may havebeen an omnivore since ithad large, serrated frontteeth. It also had sharpthumb claws, which it mayhave used to attack prey, aswell as for defense.

SMALL SKULL

Riojasaurus, at 33 ft (10 m) in length, wasthe largest prosauropod. As with otherprosauropods, its skull was tiny comparedto its massive body, and its jaws werelined with leaf-shaped teeth forshredding plant food.

ANCHISAURUS

This prosauropod was designed towalk on all fours, but it may have

occasionally run on two feet.Anchisaurus had large, sickle-

shaped thumb claws which wouldhave been dangerous weapons

against attackers.

MASSOSPONDYLUSTHUMB CLAW

Slenderback leg

Teeth

Eyesocket

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PROSAUROPOD FACTS

• The nameprosauropod means“before sauropods.”• All prosauropods hadsmall heads, longnecks, and long tails.• Plateosaurus was thefirst large dinosaur.• Their remains havebeen found worldwide,except Antarctica.

Largethumbclaw

PULLING CLAW

The toes on the hands ofPlateosaurus varied greatly in

length. The thumb, the largest,ended with a huge, sharp claw.

REACHING HIGH

Plateosaurus was oneof the earliest and

largest saurischiandinosaurs. It grew toabout 26 ft (8 m)

in length, andcould stand on its

hind legs toreach tall treeswhen feeding.

VIEW FROM ABOVE

This view from above of Anchisaurus shows thatits body was long and slender. It would haveheld its tail off theground whenwalking.

Slim andflexibleneck

Thumbclaw

Lowerarm

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SauropodsThe largest-ever land animals wereincluded in the sauropod group.Sauropods were quadrupedal, plant-eating saurischian dinosaurs. Theyall had huge bodies with long necksand elephant-like legs. They alsohad long tails which they used aswhiplike weapons against enemies.

TAIL REINFORCEMENT

Tail bones like the one abovewere on the underside ofDiplodocus’ tail. They reinforcedand protected the tail when itwas pressed against the ground.

FRONT TEETH

Diplodocus had a long skullwith peglike teeth at the frontof the jaws. The teeth wouldhave raked in plants such ascycads, ginkgoes, and conifers.Diplodocus had no back teeth

for chewing, so the food wasprobably ground in the stomachby gastroliths (stomach stones).

APATASAURUS

This sauropod was once known as Brontosaurus. At 73 ft(23 m) long and weighing 27 tons (tonnes), it was one of

the largest sauropods. It had a long, horselike head witha fist-sized brain, and powerful legs with padded feet.

Pegliketeeth

Back of jawswas toothless

TAIL WEAPON

Barosaurus resembled Diplodocus,but had a slightly longer neck anda shorter tail. The narrow tail mayhave been a defense weapon.

Tail may have beenused like a whipagainst enemies

Tailcontained82 bones

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SAUROPOD FACTS

• The name sauropodmeans “lizard footed.’’• All sauropods wereherbivores.• Sauropods may havemoved at up to 21⁄2mph (4 km/h).• Many types ofsauropod traveled inherds.• Some may have livedfor up to 100 years.

DEFENDING THE YOUNG

Apatasaurus laid eggs in nests and probablyprotected its young. At one month old,Apatasaurus was about 6 ft (1.8 m) long, andthe height of its parents’ ankles. The adultmay have reared up on its hindlegs and whipped its tailto ward off anyattackers.

YoungApatasaurushides behind

its parent

Hungrycarnivore triesto reach the

youngApatasaurus

Thick neckwas verymuscular

NECK BONE

Some of Barosaurus’ neckbones were over 3 ft (1 m)

in length. The bones werehollowed out to reduce the weight

of the 30-ft-long (9 m) neck.

Adult rearsup in defense

Tail poised,ready to whip

carnivore

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More sauropodsScientists used to think that the ankylosaurs were

the only armored dinosaurs. But the discoveryof Saltasaurus proved that some sauropodshad armor, too. It was also thought thatsauropods may have lived in water, butwe now know that the high waterpressure at depth would not haveallowed them to breathe.

SHORT SKULL

The short and high skull of Camarasaurus has a very large orbit (eye socket)and naris (nostril socket).There are approximately 48 spoonlike teeth.

SALTASAURUS

At 39 ft (12 m) long, Saltasaurus was quite smallfor a sauropod. Its armor consisted of large bonyplates surrounded by smaller bony nodules. Thearmor possibly covered Saltasaurus’ back andsides. The group of armored sauropods iscalled the titanosaurids.

SEGNOSAURUS

This sauropod was an unusual dinosaur.It does not look like a sauropodomorph,

and some scientists place it in agroup by itself. Although

Segnosaurus ateplants, it may

also have eatenmeat. Its hands hadlong, curved clawswhich it mayhave used to

scratch attermite mounds.

Toothless snouttugged leaves

from trees

Segnosaurusat termitemound

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Only randomly scatterednodules of Saltasaurus havebeen found, so we can onlyguess at their position onits body.

SKIN IMPRESSION

Parts of the body of Saltasaurus wereprotected by a covering of tightly

packed, pea-sized, bony lumps.

Bonynodules

CETIOSAURUS

An early sauropod, Cetiosaurus hadmassive, heavy, and solid. Latersauropods had bones that were

light and hollow.

Cetiosaurus was thefirst sauropod to be discovered.

Thick legs tosupport

enormousweight

Cetiosaurus mayhave weighed as

much as fiveelephants.

Bonylumps

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ORNITHISCHIANDINOSAURS

ABOUT ORNITHISCHIANS 94

STEGOSAURS 96

ANKYLOSAURS 100

ORNITHOPODS 104

PACHYCEPHALOSAURS 114

CERATOPSIANS 116

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ABOUT ORNITHISCHIANSTHERE WERE FIVE main groups ofornithischians. They were allherbivores with hoofed feet andhipbones arranged like modernbirds. They also had beakedmouths, apart from those in thepachycephalosaur group.Ornithischians were eitherbipedal or quadrupedal.Bipedal ornithischianshad stiffened tails tocounterbalance theirbodies while feeding orrunning.

FIVE GROUPS

The five groups of ornithischianswere: ceratopsians, with theirneck frills; ankylosaurs,with their body armor;pachycephalosaurs, withtheir domed heads; stegosaurs,with their back plates, and thebirdlike ornithopods. STEGOSAURS

PACHYCEPHALOSAURS

ORNITHOPODS

ANKYLOSAURS

CERATOPSIANS

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STEGOSAURUS

The skeleton ofStegosaurus shows themore advanced ornithischianhipbone. An extra forward-pointingprong had developed in addition tothe backward-pointing pubis bone.

HIPBONE

The hipbone ofornithischian dinosaurs wasstructured differently from that ofsaurischians. The pubis bone pointedbackward with the ischium, insteadof forward. The name ornithischianmeans “bird-hipped,” because modernbirds have their hipbones arranged in asimilar manner.

Ischium

Pubis

Ischium

Pubis

Stegosaurs werequadrupedal.

Forward-pointingprong

Backplate

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STEGOSAURSTHE MOST NOTICEABLEfeatures of the stegosaurswere the large plates, orspines, along an archedback. These plates may haveregulated body temperature,and they may have alsogiven protection, or evenattracted a mate. Stegosaurs had small heads, andtiny brains no larger than a golf ball. The head wascarried close to the ground for eating short, leafyplants and fruits.

STEGOSAURUS SKULL

The skull of Stegosaurus was longand narrow. It had a toothlessbeak and small cheek teeth forchewing vegetation.

TAIL END

Stegosaurus is the mostcommonly known of allstegosaurs. It had long,horny spines on the end ofits tail. With a quick swing

of the tail, these spinescould inflict a crippling stab to

a predator, such as Allosaurus.

Spines had asharp end.

PLATES AND SPINES

From above you can see the staggered plates along thetop of Stegosaurus’ body. This view also shows the tailspines pointing backward and outward – protectionagainst attack from behind for whenStegosaurus was escaping.

Backward-pointing spines

Staggeredplates

Eye socket

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STEGOSAURUS

The plates onStegosaurus’ backwould have beenuseful for display,for soaking in heatfrom the sun, orwhen cooling off. The size of the platesvaried greatly. Theywere tallest in theregion of the hips,reaching about21/2 ft (75 cm)in height.

STEGOSAUR FACTS

• The name stegosaurmeans “plated reptile.”• Stegosaurs ranged insize from 15 ft (4.5 m)to 291/2 ft (9 m).• The stegosaur groupsurvived for over 50million years.• They ate only certainplants, probably seedferns and cycads.• All stegosaurs hadtail spines for defense.

FOSSIL PLATE

This fossil plate wasone of the small

plates at the frontof Stegosaurus.The plates werethin and madeof bone, andcontained

a network ofblood vessels.

Smallhead

Plates weretallest

above hips

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More stegosaursThe front legs of stegosaurs wereshorter than the rear legs. Stegosaursmay have reared up on their hindlegs, balancing with their tail on theground. The supple tail and powerfulrear legs could have formed a tripodallowing stegosaurs to reach highervegetation. The plates and spinesmay have been used for differentpurposes in different stegosaurs.

TUOJIANGOSAURUS

Some scientists believe this recon-structed skeleton of Tuojiangosaurus tobe wrong. They think the front limbsshould be straighter, and not bent likea lizard’s.

TWO BRAINS

It was once believed that stegosaurs hada second brain which filled a large cavityin the hips. But this is now known tohave been a nerve center, whichcontrolled the hind limbs and the tail.

KENTROSAURUS

Six pairs of bony platesran along the neck and

shoulders of Kentrosaurus. Behindthese plates were three pairs of flat

spines and five pairs of long, sharp spines.

Cast of brainin skull

Cast of“second brain”

Large spinesfor wounding

enemies

Tail washeld off the

ground

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STEGOSAURUS TOOTH

The cheek teeth of Stegosauruswere leaf-shaped. They hadridges along the top and on

one side of the crown to helpchew up vegetation.

Ridgesalong topof crown

Root oftooth

Tail spineswere used as

weapons

SMALL PLATES

Kentrosaurus had severalpairs of large defensivespines running along theback half of its body. The back plates weremuch smaller than those of Stegosaurus, butprobably served the same purposes.

Kentrosaurusweighed about1 ton (tonne).

Back legslonger thanfront legs

Head washeld close to

ground

Plates ran allthe way upto the head.

Archedback

Backplates

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ANKYLOSAURSPROTECTED BY SPIKES and bonyplates, the stocky ankylosaurswere the armored tanks of thedinosaur world. There were twomain groups of ankylosaurs – theankylosaurids and the nodosaurids.

SKULL

The triangular skull ofAnkylosaurus was coveredwith bony plates. It endedat a horny beak, which itused to crop vegetation.

EUOPLOCEPHALUS

Euplocephalus’ headwas armored withbony slabs. Itseyelids were bonytoo, protecting the vulnerable eyes. The stout body and tail club were typical of ankylosaurids.

AnkylosauridsMany ankylosaurids had spines on theirsides as well as bony body scutes(plates). Their mostnotable feature was aheavy tail club, whichthey used as aformidableweapon.

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ANKYLOSAUR FACTS

• The name ankylosaurmeans “armoredreptile.”• They ranged inlength from 6 ft (1.8 m)to 291⁄2 ft (9 m).• They have beenfound on all continents,including Antarctica.• All were covered inbony scutes on theirupper side, but wereunarmored on theirlower side.

TAIL CLUB

The bony plates were goodprotection, but the tailclub was an extremelyeffective weapon. Afearsome tyrannosauridcould be crippled witha well-directed blowto the ankle or shin.

TAIL CLUB

The tail club was formedby bony plates that

were fused together.Powerful tail muscles

were used to swing theclub. These muscles were

anchored by tail vertebraestiffened by bony tendons.

Heavy tailclub

Euoplocephaluswas about

23 ft (7 m) long. Stiffened,muscular

tail

FOSSIILIZED ANKYLOSAURIDTAIL CLUB

Tyrannosaurusreceives a

crippling blow

Ankylosaurlashes out at

the knee

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NodosauridsArmored with bony plates anddangerous spikes, but lacking theclubbed tail of the ankylosaurids,the nodosaurids were the mostprimitive of the ankylosaurs. Theyranged in size from 5 ft (1.6 m)to 25 ft (7.6 m) in length.Nodosaurid fossils have been found in rocks worldwide.

SHEEPLIKE SKULL

The pear-shaped skull of Edmontoniaresembles that of a sheep. It had cheekpouches in which to store food.The top of the skull wasreinforced with bonyplates for protection.

GROUND GRAZER

Edmontonia had small,weak teeth on the sidesof its jaws. They wereleaf-shaped and flattened– ideal for chopping upleafy vegetation.

EDMONTONIA

One of the largestof the nodosaurids,Edmontoniaprobably grew toabout 23 ft (7 m)in length. Longspikes lined thesides and shoulders, andtough neck plates protectedit from tyrannosaurid fangs.

Widefeet

Broadhead

Shoulderspike

Plates ontop of skull

Gap betweenjaws for cheek

pouch

Armorplate

Root oftooth

Crown of tooth withridged edge

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An armor of spikes, bony cones, and small studsstretched along the back and tail of Sauropelta. Itsunderside was unprotected, so it mayhave crouched close to the

ground whenunder attack.

Bonystuds

Bonycones

Shoulderspikes

Soft,vulnerableunderside

Short,stubby

legs

ROWS OF PLATES

Sauropelta’s cone-shapedplates lay in rows, similar tothe bands of armor on amodern giant armadillo.

POLACANTHUS

Two rows of spines jutted out of Polacanthus’ back. Therewere also two rows of triangularbony scutes along its tail.

Spines onback

Spines ontail

Armoredtail

Stout,stronglegs

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ORNITHOPODSALL THE ORNITHOPOD dinosaurs were herbivoreswith horned beaks. Their jaws and leaf-shapedcheek teeth were ideal for chewingvegetation. They werebipedal, although someof them may have foragedfor food on all fours.Their feet had three orfour toes with hooflike claws, and their hands had four or five fingers.GROUP LIVING

Hypsilophodon may have moved in herds for protection against predatory theropods.Moving as a large group, they would havebeen able to warn each other of any danger,giving them a better chance of survival.

TOOTHY SKULL

Heterodontosaurus had three differentkinds of teeth. These were the frontupper teeth, which bit against thetoothless lower beak; the scissorlikecheek teeth; and a pair of upper andlower tusklike teeth.

Tuskliketeeth

Cheekteeth

Group members looked from side to side

for any danger.

Slim, long legs for speedO

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ORNITHOPOD FACTS

• The nameornithopod means“bird foot.”• They ranged inlength from 61⁄2 ft (2 m)to 49 ft (15 m).• Some ornithopodshad up to 1,000cheek teeth.• They could run atspeeds of at least15 mph (9 km/h).

VERTEBRAE SUPPORT

Ornithopods such as Iguanodonhad a crisscross of bony tendonsstrengthening the vertebrae abovethe hip and in the back. Thesebony tendons also stiffened thetail. This helped Iguanodonbalance as it walked on itstwo back legs.

THREE-TOED FEET

The powerful three-toed feet ofCorythosaurus were built to carry itsheavy weight. Corythosaurus weighed

approximately 4 tons (tonnes) and wasabout 24 ft (7.5 m) long. It belonged to a

group of ornithopods called hadrosaurs.

Bonytendons

Hypsilophodonwas about 71⁄2 ft(2.3 m) long.

Toes endedin flattened

hooves

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IguanodontsThese dinosaurs were bipedalherbivores with long toes that endedin hooflike claws. Their arms werethick and strong, and they may haveoften walked on all fours, perhapswhen foraging for food. Iguanodontshad a single row of tall, ridged teeth,with which they chewed their foodbefore swallowing it. The best-knowniguanodonts are Iguanodon andOuranosaurus.

WEAR AND TEAR

The Iguanodon teeth above are atdifferent stages of wear. The oneon the right has been worn downby Iguanodon’s diet of toughplants, while the one on the leftlooks like it has hardly been used.

STABBING WEAPON

Iguanodon had large, bony thumbspikes. These may have been usedas weapons against enemies, suchas theropods. Iguanodon may haveused its thumb spike to stab anattacker through thethroat, belly, or eyes.

IGUANODON

The head of Iguanodonhad a toothless beak for nippingvegetation. Its arms were much

shorter than its hind legs, whichended in strong, three-toed feetto support its heavy weight. Its

thick tail was very stiff, and washeld out almost horizontally.

Worn-down tooth

Ridges onedge oftooth

Iguanodonstabbing a theropod

in the neck

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IGUANODONT FACTS

• The nameiguanodont means“iguana tooth.”• They ranged inlength from 13 ft (4 m)to 291⁄2 ft (9 m).• They lived from lateJurassic through to lateCretaceous periods.• An Iguanodon shinbone found in 1809 was not identified asbelonging to Iguanodonuntil the late 1970s.

UPRIGHT POSE

Scientists used toposition Iguanodon’sskeleton in an upright pose(right). But we now knowthe stiff tail would nothave been able tobend enough to siton the ground.

OURANOSAURUS SKULL

Ouranosaurus had a long, ducklikebill, and ridged teeth like those ofIguanodon. Its skull was flat-toppedwith a small bump on its forehead. Aspecial jaw hinge allowed Ouranosaurusto chew by sliding the upper jawoutward against the lower jaw.

Ridgedteeth

Bump onforehead

Ducklike bill

Upright,kangaroo-like pose

is incorrect

Iguanodon wasabout 291⁄2 ft (9 m) long.

Thumbspike

Iguanodonweighed about

4.5 tons(tonnes).

Knee

Ankle

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HADROSAUR FACTS

• The name hadrosaurmeans “bulky lizard.”• They ranged inlength from 10 ft (3 m)to 49 ft (15 m).• They are known as the duck-billeddinosaurs because oftheir long, flat snouts.

HadrosaursThese herbivores are also knownas “duckbills,” because of theirtoothless, ducklike bills. Hundredsof self-sharpening teeth arrangedin rows lined the sides of the jaws.Hadrosaurs were bipedal. They heldtheir bodies horizontally with theirstiffened tails extended for balance.There are two main groups ofhadrosaurs: hadrosaurines, with flat-topped skulls, and lambeo-saurines, with hollow head crests.

GRYPOSAURUS

Like many hadrosaurs, Gryposaurus had a trellis of bonyrods that stiffened the spine and tail. The deep tail wouldhave been useful when swimming, and shows that hadrosaurssometimes went into water. But they probably did this onlywhen escaping from enemies.

Deep tail ThisGryposaurusskeleton was

found in Alberta,Canada.

Bony rodsalong spine

CHEWING ACTION

Hadrosaurs chewed food by gratingthe upper jaw teeth against the lowerjaw teeth. The upper jaw was hingedso that when the jaws closed, theupper jaw would slide outwardagainst the lower jaw.

Upper teeth slidoutward

SECTION OF TIGHTLY PACKEDHADROSAUR TEETH

CROSS-SECTIONOF HADROSAUR

JAW

Lower teeth did not

move

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CORYTHOSAURUS

Although Corythosaurus was bipedal, the hoof-shapedclaws and padded toes on its hands indicate that it usedthem a lot for walking. Its diet included the toughest

of plants, such as ferns and pine needles,but Corythosaurus could easily mash

these using its rows of tightlypacked teeth.

Corythosaurus walked onall fours

when feeding on ground-level plants.

Hands couldhold ontobranches

Stiff tail washeld out

horizontally

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Eggs were laid in amound made ofearth and plant

material

HadrosaurinesThis group of hadrosaurs had little or no head crest, althoughsome had a bump above the nose which they used for making

noises. Some hadrosaurines had billsthat curled upward, forming a spoonshape. They lived in North America,

Europe, and Asia during the lateCretaceous period.

HADROSAUR FAMILY

Maiasaura bred in huge colonies, using the samenesting sites every year. Thename Maiasaura means “goodmother lizard”; Maiasaura caredfor their young until they could fend for themselves.

Male Maiasaura

feeding young

Femalewatches

eggs

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SKELETON OFJUVENILE

MAIASAURA

JUVENILE MAIASAURA

A juvenile Maiasaura differed inmany ways from an adult

Maiasaura. The mostnoticeable difference

was the juvenile’shead, which

was muchshorter.

Young Maiasaura werein constant danger from

predators such as thetyrannosaurids.

Edmontosaurus mayhave made noises to warnothers of danger, attract amate, or threaten a rival.

Wrinkled,deflated pouch

Pouch inflatedwhen noisewas made

NOISE POUCH

Edmontosaurus had skin flaps overits nasal cavities. They normallylay flat but could inflate, allowing Edmontosaurus to make bellowing sounds.

Largeeyes

Shortsnout

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LambeosaurinesLarge bony head crests werea dinstinctive feature of thesehadrosaurs. Powerful limbssupported a heavy body, andthe downward-curving lowerjaw had a broad, blunt beak.They lived around the sametime as the hadrosaurines,and their remains havebeen found in NorthAmerica and Asia.

HYPACROSAURUS

The head crest ofHypacrosaurus wasmade of bones thatgrew up from the nose.Hadrosaurs probably

used their hollow crests toamplify the sound of theircalls, although the crestsmay also have improvedtheir sense of smell.

Hypacrosauruswas 291⁄2 ft (9 m) long

HYPACROSAURUSSKULL

Hollowhead crest

Hundreds oftightly packed teeth

Wide"duckbill"

snout

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PARASAUROLOPHUS

Air traveled through thelong crest of Parasaurolophusbefore entering the lungs. At one time, scientists wronglythought that Parasaurolophusoccasionally sought foodunderwater, and used itshead crest as a snorkel.

Air in crest was used tomake loud noises

Parasaurolophuscould walk on two or four legs.

DIFFERENT CREST SIZES

Lambeosaurines of the same speciescould have different-sized crests.Crest size is thought to be linkedto age and sex. Thesetwo skulls belong toLambeosaurus. Thelarge skull belongedto an adult, while theskull with a tiny crestprobably belonged to a juvenile.

Adult lambeosaurus

skull

Juvenile Lambeosaurus

skull

Tinycrest

Bonycrest

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PACHYCEPHALOSAUR

FACTS

• The namepachycephalosaurmeans “thick-headedlizard.”• They ranged inlength from 3 ft (90cm) to 15 ft (4.6 m).• Diet included fruits,leaves, and insects.

PACHYCEPHALOSAURSTHE THICK, DOMED skulls of pachycephalosaurs earnedthem the name “bone-headed dinosaurs.” Rival malesused to bash their heads together, their brains protectedby the thick bone. Pachycephalosaurs probably had agood sense of smell, which would have allowed themto detect nearby predators and escape before thepredators got too close. HORN CLUSTER

Stygimoloch had acluster of hornsbehind its dome.But the horns wereprobably just forshow, rather thanof practical use.

LOTS OF NODULES

Prenocephale’s headhad a well-developedsolid dome and smallnodules on the backof the skull.

STEGOCERAS

Goat-sized Stegoceras wasabout 8 ft (2.4 m) long.Several Stegoceras skullshave been found withdomes of variousthicknesses. Thedomes of juvenileswere not as thick orhigh as those of adults,especially adult males.

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THICK SKULL

The solid dome ofPachycephalosauruscould be as thick as 9 in (23 cm).Small knobs and spikes fringed thedome and decorated the small nose.

HEAD BANGERS

Male pachycephalosaursmay have had head-butting bouts when

fighting over territoryand females, the way

mountain goats do today.

STIFF BACK

Stegoceras, like allpachycephalosaurs,was bipedal, but itwas unlikely to havebeen fast on its feet.It kept its back level,with the front of itsbody balanced by thestiffened heavy tail.

Bony tendons heldthe back vertebrae

stiffly together.

Short armsand small

hands

Prenocephaleran toward

each other at full tilt

The nameStegoceras

means “hornyroof.”

Predators ofStegoceras includedTyrannosaurus rex.

Knobson nose

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CERATOPSIANSHORNS, BONY FRILLS, and aparrotlike beak were the trade-marks of the ceratopsians. Theywere all quadrupedal herbivores,and many ceratopsians lived in greatherds. Most ceratopsians can be dividedinto two groups. One group had short neck frills, theother had long neck frills. The ceratopsians were

among the last dinosaurs tobecome extinct.

PSITTACOSAURUS

This dinosaur was a 61⁄2-ft-long (2 m) bipedal ancestor ofthe ceratopsians. It hada parrotlike beakand a very smallneck frill, butlacked the horns of ceratopsians.

Psittacosaurusmay have moved

on all fours when foraging.

PSITTACOSAURUSSKULL

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SPROTOCERATOPS

Protoceratops was the first trueceratopsian, with a turtlelikebeak and a small frill. The firstdinosaur eggs ever to be foundbelonged to Protoceratops.

TRICERATOPS

Among the ceratopsians, Triceratops was one of the last and the largest. Herds of Triceratopsroamed through forests, chopping vegetation withtheir beaks. At the tip of the beak was a rostralbone, which was common to all ceratopsians.

Rostral bone at tip

of beak

Decorativefrill

Nose hornwas short and

blunt

Bony frillstuck out over

the neck

Horns scared offattackers

CERATOPSIAN FACTS

• The name ceratopsianmeans “horned face.”• They ranged inlength from 6 ft (1.8 m)to 24 ft (7.5 m).• Lived 110-65 millionyears ago• Most had a toothlessbeak, horns, and adecorative head frill.• Ate cycads, palms

Short-frilled ceratopsiansThe group of ceratopsians with shortfrills also had long nose horns andshort brow horns. Styracosaurushad the most dramatic frill, withlong horns growing out from itsedge. The discovery of five youngnear an adult Brachyceratopsindicates that these ceratopsianslooked after their young. It is likelythat when a herd was in danger frompredators, the males protected theyoung and the females.

STYRACOSAURUS

Six long spikes edged the frill of Styracosaurus.It had a lethal horn on its nose that was 2 ft (60 cm) long and 6 in (15 cm) thick. The hornsabove the eyes, however, were only stumps. Itwas possibly a good runner,capable of speeds ofup to 20 mph(32 km/h).

STYRACOSAURUSSKULL

Horns onedge of

frill

Nosehorn

Longnosehorn

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FOSSIL BEAK

Ceratopsian dinosaurs had beaksthat were ideal for slicing through

twigs and tough plants. Eachbeak had a horny covering

that was attached to thegrooves and pits on

the surface.

Horny coveringwas attached to

grooves onsurface

CENTROSAURUS

The horn on the nose ofCentrosaurus curved forwardrather than backward like mostother ceratopsians. The short frillhad small stumps along the edge, aswell as a pair of long central hookswhich projected forward.

Stumpsalong edge

of frill

Bonyhook

SIMILAR BODIES

Rhinoceroses resembleceratopsians with their

stocky bodies and facialhorns. A charging

rhinoceros reaches speeds ofup to 28 mph (45 km/h), and it

is thought that ceratopsians such asCentrosaurus could run at least as fast.

A rhinoceroushas two horns on

its nose.

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Long-frilled ceratopsiansThe frill of long-frilled ceratopsians extended backto, or over, the shoulders. Sometimes the bony frillwas armed with short spikes, and there were oftenholes in the frill to lighten the load. The snout hada short horn, and there were long brow horns – theopposite of the short-frilled

ceratopsians.

FOSSIL HORN

This fossil is the coreof the brow horn ofTriceratops. In life itwould have beensheathed in horn.

Browhorn

IDEAL SKULL

Triceratops had asolid bony frill, a shortnose horn, and two 3-ft-long (1 m) brow horns. Theparrotlike beak and scissorlike teeth

were ideal for Triceratops’vegetarian diet.

Beak wasused to

cropvegetationSharp

teeth cutup leaves

TOROSAURUS

The skull of Torosaurus, from thetip of the snout to the back of

the frill, was 81⁄2 ft (2.6 m)long – about the size of a

small car. Torosaurus’head was bigger

than that of anyother known

land animal.Two large holes in the frill bone

reduced its weight.

Horn wasmade of

solid bone

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Short necksupported

heavy head

Solid legbones

Thick ribssupportedheavy gut

CHASMOSAURUSSKELETON

CHASMOSAURUS

The earliest long-frilledceratopsian wasChasmosaurus. To lightenits weight, the frill had twolarge holes which wereprobably filled with muscle.Its skeleton was solidly builtto bear its 2-ton (tonne)weight, and was not designedfor speed. As with mostceratopsians, Chasmosaurusprobably had few predatorsand used its horns mostlyin territorial disputes.

Edge of frill hadsmallhorns

Browhorn

Nosehorn

In life, holein frill was

covered with skin

CHASMOSAURUSSKULL

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ABOUT SEA AND AIR REPTILES 124

REPTILES AT SEA 126

REPTILES IN THE AIR 130

REPTILES OF THESEA AND AIR

ABOUT SEA AND AIR REPTILESWHILE THE DINOSAURS lived on land, otherreptiles lived in the sea and flew in the air.The sea reptiles, such as the ichthyosaursand plesiosaurs, needed to breathe airand would have surfaced frequentlyto fill their lungs. The flyingreptiles, called pterosaurs,included the largest ever flyinganimals. There were twogroups of pterosaur –rhamphorhynchoids andpterodactyloids.

Clawedfingers

Furrybody

Pterodactylus was asmall pterosaur witha wingspan of only

20 in (50 cm).

FUR FOR WARMTH

Pterodactylus was a pterodactyloid fromthe Jurassic period. Some Pterodactylus

fossils showed small furlike impressionsaround the body. This suggests that

pterosaurs may have been warm blooded andwould have used fur to keep themselves warm.

Shorttail

Sharp teethin longbeak

Wing madeof skin

Clawedfoot

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PELONEUSTES

Fish, shellfish, and smallersea reptiles formed the diet of the

sea predator Peloneustes. Its barrel-shaped body had large flippers forspeeding through the water.

ICHTHYOSAURUS

Ichthyosaurs, such as Ichthyosaurus, were similar

in shape to modern dolphins. Like dolphins,

ichthyosaurs would havebeen fast swimmers

due to their stream-lined shape.

DOLPHINS

Dolphins steer withtheir fins as theychase fish atspeeds of up to31 mph (50 km/h).

It is possible thatichthyosaurs swam as

fast as dolphins, andlived in a similar manner.

RARE FOSSILS

Pterosaur fossilsare rare because they hadlight, fragile bones. Thelightness of the bones wasimportant to allow flight.

Ichthyosauruswas about 61⁄2 ft

(2 m) long.

Dolphinsare the

acrobats ofthe sea.

Largeflipper

Taperedtail

Long skull

Dolphins aremammals,

but they haveno hair.

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REPTILES AT SEATHE SEA REPTILES evolved fromland reptiles that adapted to lifein the water. The legs and feetshortened and widened tobecome paddles, and the bodybecame streamlined for fastermovement through water. These

reptiles were carnivores,preying on other sea

creatures as wellas each other.

MODIFIED PADDLE

The plesiosaurCryptoclidus was 13 ft(4 m) long and hadfour paddles thatwere each about 3 ft(1 m) long. It swamby flexing thesepowerful paddlesup and down,“flying” throughthe water in theway that penguinsdo today.

FLEXIBLE JAWS

Masosaurus was a giant marine lizard which livedin late Cretaceous shallow coastal waters. Theskull and lower jaw bones had flexible joints andcurved, piercing teeth. This would enableMasosaurus to give a wide and lethal bite.

Curved andconical teeth

Powerful, flexiblepaddles propelled

Pliosaurus throughthe water.

Each paddle hadfive elongated toes.

Large andsharp teeth

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SEA REPTILE

FACTS

• They breathed air.• They were carnivores.• The turtles are theonly sea reptiles stillliving.• Ichthyosaurs borelive young; all otherreptiles laid eggs.

PLIOSAURUS

One of the fiercest predators of its time, Pliosaurushunted in the seas of the Jurassic period 150 millionyears ago. It was about 23 ft (7 m) long and fed onfish and smaller sea reptiles. Like all pliosaurs,Pliosaurus had a short neck, a large head, and abarrel-shaped body. It also had strong jaws and large,sharp teeth with which it could crush and kill prey.

MURAENOSAURUS

Air-filled lungs meant that theplesiosaur Muraenosaurus would havefound it easier to float than to diveunderwater. To combat this, it probablyswallowed pebbles to weigh itself down,the way thatcrocodiles do today.

MYSTERIOUS MONSTER

Many people claim to have seen a largecreature swimming in Loch Ness inScotland. This animal, known as theLoch Ness Monster, has been describedas a living relative of the plesiosaurs.

All plesiosaurs hadvery long necks and

small heads.

Tailflipper

The skin would have been scaly, likethe reptiles on land.

Scalyskin

PHOTOGRAPH TAKENAT LOCH NESS

Could this bethe Loch Ness

Monster?

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More reptiles at seaPlesiosaurs, pliosaurs, and turtlesprobably hauled themselves ontobeaches to lay eggs, the waymodern turtles do. Ichthyosaursdid not leave the water since theywere fully adapted to life at seaand gave birth to live young. Bythe time the dinosaurs died out,all sea reptiles, apart from theturtles, had become extinct, too.The reason for this is as mysterious

as the disappearance of the dinosaurs.

FOSSIL SHELLS

Fossilized ancient turtleshells show that theseturtles had the same bonyarmor as modern turtles.

ARCHELON

Like its descendants, themodern turtles, Archelonmay have returned tothe same beaches everyyear to lay eggs. Boththe adult Archelon andits eggs would have beenvulnerable to predatorydinosaurs of that time.

Archelon was20 ft

(6 m) long.

Fossil shell of the12-in-long

(30 cm) turtleCimochelys

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SHONISAURUS

Giant Shonisaurus was 49 ft(15 m) long. Large groups of

Shonisaurus skeletons havebeen found in North

America. This suggests thatthey were prone to mysterious mass

beachings (being stranded on a beach anddying), similar to present-day whales.

STENOPTERYGIUS

Some fossilized adultichthyosaur skeletons contain

the skeletons of unborn young.This fossil of Stenopterygius is so well

preserved it is possible to see the outlineof the smooth body shape left by the skin.

EYE PROTECTION

Ichthyosaurs werecarnivores with long beaksand pointed teeth. Abony ring surroundedeach eye. These rings mayhave protected the eyesfrom high water pressurewhen diving to great depths. Sharp

teeth

Bony ringaround eye

Longjaw

Tail was movedfrom side to sidefor propulsionand steering

Shonisauruswas the largestichthyosaur.

Very thin, tooth-lined snout

Large eyesocket

Skinimpression

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REPTILES IN THE AIRTHE PTEROSAURS were the first ever flyingvertebrates (animals with a backbone).Their wings were a thin membrane ofmuscles and elastic fibers covered withskin. The rhamphorhynchoid group ofpterosaurs had long tails and shortheads with sharp teeth. They firstappeared in the Triassic periodand became extinct at the endof the Jurassic period.

FOSSIL

This fossil skeleton of therhamphorhynchoid Dimorphodon

shows the fine bones and theskull which was very large

compared to the body.

Stiff tail mayhave beenused for

steering whenflyingRHAMPHORHYNCHUS

Rhamphorhynchus, a rhamphorhynchoid,had a special beak for trawling thewater surface to catch fish whileflying. The jaws were armed

with large, forward-pointingspike teeth behind a

toothless beak.

Long tail typical ofrhampho-rhynchoids

Pointedteeth

Largeskull

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AIR REPTILE FACTS

• The pterosaursincluded the largestever flying animals.• Their wings weremade of muscles,elastic fibers, and skin.• They werecarnivores, eating fish,insects, and smallreptiles.• The last of thepterosaurs died outwith the dinosaurs.

Dimorphodon had a wingspan of 41⁄2 ft (1.4 m).

The legs were powerful,which suggests that theywere used for walking

and running.

Elongatedfourth fingersupporting

wing

Clawedfingers

SORDES

A thick coatof insulating “hair”covered Sordes’ body. Butits hairs were not like thehairs of a mammal – theyprobably developed from reptilescales, like the feathers of a bird.

Large, deepsnout withsharp teeth

Dimorphodon lived 190 million years ago

and was one of the firstpterosaurs. Wing

coveredwith skin

DIMORPHODON

Like all pterosaurs,thewings of Dimorphodon

were supported byan elongated fourth

finger. The otherthree fingers on Dimorphodon’s hands

were large and clawed and mayhave been used for climbing

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More reptiles in the airThe pterodactyloid group of pterosaursincluded the largest animals ever to take tothe air. Pterodactyloids had long heads,long necks, and short tails. The headhad a large crest, which may haveacted as a counterbalance to thelong beak. Some pterodactyloidshad specialized teeth, such asPterodaustro, whose teeth werebristlelike for filtering food.Most pterodactyloids wouldhave skimmed the watersurface for fish withtheir long jaws.

PTERANODON

The head ofPteranodon was

6 ft (1.8 m) longfrom the tip of its

beak to the back ofits crest. Some

Pteranodon fossils lacka crest, which may

have been adifference between

the sexes.

Headcrest

Long,curvedneck

Shorttail

Clawedfeet

WING FINGER

This is a fossilized bone from Pteranodon’s elongated wingfinger. The wing finger consisted of long, thin, and very lightbones which extended to the tip of the wing. Pteranodon wasone of the largest pterosaurs, with a wingspan of 23 ft (7 m).

Pointedbeak

Toothlessbeak

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ROUND CREST

The mostdistinctivefeature ofCriorhynchus was the rounded crest atthe front of the upper jaw. This crestprobably helped Criorhynchus to stabilizeits head in the water while fishing.

Uprightcrest on

upper jaw

Criorhynchus had a wingspan of

161⁄2 ft (5 m).

LARGEST FLYER

Quetzalcoatlus was thelargest flying creature

ever. It had a long, thinbeak that it may have

used to probe formollusks in the

mud. It may alsohave fed on the

carcasses of deadanimals, like

vultures dotoday.

Quetzalcoatlusmay have

weighed about 190 lb (86 kg).

FINE FOSSIL

Pterodactyluswas an agile flyer thatprobably fed on insects.This fossil skeleton embeddedin limestone shows Pterodactylus’delicate skull and fine bones.

Delicateskull

Wingfinger

Upperarmbone

Clawedfingers

Long,curvedneck

Quetzalcoatlushad a wingspan of391⁄2 ft (12 m).

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DINOSAUR FACTSEARLY DISCOVERIES 136

THE DINOSAUR HUNTERS 138

THE WORLD OF THE DINOSAURS 140

MEAT EATERS 142

PLANT EATERS 144

ARMORED DINOSAURS 146

ZOOGEOGRAPHY 148

DINOSAUR PRESERVATION 150

MORE DINOSAUR PEERS 154

TRACE FOSSILS 156

DINOSAUR LIFESTYLES 158

DINOSAUR CONTROVERSIES 160

FANTASY AND FICTION 162

DINOSAUR RECORDS 164

DINOSAUR MISCELLANY 166

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DINOSAUR PIONEERS

The first people known to discover,study, and identify dinosaur remains:

• British canal engineer William Smith uncovered some giant bones in Sussex between 1807 and 1809. They were later identified as those of an Iguanodon.

• Dr. Gideon Mantell and his wife Mary found the remains of Iguanodon in Sussex, England, in 1822, but did not name them until 1825.

• The name “Dinosauria” was invented by British anatomist Sir Richard Owen in 1841 to describe these newly discovered animals.

• The first American dinosaur bones were described and named by JosephLeidy in 1858. These were from the “duckbill” Hadrosaurus.

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THE “SEA DRAGONS”Fossils of sea animals are much morecommon than fossils of land animalssuch as dinosaurs. In the early part ofthe 19th century such creatures werereferred to as “sea dragons.”

• The best known fossil hunter of the early 19th century was Mary Anning (1799-1847). With her brother Joseph, she found many ichthyosaur skeletons along the coast of Dorset, England.

• Mary and her brother were the first to find a complete plesiosaur skeleton in 1823.

• Most of the early finds of fossil marine animals disappeared into private collections, although the British Museum managed to acquire a small number.

• This early activity in the study of marine reptile fossils laid the foundations for the dinosaur research of later years.

Remains of ichthyosaurswere among the earliest findsof prehistoric creatures.

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THE “BONE WARS”

The “Bone Wars” was a period ofintense rivalry between two Americanpaleontologists, Edward Drinker Copeand Othniel Charles Marsh.

• The rivalry began in 1870, when Cope mounted a skeleton of a plesiosaur with the skull on the wrong end. Marsh pointed out the error and Cope never forgave him.

• Both men hired teams to search for dinosaur remains in Colorado and Wyoming. Fights broke out between them and each team destroyed remains to stop them frombeing found by their rivals.

• Sometimes, Cope named an animal and Marsh gave it a completely different name – a mess that had to be cleared up later.

• The result of all this rivalry was the discovery of nearly 140 new kinds of dinosaur by the beginning of the 20th century.

THE BERNISSARTIGUANODONSThe story of the first completedinosaur skeletons to be found:

• In 1887, miners in in Bernissart, Belgium, found a deposit of bones representing the remains of 39 Iguanodons. Most of them were complete and articulated.

• This discovery confirmed that some dinosaurs stood on their hind legs – an idea put forward by Joseph Leidy after studying the bones of Hadrosaurus.

• French-born mining engineer Louis Dollo devoted 40 years of his life to studying the Bernissart Iguanodons for the Brussels Museum.

• In the 1930s, the bones were covered in a protective material. When it was cleaned off in the 1980s, new studies revealed important details about the teeth.

Iguanodon – one of the first dinosaursto be identified.

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THE GERMANEXPEDITIONS TO AFRICA

• In 1907, dinosaur remains were found in Africa, near Tendaguru in what is now Tanzania. An expedition from the Berlin Museum of Natural History was sent there in1909-1912.

• 500 local workers were used in the excavations and 1,000 boxes of fossils were shipped to Germany.

• The most spectacular skeleton was that of Brachiosaurus, which was subsequently mounted in the Humboldt Museum. For many decades it was the biggest mounted dinosaur skeleton in existence.

• Later expeditions, led by Ernst Stromer between 1910 and 1914, found dinosaur remains in El-Bahariya in Egypt.

• The El-Bahariya site was lost until 1999, when an American team using Stromer’s notes identified a hill from its description. Valuable dinosaur remains have sincebeen found there.

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THE AMERICAN EXPEDITIONSTO MONGOLIA

• In 1921, an expedition from the American Museum of Natural History, led by Roy Chapman Andrews, entered Mongolia looking for human remains. Instead they found dinosaur fossils.

• The open desert landscape proved to be excellent for fossil-finding. The first dinosaur eggs to be identified as such were found on this expedition.

• At the time, the eggs were thought to have been laid by the horned dinosaur Protoceratops. They are now known to have come from the Oviraptor – a dinosaur that may have been an egg stealer.

• It was the most important land-based scientific expedition in American history.

Oviraptor – “egg thief”

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TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGY

• Modern paleontologists pay as much attention to the rocks in which the fossils are found as they do to the fossils themselves. This allows a picture of the contemporary environment to be built up.

• Dinosaur bones are fragile. They are encased in plaster or polyurethane foam to protect them as they are moved from the site. Helicopters can now be used to transport heavy fossils from remote areas.

• Some fossil bones are slightly radioactive. In such instances, it has been possible to locate the bones using a Geiger counter.

• The use of radar can sometimes accurately locate dinosaur remains without the need for digging. This can save valuable time and money on an expedition.

AMATEUR DISCOVERIES

• Amateur fossil hunter William Walker found Baryonyx in 1983, while he was digging for fossils ina clay pit in southern England.

• Modern excavations have to rely on volunteer help. There is little financing to pay for a professional workforce.

• The longest dinosaur known, Seismosaurus, was found by Arthur Loy and Jan Cummings in New Mexico in 1979. They had been looking for native American rock paintings.

• Giganotosaurus was discovered in Argentina by car mechanic Ruben Carolini. This huge dinosaur has been given the scientific name Giganotosaurus carolinii in his honor.

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William Walker, pictured holding a Baryonyx claw.

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THE JURASSIC WORLD

• The Jurassic period began 208 million years ago and lasted 62 million years. It is often known as the “age of reptiles” because the dinosaurs were the dominant creatures on land.

• Pangaea began to break up during this period. Rift valleys split up the land into sections that would eventually form the modern continents. Herds of dinosaurs migrated from one area to another.

• The climate became wetter and less extreme as the seasons developed. Shallow seas spread across the continent and new oceans began to grow along the rifts.

• There were still widespread areas of dry desert and the main plant types were similar to those of the Triassic.

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THE TRIASSIC WORLD

• The Triassic period began 245 million years ago and lasted 37 million years. The dinosaurs evolved toward the end of this period.

• Before this time, the main land-dwelling animals were the mammal like reptiles. They died out and the dinosaurs took over. Mammals appeared at the same time as the dinosaurs.

• In the Triassic period, all the landmasses of the world were joined together as one large continent, known as Pangaea. A single ocean named Panthalassa covered the rest of the world.

• Only the coastal areas of Pangaea would have been habitable, as the climate of the interior was extremely hot and dry.The main plant life at the time consisted of conifers, cycads, ferns, and horsetails.

• The end of the period was marked by a mass extinction. 90% of large animals died out, but smaller animals fared better.

Skeleton of Sinokannemeyeria – a mammal-likereptile of the early Triassic.

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THE WORLD AFTER THE DINOSAURS

• Only 65 million years have passed since the dinosaurs died, compared with the 150 million years in which they thrived.

• With the dinosaurs and other big reptiles extinct, the mammals became the dominant creatures on land. Birds began to thrive.

• At first, many kinds of unusual mammals evolved, as if nature were experimenting with evolution.

• Grass began to grow and large areas of grassland spread over the continents. This led to the evolution of grazing mammals.

• Human beings did not appear untilsometime during the last age, around35,000-100,000 years ago.

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THE CRETACEOUS WORLD

• The Cretaceous period began145 million years ago and lasted for81 million years.

• Most of the continents had dividedroughly into their modern shapesand were drifting apart. There werestill no polar ice caps.

• Plant life began to change, withmodern types of seed-bearingplants appearing.

• Plant-eating dinosaurs began to eat a wider range of vegetation. This could account for the spurt inplant evolution.

• In the latter half of the periodthere were widespread shallow seas across the continents, in which chalk was deposited.

• The end of the period saw one of the biggest mass extinctions in the Earth’s history – all of the dinosaurs were wiped out. An artist’s impression of a

Cretaceous scene.

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THE FIRST DINOSAURS

• Dinosaurs belong to a group of animals called the archosaurs. The pterosaurs (flying reptiles) and crocodiles are part of the same group.

• Before the dinosaurs, the most important land animals were the mammal-like reptiles. These died out as the dinosaurs appeared.

• Most of the archosaurs of the Triassic period were semiaquatic crocodile-like creatures. Dinosaurs probably evolved from these.

• The earliest dinosaurs are thought to be small meat eaters from Triassic South America – Staurikosaurus, Eoraptor, and Herrerasaurus.

• Many scientists believe that dinosaurs evolved in South America and spread throughout Pangaea.

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SMALL THEROPODS

• All the meat-eating dinosaurs belong to the group called the theropods.

• As a rule, meat-eating animals are smaller bodied than plant-eating animals. This is because eating meat requires a far smaller digestive system.

• Very small meat eaters, such as Compsognathus,ate lizards and insects. Slightly larger creatures, such as Velociraptor, probably hunted in packs, preying on much bigger animals.

• Most meat eaters had straight, stiff tails that they used for balance. This allowed some of them to run very fast, up to 25 mph (40 km/h).

• Many experts believe that birds evolved from the small meat eaters.

Compsognathus – one ofthe smallest dinosaurs – wasabout the size of a chicken.

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SEGNOSAURS

• The segnosaurs have puzzled many experts, being meat-eating dinosaurs but withsome features very much like plant eaters.

• Their remains have been found in rocks from the late Cretaceous period.

• Segnosaur fossils were first found in 1933, when they were thought to be parts of a Tyrannosaurus. It was not until the late 1970s that they were recognized as a distinct dinosaur group.

• They had small heads with fine teeth, leading some paleontologists to think that they were fish eaters. However, a beak at the front of the mouth suggests a diet that consisted mainly of plants.

• Very long claws on the hands have led to speculation that they fed like anteaters, tearing into termite mounds and eating the contents.

• Recent discoveries in China show that some segnosaurs were covered in feathers, suggesting that they could be close relatives of birds.

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BIG THEROPODS

• For a century, Tyrannosaurus was regarded as the biggest meat-eating dinosaur.

• In the 1990s, the skeletons of two meat eaters came to light, Giganotosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus, each longer than Tyrannosaurus.

• Paleontologists still argue over whether the big meat-eating dinosaurs were active hunters or slow-moving scavengers.

• Some experts point to the fact that theropods had short thighbones in relation to the rest of the leg. This suggests that the legs were designed for running at high speed.

• Others point out that the theropods had hollow limb bones. While this made them relatively light, the suggestion is that the weaker, hollow bones made them susceptible to serious injury, particularly if they fell over at speed.

Tyrannosaurus – one of the largest theropods.

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PROSAUROPODS

• The prosauropods were the first big plant-eating dinosaurs. They lived in the late Triassic and early Jurassic periods.

• They were once thought to have been the ancestors of the sauropods, having features of both the early ancestral meat eaters and the later long-necked plant eaters.

• Their long necks would have allowed them to reach leaves at the tops of high trees.

• They probably walked mainly on all fours and reared up on their hind legs to reach even higher. Their considerable weight was concentrated around the hips.

• Some were small and rabbit-sized, while the biggest was 26-33 ft (8-10 meters) long.

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SAUROPODS

• The sauropods were the long-necked plant eaters. They were thebiggest land animals that ever walked the Earth.

• Most sauropods walked on all fours.Their large digestive system was carried forward of the lizard-shapedhips and made it difficult to balance on hind legs.

• Some sauropods, like Diplodocus, were long and low and able to rise up on to their hind legs for short periods to browse on leaves. Others, such as the 39 ft- (12 meter-) high Brachiosaurus, simply relied on their enormous height.

• One group of sauropods, the titanosaurs, flourished at the end of the Cretaceous. They had armored backs, but the armor was probably used for stiffening the backbone rather than for defense.

Diplodocus was one ofthe longest sauropods,measuring up to 86 ft(26 meters).

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SMALL ORNITHOPODS

BIG ORNITHOPODS

• Ornithopods were the two-footed plant eaters. They lived throughout the dinosaur era – from the late Triassicto the end of the Cretaceous.

• They had a beak at the front of the mouth and cheeks on the side.

• Birdlike hips allowed their big, plant-eating intestines to be carried toward the back, allowing the animal to balance for a two-footed way of life.

• Small ornithopods were fast-running animals – none of them had heavy horns or armor.

• They usually had four or five fingers, rather than the two or three found on the theropods.

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• The bigger ornithopods, such as Iguanodon, probably spent most of their time down on all fours. When young, they may have run about on hind legs, just like the smaller ornithopods.

• Their well-developed jaws and teethcould grind up food very well. Their hands and feet had hooves and weight-bearing pads.

• One group – the “duckbills” – were the most important plant eaters at the end of the Cretaceous period.

• There were two groups of duckbills. The hadrosaurines had flat heads; the lambeosaurines had flamboyant head crests. Both groups had toothless beaks.

• It is thought that the duckbills had a well-developed system of communicating by sound. The lambeosaurines used their crests, while the hadrosaurines used the inflatable flaps above their beaks.

• They lived in herds, finding safety in sheer numbers.

PARASAUROLOPHUSThis skull of Parasaurolophus, aduckbill, shows its unusual head crest.It is thought that the dinosaur usedthe hollow, tubelike structure tocreate a distinctive bellowing sound.

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CERATOPSIANS

• The ceratopsians were the horned dinosaurs. Sometimes they are calledthe “ceratopians” – without the middle “s.” They existed at the end of the Cretaceous period.

• The earliest were the pstittacosaurs – the “parrot reptiles.” They were similar to ornithopods, but with big, parrotlike heads.

• The later types can be divided into two groups. The centrosaurines had long horns on the nose and short neck shields; the chasmosaurines had long horns above the eyes and long neck shields.

• The horns and shields may have been used primarily for display, rather than for fighting.

• Bone beds consisting of the fossils ofhundreds of individuals suggest that ceratopsians migrated in herds.

PACHYCEPHALOSAURS

• Pachycephalosaurs – the “boneheads” – were closely related to the ceratopsians.Like that group, they lived at the end ofthe Cretaceous period.

• They all had a bony helmet over the skull, believed to have been used like a battering ram.

• Dinosaur skulls are usually very rare. Pachycephalosaur skulls are very solid and have fossilized well. A relatively large number have been found.

• Pachycephalosaurus was up to 26 ft (8 m) long and was the largest of this group. Most pachycephalosaurs were very small dinosaurs.

• The earliest example was found in early Cretaceous rocks on the Isle of Wight, England. Others have been discovered in late Cretaceous rock in Asia and North America.

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THREE HORNSTriceratops – “three-horned face” – was the biggest of the ceratopsians and had the most striking horns and neck frill. It is easy to imagine these rhinoceros-like creatures locking horns with one another in combat.

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ANKYLOSAURS

• The ankylosaurs were heavily armored dinosaurs. The armor consisted of a mosaic of flat, bony plates that stretched from the head to the end of the tail. Some even had armor on their eyelids.

• There are two types, the ankylosaurids, which had a bony club at the end of the tail, and the nodosaurids, which had rows of spikes along the sides of the body. Both lived in the late Cretaceous period.

• The ankylosaurids had broad jaws and took wide mouthfuls of vegetation. The nodosaurids had narrow jaws and were more selective about their food.

• Most ankylosaur fossils are of armor lying upside down. It is thought that they were washed down rivers with the weight of their armor turning them over as they went.

STEGOSAURS

• The stegosaurs were the “plated” dinosaurs. They all had plates and spines in different arrangements down their backs.

• Stegosaurs evolved in the early Jurassic period. They became very common inthe late Jurassic and early Cretaceous and then they died away.

• Most stegosaurs had a heavilyspiked tail – sometimes called a “thagomizer” – that they used to defend themselves.

• It is thought that those with the broadest plates,

such as Stegosaurus,used them to

collect heat from the Sun and to funnel coolbreezes across their bodies,rather than for defense.

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Stegosaurus was thelargest of all theknown stegosaurs.

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NORTHERN HEMISPHERE DINOSAURS

• Pangaea was a single landmass, but it was divided into Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south by an inlet of ocean, called the Tethys – an area around what is now central and southern Europe.

• Remains of dwarf dinosaurs (duckbills and ankylosaurs the size of sheep) have been found in what were Cretaceous islands in the Tethys. They probably adapted to the limited resources of island habitats.

• In the late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, a shallow seaway stretched north-south across North America. Dinosaur footprints point north and south too, as if the animals were following the coastline.

• During the Cretaceous summers, plant eaters probably migrated into the polar areas of the far north to take advantage of the short growing season.

• Cretaceous northern Asia and North America were a single landmass. The sametypes of dinosaurs lived in both places.

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PANGAEAN DINOSAURS

• Similar animals lived in different parts of Pangaea – the Earth’s original, single landmass.

• The small theropod Coelophysis, from New Mexico, was almost identical to the small theropod Syntarsus from Zimbabwe, Africa.

• The prosauropods of South Africa were almost the same as those of central Europe.

• Pterosaurs – the flying reptiles – developed in Pangaea at the same as the dinosaurs..

Coelophysis, one of the earliestdinosaurs, wouldhave been foundin Pangaea.

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• Discoveries of dinosaur remains in Alaska and in Antarctica in the 1980s showed that some dinosaurs lived in cold climates.

• Dinosaur fossils are limited to the remains of animals that lived on lowlands, close to rivers or streams. Upland animals are far from areas of deposition and so tend not to become fossilized.

• Sandy deserts are a great environmentfor dinosaur preservation. Many remains have been found of dinosaurs that were engulfed in sandstorms.

• The first Australian dinosaurs were found half way up a sea cliff in Victoria, in the 1980s. Their location posed a huge logistical problem for the paleontologists.

SOUTHERN HEMISPHEREDINOSAURS

• The dinosaurs of Gondwana became significantly different from those of Laurasia in the early Cretaceous period.

• Excavations in Madagascar, which began in 1995, showed that the dinosaurs of that island were more similar to those of South America than to those of nearby Africa.

• There was probably a land bridge between South America and Africa until the early Cretaceous, suggested by the similarity of sauropod remains found in these regions.

• When there were dinosaur migrations between Gondwana and Laurasia, the principal direction seems to have been northward.

ONE CONTINENTThis model shows how the Earth wouldhave looked sometime during theTriassic period. Dinosaurs would have roamed freely all over the single continent Pangaea. This helps to explain why the remains of the same, or very similar, dinosaurs are found in different parts of the world.

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DINOSAURFOSSILIZATION

• Actual dinosaur fossils are usually petrified bones, molds, or casts.

• Petrified dinosaur bones are produced when the original bone material has been replaced by minerals. The structure is exactly the same as the original.

• When the whole of the original animal has dissolved away, only a hole in the rock remains. This is called a mold.

• If the mold becomes filled with minerals, it produces a cast.

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• Very rarely are parts of the soft anatomy of a dinosaur preserved.

• Some scientists argue that sauropods must have had several extra hearts in the neck, to allow them to pump bloodall the way to the head. However, thereis no hard evidence to support this.

• A skeleton of the ornithopod Thescelosaurus, found in South Dakota in 1993, has a structure that may be a heart.

• A baby theropod Scipionyx found in Cretaceous rocks in Italy shows traces of intestines, windpipe, and liver.

FLESH AND ORGANS

SCALY SKINThis is the skin impression of a sauropod, probably aDiplodocus. The skin was made up of tightly packed scales with flexible edges, which allowed easy movement. This impression shows that the scales varied in size, the smaller onesoccurring where the skinhad to bend a lot.

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MOUNTED SKELETONS

• A dinosaur reconstruction is a mounted skeleton of a dinosaur. They are displayed in museums to give people an idea of how dinosaurs looked.

• The first dinosaur reconstruction was made by sculptor Waterhouse Hawkins under the direction of Joseph Leidy. He assembled casts of the bones of Hadrosaurus in 1868, replacing the missing parts with plaster replicas.

• Original fossil bones are extremely heavy. Modern reconstructions use lightweight casts to make the mounting easier, and the original bonesare stored for research purposes.

• The American Museum of Natural History has the largest number of mounted dinosaur skeletons, with 21 on display.

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• It is impossible to determine the color of a dinosaur. Most colored restorations use colors based on modern animals such as lizards.

• Examples of preserved dinosaur skin are very rare, as it does not fossilize easily. The best examples are those of duckbills, which show a skin made up of a mosaic of nonoverlapping scales.

• Pelecanimimus is so-called because it was found preserved with a flap of skin under its throat – just like the pouch of a pelican.

• Impressions of skin found in the rock around fossils are much more common.

• The clearest skin impression from a big theropod is that of a South American Carnotaurus from the Cretaceous period.

COLORS AND SKIN

Mounting a reconstruction of adinosaur skeleton.

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LONG-NECKEDPLESIOSAURS

• The long-necked group of plesiosaurs were the elasmosaurs. They swam with paddlelike legs, using an underwater flying motion like a penguin.

• Their eyes were big – good for finding prey in the dark waters. Their diet was mostly fish, but some of them may have sifted for food through mud on the seabed.

• The nostrils seem to have been too small for breathing. They were probably used for sensing their environment, and they breathed through their mouths.

• It is not known whether they gave birth to live young or laid eggs on beaches.

• Hydrotherosaurus was 39 ft (12 m) long. Half of that length was made up by its extended neck.

• Elasmosaurs evolved in the Triassic period and survived until the end of theCretaceous.

SHORT-NECKEDPLESIOSAURS

• The short-necked, big-headed plesiosaurs were the pliosaurs. They are regarded as the sperm whales of the Mesozoic era. They existed until the end of the Cretaceous period.

• Smaller types, like the 10-ft (3-m)long Dolicorhynchops probably fed on fish. The largest may have hunted elasmosaurs and ichthyosaurs.

• The biggest jawbone found is from Liopleurodon. It was 10 ft (3 m) long.

• Pliosaurs were probably ancestors of the elasmosaurs.

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SEA MONSTERElasmosaurus (pictured left) displaysthe typical characteristics of the

elasmosaurs – an extremelylong neck, a small head,and four flippers. Large

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SEA FOODShellfish, such as the ammonitepictured here, were common in the seas of the Mesozoic Era. These are thought to have been the staple diet of some ancient sea reptiles. Ammonite shells have been found with tooth marks thatmatch the bite of a mosasaur.

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• The ichthyosaurs were the most highly adapted of the Mesozoic sea reptiles. They had streamlined bodies, paddle limbs, a sharklike tail, and a dorsal fin.

• Triassic ichthyosaurs were hugeand whalelike. Those from the Jurassic were smaller – about the size of dolphins.

• Belemnites – Mesozoic squidlike animals – formed much of their diet, as shown by fossilized tentacle hooks found in ichthyosaurs’ stomach contents.

• They died away in the Cretaceous and were replaced by the mosasaurs.

ICHTHYOSAURS

• The mosasaurs were a group of swimming lizards from late Cretaceous times. They were close relatives of the modern monitor lizards.

• They mostly ate fish and shellfish. One type, Globidens, had broad teeth, well suited to crunchingthrough hard shells.

• They moved their entire body and tail to swim and used their paddlelikelimbs to stabilize themselves.

• Skin impressions suggest that the skin was scaly, like that of a snake.

• The biggest types of mosasaurs were about 33 ft (10 m) long.

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LONG-TAILEDPTEROSAURS

• The pterosaurs were the flying reptiles of the age of dinosaurs. They were archosaurs, like the dinosaurs and crocodiles.

• They flew with leathery wings, supported by an elongated fourth finger. Strong fibers helped strengthen the wings.

• The earlier pterosaurs had long tails, narrow wings, and short wrists, and were called the rhamphorhynchoids. They evolved in the Triassic and survived until the end of the Jurassic.

• Most ate fish, but some of the smaller types would have eaten insects.

• The tails were stiff, straight rods reinforced by tendons. There was a paddle-shaped vane at the end.

SHORT-TAILEDPTEROSAURS

• The later pterosaurs were the pterodactyloids. They succeeded the rhamphorhynchoids in the late Jurassic and survived until the end of the Cretaceous.

• The pterodactyloids had short tails, broad wings, and long wrists. There were many different types with various head shapes, mouths, and teeth.

• Pterodactylus had sharp teeth for catching fish; Pterodaustro had fine sieves for filtering plankton. Pteranodon had no teeth at all.

• The popular term “pterodactyl” is applied generally to both the pterodactyloids and the rhamphorhynchoids.

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SKY REPTILESThe pterodactyloids – the short-tailedpterosaurs – were the largest animals that have ever flown in the Earth’s skies.Some types, such as Quetzalcoatlus andArambourgiania, had a wingspan of up to 39 ft (12 m) – as big as that of a small aircraft.

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OTHER REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

• Big, crocodile-sized amphibians thrived until the mass extinction at the end of the Triassic. However, giant amphibian remains have been found in early Cretaceous rocks in Egypt.

• Modern amphibians – frogs and newts – date back to the Triassic, whilelizards are known from Jurassic times.

• Snakes evolved in the Jurassic but were more common in the Cretaceous.

• Turtles evolved in the Triassic and flourished throughout the age of dinosaurs.

• Crocodiles have remained essentially unchanged since Triassic times.

• The big predators of the Triassic, rivaling the first dinosaurs, were the rauisuchians –giant land-dwelling crocodile-like animals.

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• The first mammals evolved at about the same time as the dinosaurs.

• Mammals were tiny and insignificant throughout the age of dinosaurs, a period that accounts for two-thirds of their evolutionary history.

• Early mammals were probably nocturnal insect eaters.

• They may have laid eggs, but suckled their young, as a modern duck-billed platypus does.

• Plant-eating mammals did not evolve until the late Jurassic. Some of these were about the size of modern-day beavers.

• Most of the primitive mammals became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous, along with the dinosaurs.

MAMMALS

Crocodiles are closely related tothe dinosaurs.

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• Coprolite is the name given to fossil dung. We can tell much about the diet of an extinct animal by studying coprolites.

• A coprolite attributed to Tyrannosaurus has fragments of duckbill bone incorporated in it.

• A large number of small coprolite pellets found in Yorkshire, England, each no bigger than a half inch in diameter, and containing cycad fragments, must have come from a dinosaur. Altogether they amounted to 7 cubic in (120 cubic cm) of dung – only dinosaurs were big enough to produce this amount.

• Spiral coprolites suggest that the animal had a spiral intestine.

COPROLITES

FOOTPRINTS

• Fossil dinosaur footprints are far more common than fossil dinosaur bones.

• Dinosaur footprints are given their own scientific names because it is difficult to tell which particular animal made a particular footprint.

• Very few dinosaur tracks show marks of a tail, suggesting that dinosaurs walked with their tails off the ground.

• The speed of a dinosaur is estimated by comparing the length of the leg with the distance between footprints.

The fossilized footprint of an Iguanodon’s lefthind foot. This print was probably made by a

youngster weighing about half a ton.

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DINOSAUR EGGS

• As far as we know, all dinosaurs laid eggs. However, it has been suggested that dinosaurs with wide pelvises – sauropods and pachycephalosaurs – may have borne their young alive.

• Like footprints, dinosaur eggs are given their own scientific names, because it is so difficult to tell which dinosaur laid the egg.

• The name of a fossilized egg usually has “oo” in it. Faveoloolithus may be the egg of a sauropod. Spheroolithus may be the egg of a duckbill.

• Only if an embryo is preserved in the egg can it be firmly identified.So far, this has only been possible with Troodon, Hypacrosaurus, Maiasaura,and Oviraptor.

• A well-known fossil of Compsognathuswas found to have fossil eggsaround it. They are thought to have burst from its body during death.

• Some dinosaur remains show evidence of injury or disease. About a quarter of theropod remains show injury to the forelimbs, probably caused either while fighting or during mating.

• Broken and healed ribs in ceratopsians are seen in similar positions to those seen in male bison. This suggests that these animals butted each other’s flanks.

• Many of the big dinosaurs have adjacent vertebrae fused together, possibly as a result of the stresses produced by the great weight of the animal.

• Ceratopsians are sometimes missing horns, perhaps as a result of fighting.

• The life expectancy of a dinosaur is hard to estimate. It has even been suggested that the big sauropods may have reached an age of around 200 years.

DINOPATHOLOGY

A restoration of a Maiasaura nest.

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SOUND, VISION, AND SMELL

FEEDING

• Plant-eating dinosaurs had jaws with very good leverage. The teeth were spaced closely together and sometimes overlapped. They had coarse, serrated edges and were mostly the same size.

• Meat-eating dinosaurs had widely spaced, tapered teeth. They were finely serrated (like steak knives) and were all of different sizes.

• Sauropods and prosauropods could not chew. They swallowed stones to grind up food in their gizzards.

• Ornithischians had grinding and chopping teeth, so they were able to chew their food held in their cheeks.

• Allosaurus had loosely articulated jaw bones, so that it could broaden its mouth and swallow huge chunks of meat.

This Tyrannosaurus skeleton clearlyshows the meat-eater's lethal teeth.

• In the prosauropods, the sense of smell was quite acute, as shown by the nerve passages in the skull.

• It is thought that Troodon was able to perceive depth in vision – an advantage to a swift hunter.

• The tyrannosaurs had bones in their noses that increased the area of their sinuses. This indicates a powerful sense of smell.

• The acoustics of the skull of Tyrannosaurus suggest that it made a noise more like the croak of a frog than the roar of a lion.

• It is thought that forest-dwellingdinosaurs would have made high-pitched sounds that carried through the trees. Those that lived on the plains may have made deep sounds that would carry along the ground.

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• We know that many dinosaurs lived in herds by the presence of bone beds andfootprint tracks.

• The most famous nesting site is that of the duckbill Maiasaura found in Montana in the 1980s. All stages of growth were found, from eggs and hatchlings, to juveniles and adults.

• It is difficult to distinguish between male and female dinosaurs from their fossils. It is likely that females were larger than males and that males had more flamboyant frills and crests.

• A herd of sauropods may have moved in a formation that protected the young by keeping them in the middle.

• Ceratopsians may have formed a protective ring around their youngsters,with their horns pointing outward when danger threatened.

FAMILY LIFE

The brainpower of a dinosaur isestimated by taking into account theweight of the body and the weight ofthe brain, and comparing it with thatof the modern relative, the crocodile.This is called the encephalizationquotient, or EQ. The larger the EQ thegreater the brainpower. Typical EQsare as follows:

CREATURE EQSauropod 0.2Ankylosaur 0.54Stegosaur 0.58Ceratopsian 0.7-0.9Crocodile 1.0Ornithopod 0.9-1.5Big theropod 1.0-1.9Small theropod 5.8

BRAINPOWER

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BIG-EYEDHUNTERTroodon had very large eyes and a relatively big brain.It is thought that its good vision and intelligence were the secrets of its success as a hunter. Scientists base this theory on the similarity of the optic nerve channels and brain cases of Troodon fossils with those of modernpredatory creatures.

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There are many theories on why thedinosaurs died out. Here are some of themost commonly held ones:

• A meteorite or comet hit the Earth. The impact had a devastating effect, causing short-term phenomena such as tidal waves and wildfires, as well as long-term changes to the climate.

• Widespread volcanic activity, changing the atmosphere and climate.

• Gradual change in climate.

• Diseases spread by mixing populations.

• Cosmic rays from distant stars.

• Changes in vegetation resulting in starvation for herbivores.

• Environmental instability due to changing sea levels.

• Change in the Earth's magnetic field.

EXTINCTION THEORIES WARM BLOODED ORCOLD BLOODED?• The discovery of Deinonychus in the

1960s began the debate on whether dinosaurs were warm-blooded or cold-blooded. As a swift and agile predator, Deinonychus would probably have been warm-blooded.

• A warm-blooded animal needs about 10 times as much food as a cold-blooded animal.

• The small number of meat eaters compared to plant eaters in the Jurassic seems to suggest a warm-blooded mode of life.

• Some dinosaurs, such as Stegosaurus, had plates on their backs, possibly to collect heat from the Sun. This suggests cold-bloodedness.

• Some scientists think that the small theropods were warm-blooded and the big sauropods were cold-blooded.

Deinonychus - a warm-blooded

dinosaur?

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• No dinosaurs survive today, although there are occasional reports of Mesozoic-type animals being seen.

• The Loch Ness Monster and other mysterious lake creatures are reported to resemble plesiosaurs.

• The “Mokele-Mbembe” of the Congo region of Africa is purported to resemble a sauropod.

• The Leviathan and Behemoth mentioned in The Bible have been interpreted asearly sightings of dinosaurs.

• The legend of the gryphon is thought to have originated in the discovery of the many fossil Protoceratops skulls that exist in Mongolia.

“LIVING FOSSILS”

DINOSAURS AND FEATHERS• Most scientists agree that dinosaurs are related to birds, but the exact

relationship is not clear.

• The first known bird is Archaeopteryx from the late Jurassic. It was just like a little dinosaur covered in feathers.

• The earliest birds have toothed jaws, longbony tails, and clawed fingers on the wings –all dinosaur features. Later birds had amixture of these features and moretraditional birdlike features.

• In the early 1990s, some strange half-bird/half-dinosaur fossils were found in

China. Sinosauripteryx was one of these – essentially asmall theropod but covered in fine structures like feathers.

• In 2001, a dromaeosaurid was found in China withwhat were undoubtedly feathers all over its body.

An artist's impression of Archaeopteryx.

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Several methods have been used tobring dinosaurs to life on the screen.They include:

• Using an actor in a costume, as in The Land Unknown (1957).

• Sticking horns and fins on living lizards to disguise them, as seen in Journey to the Center of the Earth (1958).

• Puppetry, in which a puppet is manipulated by off-screen operators, as in The Land That Time Forgot (1974).

• Computer-generated imagery, in which the visuals are created and animated by computer software. Jurassic Park (1993) is the best example of this.

ANIMATING DINOSAURS

• The first dinosaur in a film was in Gertie the Dinosaur (1912) in which a cartoon dinosaur on a film acted with a live actor on stage.

• The first full-length feature film to portray dinosaurs was The Lost World (1925).

• The most famous Japanese film dinosaur is Godzilla. The original Japanese spelling is Gojira, and was named after a technician in the studio.

• Jurassic Park (1993) was the first film to employ real paleontologists as advisers and to present dinosaurs as accurately as possible.

DINOSAURS IN FILMS

• The first novel to feature living fossil animals was Jules Verne's Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864).

• Possibly the best-known dinosaur novel was Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World (1912).

• The most famous dinosaur artist was Charles R. Knight (1874-1953). He worked with the best paleontologists of the time and his paintings are in many of the museums in the US.

• The first dinosaur textbook written for nonspecialists was The Dinosaur Book, written by paleontologist E.H.Colbert in 1945.

DINOSAURS IN ART ANDLITERATURE

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• The first dinosaur amusement park was in Crystal Palace Park, London, where a number of statues of dinosaurs as well as a variety of other extinct animals were built in 1854.

• The first dinosaur amusement park inthe United States was in Rapid City,South Dakota. It was constructed in the 1930s.

• The biggest dinosaur statue ever built to date is an incredible 150 feet (45 meters) long and 45 feet (13 meters)

high. It is a sauropod and stands in San Gorgonio Pass in California. It is so big that a whole museum has been built inside it.

• The first-ever moving, life-sized dinosaur statues were built in1933-1934 and appeared at the World's Fair in Chicago.

• An exhibition featuring the full-sized models from the film Jurassic Park toured the world after the release of the film.

DINOSAUR THEME PARKS

DIGITAL DINOSAURSThe modern movie industry uses the very latest computer technology to bring dinosaurs to life. The creatures in this book featured in Disney'sDinosaur, released in 2000.

A scene from Jurassic Park

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• The first dinosaurs: Eoraptor, Herrerasaurus, and Staurikosaurus.

• The first ceratopsian: Archaeoceratops.

• The first ankylosaur: Scelidosaurus.

• The first dinosaur restoration: Gideon Mantell’s drawing of Iguanodon in the 1820s.

• The first dinosaur film: Gertie the Dinosaur, made in 1912.

• The first discovery of a fossil sea reptile: Mosasaurus in 1766.

• The first description of a pterosaur: naturalist Cosimo Collini was the first to describe one of the flying reptiles in 1784.

THE FIRST... THE BIGGEST AND LONGEST...• The longest known dinosaur:

Seismosaurus. It was up to 147 feet (45 m) in length.

• The biggest dinosaur overall: Argentinosaurus – at least 88 feet (27 m)long. It weighed 49.2 tons (50 tonnes).

• The longest dinosaur name: Micropachycephalosaurus.

• The biggest meat eater: either Carcharodontosaurus or Giganotosaurus; both of these massive theropods were up to 49 feet (15 m) long.

• The biggest head: Torosaurus’. This ceratopsian’s head was around 9 feet (2.8 m) long, including its neck shield.

• The biggest eyes: Dromiceiomimus’. A relative of Troodon, it had eyes that were 3.9 in (10 cm ) in diameter.

• The meat eater with the most teeth: Baryonyx. It had a total of 128 finely serrated teeth.

• The biggest bone: a sauropod hipbone measuring 6 ft by 4 ft (1.8 m by 1.4 m) and weighing 1500 lb (680 kg).

Giganotosaurus – possibly the biggestmeat-eating dinosaur.

LONGEST NECKThe dinosaur with the longest neck was, not surprisingly, a sauropod.Mamenchisaurus’ neck measured up to 32 feet (9.8 m) and contained 19vertebrae. It made up almost half of the animal’s total body length. Despiteits enormous length, this dinosaur’s neck was not particularly flexible.

• The smallest complete adult skeleton found: one of Compsognathus, measuringjust 3.2 feet (1 m).

• The smallest complete infant skeleton: a Mussaurus skeleton, measuring 8 inches (20 cm).

• The smallest armoured dinosaur: Scutellosaurus, up to 4 feet (1.2 m) long.

• The shortest dinosaur name: Minmi.

• The smallest ceratopsian: Microceratops – only 23 inches (60 cm) long.

• The smallest footprint: that of an unnamed sparrow-sized dinosaur from Nova Scotia, Canada.

• The smallest brain: Stegosaurus’ – it weighed about 2.5 oz (70 g).

THE SMALLEST...

Stegosaurus is well-knownfor having the smallestbrain of any knowndinosaur. It was about thesize of a walnut.

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There are no firm rules regarding the pronunciation of dinosaur names – differentpaleontologists pronounce the names in different ways. Here are some examples:

Diplodocus:

Troodon:

Deinonychus:

Ornithomimus:

Euoplocephalus:

Parasaurolophus:

Iguanodon:

PRONUNCIATION

UNUSUAL NAMES

• Atlascopcosaurus, an Australianornithopod, was named after the company that financed the expedition on which it was found.

• Jurassosaurus nedegoapeferkimorum, a Jurassic ankylosaur, has part of its name made up from the initials of the actors in the film Jurassic Park.

• Masiakasaurus knopfleri, a theropod from Madagascar, is named after the guitarist Mark Knopfler. The paleontologists were playing his music when they discovered it.

• Triceratops was originally named Bison alticornis, because the remains were thought to have belonged to a buffalo.

ALSO KNOWN AS...Sometimes the same dinosaur is givena different name after separatediscoveries of the same animal aremade. In such cases, the rule is thatthe name given first is kept. The bestknown example of this was whenBrontosaurus was renamedApatosaurus.

Di-PLOD-ocuss, or Diplo-DOH cuss

True-OH-don, or TROOdon

Dino-NYE-cuss, or Di-NONNY-cuss

Or-NITH-o-MY-muss, or Or-NITH-o-ME-muss

YOU-plo-KEFF-alus, or YOU-plo-SEFF-alus

Para-SORROW-lofus, or PARA-sor-OLOF-us

Ig-WANNA-don, or Ig-YOU-ANNA-don

Brontosaurus, aka Apatosaurus

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ANIMAL FEATURESSome features of dinosaurs found in modern animals.

• The long neck of the typical sauropod is reflected in the long neck of the giraffe. In both cases, they allow the large animal to reach their food.

• The wide frill of a ceratopsian and the plates of a stegosaur may have had the same function as the tail of a peacock – that of attracting a mate.

• The legs of the fast dinosaurs such as Troodon, with short thighs to concentrate the muscle and long, lightweight shanks, are similar to those of fast-running mammals like deer.

• Lizards spread their rib cages flat over their basking rocks to soak up heat from the Sun. The spines on Spinosaurus and Ouranosaurus may have spread the skin for the same purpose.

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Unfortunately, many important dinosaur finds have been lost. Here are just a few:

• Important specimens, including those of Spinosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus, found between 1910 and 1914 at El-Bahariya, Egypt, were destroyed when the museum in Munich in which they were housed was bombed during World War II.

• A sauropod vertebra that was reported in 1923 to have shown signs of cancer has now been lost. If true, it would be the only known occurrence of cancer in a dinosaur.

• The Allied bombing of Hamburg in World War II destroyed the best of the dinosaur statues in Hagenbeck’s zoo.

• Two skeletons of Corythosaurus were lost when the ship they were on, the Mt. Temple, was sunk by a U-boat in 1916.

“MISSING” DINOSAURS

Giraffes use their long necks toreach food in much the sameway as the sauropods did.

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REFERENCESECTION

DINOSAUR DISCOVERERS 170

REPTILES CLASSIFIED 174

RECORDS AND MYTHS 178

DIGGING UP DINOSAURS 180

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DINOSAUR DISCOVERERSPEOPLE HAVE probably found dinosaur fossils forthousands of years. But it was not until 1841 thatscientists first identified the dinosaur group. Therehave been many well-known dinosaur hunters, madefamous because of the dinosaurs they have discovered.

DR. GIDEON MANTELL (1790-1852) was a medical doctorfrom Sussex in England. Hewas also a keen fossil hunter.He spent much of his earlylife collecting fossils in thehills near where he lived. Butit was one fossil find that puthis name in the history books.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

In 1820, Gideon Mantell and hiswife, Mary Ann, found some largeteeth and bones in some gravel near a stone quarry. They belongedto an unknown, iguana-like animal.In 1825 he named it Iguanodon,although he did not realize at the time that it was a dinosaur.

DEAN WILLIAM BUCKLAND

(1784-1856) was thefirst professor ofgeology at OxfordUniversity inEngland. He wasfascinated byfossils fromchildhood.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

In 1824, a large jawbone with a giant toothwas found near Oxford. Buckland recognizedit as belonging to a previously unknown giantreptile. This reptile was named Megalosaurus,

which means “big lizard,” and was thefirst dinosaur to be named. Like

Mantell, Buckland did not know thatMegalosaurus was a dinosaur.

SIR RICHARD OWEN

(1804-1892) WAS

a famous Britishanatomist. He coined the name “dinosaur,”which means“terriblelizard.”

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Owen worked at the Natural HistoryMuseum in London, where he studied fossilsfound in Europe. He not only realized thatsome fossils were reptiles, but unknown

types of giant reptiles. He concluded thatthey must have belonged to a group of

extinct animals, and named thisgroup dinosaurs.

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COPE (1840-1897) was an Americanfrom Philadelphia. Hewas a scientific genius,and dinosaurs werejust one area onwhich he wasan expert.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Cope started his scientific career afterthe American Civil War. He traveledwith fellow scientist Othaniel Marsh onmany of his early trips. They eventuallybecame fierce rivals. Among his many

finds, Cope discovered severalprimitive Triassic dinosaurs from

New Mexico.

OTHNIEL CHARLES MARSH

(1831-1899) was anAmerican paleontologistborn in New York. Alongwith E.D. Cope, Marshwas one of the greatpioneers of dinosaur fossil hunting in theUnited States.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Marsh discovered many dinosaurfossil sites in the United States.The most famous were ComoBluff in Wyoming and severalsites in Colorado. His intenserivalry with Edward DrinkerCope was nicknamed the“Bone Wars.”

EBERHARD FRAAS

(1862-1915) was a Germanpaleontologist. He went on long expeditions toAfrica in his searchfor dinosaursfossils.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

In 1907, Fraas was told of some dinosaurbones in a site in Tanzania, Africa. Fraas led

an expedition set up to explore the site and, in1909-12, the first fine specimens of Kentrosaurus,

Elaphrosaurus, Barosaurus, and Brachiosaurus werediscovered there. The Brachiosaurus skeleton Fraasdiscovered is now in a museum in Berlin, and isthe largest mounted skeleton in the world.

JOHN BELL HATCHER

(1861-1904) was a fossil collector forOthniel Marsh. Hatcheris recognized as one ofthe greatest collectors of dinosaurs in thehistory of Americanpaleontology.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

In 1888, Hatcher found part of a huge skull withhorns beside the Judith River in Montana. It turnedout to be a Triceratops skull, and was the first fossil ofthis dinosaur to be discovered. It was also the first of the horned dinosaurs to be found,which introduced a new dinosaur variety to paleontologists.

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GEORGE F. STERNBERG

(1883-1969) WAS

an American paleon-tologist who startedcollecting fossils atthe age of six. Hecontinued to workon fossils for thenext 66 years.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

George F. Sternberg made his mostimportant dinosaur discovery in1908: he was the first person to findan impression of dinosaur skin,which belonged to Anatosaurus.Sternberg made many other amazingdiscoveries, including the first fossilof Edmontosaurus.

ANDREW CARNEGIE (1835-1919) was originally fromScotland. He emigratedwith his family to theUnited States at theage of 11. He madehis fortune in thesteel industry inPittsburgh.

EDWIN COLBERT

(b.1905) is an Americanpaleontologist and anexpert in Triassicdinosaurs. He found thefirst dinosaur fossils inAntarctica. He has writtenseveral books about thehistory of dinosaurs.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Colbert found the first complete Coelophysisskeletons in New Mexico in 1947. Someskeletons held thebones of youngCoelophysis in the ribcage. This indicatedthat Coelophysis mayhave been a cannibal.

ROY CHAPMAN ANDREWS

(1884-1960) led the firstAmerican expedition tothe Gobi Desert inMongolia in 1922.Andrews went with ateam from the AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory (AMNH).

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Andrews and his team discovered many newdinosaurs in the Gobi Desert. Among them wereProtoceratops, Velociraptor, andOviraptor. But the mostsignificant find was somefossilized Protoceratops eggs– the first dinosaur eggs tobe discovered.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Carnegie set up the Carnegie Museumin Pittsburgh. He sent fossil hunters onlong expeditions to find dinosaurs for

his museum. They discovered twocomplete skeletons of Diplodocus.

A replica of one of theskeletons stands in the Natural

History Museum in London.

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EARL DOUGLASS (1862-1931) was an Americanfrom Utah. He worked atthe Carnegie Museum inPittsburgh.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

In 1909 Douglass was sent by Andrew Carnegieto hunt for fossils in Utah. Douglass’ discoveriesincluded Diplodocus and Apatosaurus. Thesite where these dinosaurs werefound was turned into theDinosaur NationalPark, which stillexists today.

BARNUM BROWN

(1873-1963), anAmerican, was hiredby the AmericanMuseum of NaturalHistory in New Yorkbecause of his skill infinding dinosaurskeletons.

What he discoveredBarnum Brown’s expertise in fossilhunting earned him the nickname“Mr. Bones.” He found the firstTyrannosaurus rex fossils, and namedAnkylosaurus and Corythosaurus. The

AMNH houses the world’s greatestdisplay of Cretaceous dinosaurs asa result of Brown’s collecting.

JIM JENSON (B.1910) isa self-taught paleon-tologist. He was thecurator of theVertebrate Paleon-tology ResearchLaboratory at BrighamYoung University inProvo, Utah.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Jenson has discovered some of the largestdinosaurs. In 1972, he found a partialskeleton of a sauropod. He named itSupersaurus. Its height is estimated to be 54ft (16.5 m). In 1979 he found a partialskeleton of another new sauropod. Henamed it Ultrasaurus, and it is thought tobe even bigger than Supersaurus.

BILL WALKER (B. 1928)is a British quarry-worker who is also anamateur fossil collector.In 1982, he made animportant dinosaurdiscovery whenexploring a muddy claypit in Surrey, England.

WHAT HE DISCOVERED

Walker found a huge claw,which broke into pieces whenhe held it. He took it to theBritish Museum in London,

which organized an excavation to recovermore of the creature. It turned out to be anew dinosaur, which was named Baryonyxwalkeri, in honor of Walker.

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REPTILES CLASSIFIEDALL LIVING THINGS are classifiedinto different groups, accordingto their common features. Inthe animal kingdom,vertebrates form a huge group.All vertebrates have abackbone – thatis their commonfeature. Thischart shows howreptiles,including thedinosaurs, fitinto thevertebrate group.

“LIZZIE”A fossil reptile found inScotland is the oldest reptilewe know of. The 330-million-year-old reptile, named “Lizzie”by its discoverer, was 1 ft (30 cm) long.Its skin was scaly and waterproof, likethe skin of modern reptiles.

VERTEBRATES

All vertebrates have an internal skeleton,which supports theirbody. This distinguishesthem from animalswithout an internalskeleton, such asinsects, which arecalled invertebrates.

FOUR GROUPS

There are four maingroups of vertebrates –fishes, amphibians,reptiles, and mammals.Each of these groupshave hundreds, or eventhousands, of subgroups.

RECONSTRUCTIONOF “LIZZIE”

MAMMAL

AMPHIBIAN

FISH

VERTEBRATES

AMPHIBIANS

FISHES ANDSHARKS

MAMMALS

REPTILES

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REPTILE GROUPS

The reptile group isdivided into threesubgroups. These threedivisions are based onthe number of openingsin the skull behind theeye sockets. The anapsids have noopenings; the synapsidshave one, and thediapsids have two.

DIAPSIDS

The diapsids are furtherdivided into threegroups. These are:lepidosauromorphs,which include lizardsand snakes; archosauro-morphs, which includedinosaurs and crocodiles;and eurapsids, whichinclude the plesiosaursand the ichthyosaurs.

ARCHOSAUROMORPHS

The dinosaurs are inthis group, as well asthe thecodonts, whichare thought to be theancestors of thedinosaurs. Othermembers of thearchosauromorphgroup includepterosaurs, crocodiles,and birds.

TURTLE

CROCODILE

SNAKE

DINOSAUR

LizardsSnakes

DIAPSIDS ARCHOSAUROMORPHS

ThecodontsCrocodilesANAPSIDS

Turtles

SYNAPSIDS

Mammal-likereptiles

LEPIDOSAUROMORPHS

EURYAPSIDS

PlesiosaursIchthyosaurs

ARCHOSAURIA

DINOSAURIA

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ORNITHOPODA

Pisanosaurus

MARGINOCEPHALIA

THYREOPHORACERAPODA

Lesothosaurus

ANKLYOSAURIASTEGOSAURIA

PACHYCEPHALOSAURIACERATOPSIA HuayangosauridaeStegosauridae

AnkylosauridaeNodosauridae

ChaoyoungosauridaeHomalocephalide

Pachycephalosauridae

CamptosauridaeDryosauridae

HadrosauridaeHeterodontosauridaeHypsilophodontidae

Iguanodontidae

CeratopsidaeProtoceratopsidaePsittacosauridae

ScelidosaurusScullesaurus

Dinosaurs classifiedThe classification of dinosaurs is controversial and is continuallybeing revised. In this chart, dinosaurs are subdivided into threemain groups – Herrerasauria (early predatory dinosaurs),Saurischia, and Ornithischia. Birds(Aves) are now considered to bedinosaurs because primitive birds,such as Archaeopteryx, sharedmany features in common with theropods.

ORNITHISCHIA

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THEROPODA SAUROPODOMORPHA

CERATOSAURIA TETANURAE SEGNOSAURIA

CARNOSAURIA

SAURISCHIA

HERRERASAURIA

PROSAUROPODA SAUROPODA

COELUROSAURIA DEINONYCHOSAURIA

HerrerasaurusStaurikosaurus

Halticosauridae

BarapasauridaeBrachiosauridaeCamarasauidaeCetiosauridae

DicraeosauridaeDiplodocidae

EuhelopodidaeTitanosauridae

Vulcanodontida

AllosauridaeAublysodontidaeBaryonychidaeDryptosauridae

ItemiridaeMegalosauridaeSpinosauridaeTorvosauridae

Tyrannosauridae

AnchisauridaeBlikanasauridae

MelanorosauridaePlateosauridae

Yunnanosauridae

AvimimidaeCoeluridae

Compsognathidae

DromaeosauridaeTherizinosauridae

Troodontidae

DeinocheiridaeGarudimimidae

Ornithomimidae

CaenagnathidaeIngeniidae

Oviraptoridae

EnigmosauridaeSegnosauridae

Archaeopterygidae

AbelisauridaeAlvarezsauridaeCeratosauridaeCoelophysidaeNoasauridae

ORNITHOMIMOSAURIAAVES OVIRAPTOROSAURIA

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DINOSAUR RECORDS

• The smallestdinosaur ever foundwas called Mussaurus.It was only 8 in (20cm) long, but the singleskeleton found mayhave been a hatchling.The smallest adultdinosaur we know ofwas Compsognathus,which was about thesize of a chicken.

• Dromiceiomimus mayhave been the fastest ofthe dinosaurs, runningat speeds of over43 mph (70 km/h).

RECORDS AND MYTHSAS SCIENCE HAS ADVANCED, so has our understandingof dinosaurs. With almost every new discovery, welearn more about these giant reptiles. The earlydinosaur experts had beliefs about dinosaurs whichwe now know to be incorrect. The largest, smallest,fastest, most intelligent, or the least intelligentdinosaur also changes as our knowledge increases.

• The sauropodMamenchisaurus hadthe longest neck of anydinosaur. The lengthof the neck was around46 ft (14 m).• Tyrannosaurus rexwas the largest meat-eating dinosaur thatever lived. It was about46 ft (14 m) long, and18 ft (6 m) high. Itspowerful jaws had teethas long as 7 in (18 cm).• The biggest dinosaurthat we know of wasthe sauropodSeismosaurus. It wasabout 131 ft (40 m)long and weighedabout 51 tons (tonnes).

• The herbivoroushadrosaurs had about960 teeth – more thanany other dinosaurs.That was about 480tightly packed teethin each jaw.

• Troodon had thelargest brain inproportion to its sizeof any dinosaur.• Stegosaurus had thesmallest brain inproportion to its size.• Diplodocus had thelongest tail of all thedinosaurs, at over 43 ft(13 m) in length.

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DINOSAUR MYTHS

• In 1822, GideonMantell made areconstruction ofIguanodon, based onthe few bones he hadfound. He had onlyone thumb spike,which he thoughtbelonged onIguanodon’s nose. This was similar tothe nose spike of aniguana, after whichIguanodon was named.It was not until thediscovery of severalskeletons in the late1800s that scientistsrealized this mistake.• In China,the word“konglong”means both“dinosaur”and “terribledragon.” TheChinese havebeen collectingdinosaur fossils for2,000 years. Since thethird century A.D.,and perhaps beforethen, the Chinesebelieved that dinosaurbones were actuallythe remains ofdragons.

• Many films andbooks portray dinosaursand humans as livingat the same time. Infact, dinosaurs becameextinct over 60 millionyears before the firsthumans appeared.• It used tobe thoughtthat alldinosaursdraggedtheir tailson theground, likemodern lizards. Somesauropods probably did,but most dinosaurs hadstiffened tails, whichthey held horizontallyoff the ground.• Hypsilophodonwas once thoughtto have lived intrees. It wasbelieved thattheir longtails helpedthem tobalance inthe branches,and their sharp clawswere used for clinging.We now know theirfingers and toes werenot designed forgripping branches.

• Many peoplethink thatdinosaurs wereall huge andcumbersome.But the vastmajority were onlyabout as big as anelephant, and somewere as small as achicken. Most werevery agile, too.

• It was thought thatBrachiosaurus lived inwater because of thehigh position of itsnostrils. But the greatwater pressures atdepth would not haveallowed it to breathe.• Iguanodon was thefirst dinosaur to bereconstructed. At firstit was shown as aslow, sprawling lizard,dragging a fat belly onthe ground. We nowknow that Iguanodonwas actually bipedaland much slimmer.

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DIGGING UP DINOSAURSMANY IMPORTANT dinosaur discoveries are made byprofessional and amateur collectors. Once discovered,fossil bones should be removed only by experiencedprofessionals, because the bones are often fragile. Themethod of removing the bones depends on a numberof factors, but generally follows a similar procedure.

SITE

Once a dinosaur site has beenuncovered, the fossil bones have to beexcavated (dug up). This delicateoperation is carried out using special tools.

EXCAVATION

Hammers, chisels, and picks are usedto remove most of the matrix (earth andstone material surrounding the bones).

EXPOSING THE BONES

Whenever possible, the matrix isremoved close to the bone. This is donewith great care so as to not damage thebone. The bones are exposed to revealtheir full size so that no fragment willbe left behind when removed.

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PLASTER JACKET

The exposed part of the bones arecoated with glue and covered with ajacket of plaster and burlap (a type ofcanvas). This will protect the bones asthey travel from the site to a museum,where they can be studied in more detail.

JACKET ON OTHER SIDE

Once the exposed part of the bonehas been coated, the rest of the bone,including some of the matrix, can bedug out of the ground. It is then coveredwith a plaster and burlap jacket.

REMOVAL FROM SITE

The jacketed bones are sometimesso big and heavy that a crane is neededto lift them onto a truck.

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ResourcesARGENTINAMuseum of La PlataUniversityLa Plata

AUSTRALIAQueensland MuseumGregory TerraceFortitude ValleyQueensland 4006

Museum of Victoria328 Swanston StreetMelbourneVictoria 3000

Australian MuseumCollege StreetSydneyNew South Wales 2000

AUSTRIANatural HistoryMuseum1 Marcia-Theresien-PlatzVienna

BELGIUMRoyal Institute ofNatural SciencesRue Vautier 29B-1040 Brussels

CANADA

Canadian Museum of NatureNational Museum of Canada240 McLeod AvenueOttawaOntario K1A 0MB

Royal Ontario Museum100 Queen’s ParkToronto Ontario M5S 2C

INDIAGeology MuseumIndian StatisticalInstituteCalcutta

ITALYMunicipal Museum ofNatural HistoryS. Croce 173030125 Venice

JAPANNational ScienceMuseumTokyo

MEXICO

Natural History MuseumMexico City

NEW ZEALAND

Canterbury MuseumRolleston AvenueChristchurch 1

POLANDDinosaur ParkChorzow, SilesiaInstitute of PalaeobiologyAl Zwirki I Wigury 9302-089 Warsaw

RUSSIAPalaeontological InstituteAcademy of ScienceMoscow 117321

Central Geological and Prospecting MuseumSt Petersburg

SOUTH AFRICASouth African MuseumCape Town

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Bernard Price Institutefor PalaeontologicalResearchUniversity ofWitwaterstrandJan Smuts AvenueJohannesburg 2001

SPAINNatural ScienceMuseumMadrid

SWEDENPalaeontologicalMuseumUppsala University751 05 Uppsala

UNITED KINGDOMUlster MuseumBotanic GardensBelfast BT9 5AB

Birmingham MuseumChamberlain SquareBirmingham B3 3DH

Museum of GeologyCambridge UniversityDowning StreetCambridge CB2 3EQ

National Museum ofWalesCathays ParkCardiff CF1 3NP

The Dinosaur MuseumIcen WayDorchesterDorset DT1 1EW

National Museums ofScotlandChambers StreetEdinburgh EH1 1JF

Hunterian MuseumUniversity of GlasgowUniversity AvenueGlasgow G12 8QQ

Leicestershire Museums96 New WalkLeicester LE1 6TD

British Museum(Natural History)Cromwell RoadLondon SW7 5BD

Crystal Palace ParkSydenhamLondon SE20

Maidstone MuseumFaiths StreetMaidstoneKent ME14 1LH

University MuseumParks RoadOxford OX1 3PW

Museum of Isle ofWightSandown LibraryHigh StreetSandownIsle of Wight PO35 8AF

UNITED STATES

American Museum ofNatural HistoryCentral Park West/79th StreetNew York NY 10024

Carnegie Museum ofNatural History4400 Forbes AvenuePittsburghPennsylvania 15213

Field Museum ofNatural HistoryRoosevelt Road at LakeShore DriveChicagoIllinois 60605

Peabody Museum ofNatural HistoryYale University170 Whitney AvenueNew HavenConnecticut 06511

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ALBERTOSAURUS

(al-BERT-oh-SORE-us)

ALLOSAURUS

(al-oh-SORE-us)

ANCHISAURUS

(AN-ki-SORE-us)

ANKYLOSAURUS

(an-KIE-loh-SORE-us)

APATOSAURUS

(ah-PAT-oh-SORE-us)

ARCHAEOPTERYX

(ark-ee-OP-ter-iks)

BAROSAURUS

(bar-oh-SORE-us)

BARYONYX

(bar-ee-ON-iks)

BRACHIOSAURUS

(brak-ee-oh-SORE-us)

CARNOTAURUS

(kar-noh-TOR-us)

CENTROSAURUS

(SEN-troh-SORE-us)

CERATOSAURUS

(seh-rat-oh-SORE-us)

CETIOSAURUS

(see-tee-oh-SORE-us)

CHASMOSAURUS

(kaz-moh-SORE-us)

COELOPHYSIS

(SEEL-oh-FIE-sis)

COMPSOGNATHUS

(komp-soh-NAY-thus)

CORYTHOSAURUS

(koh-rith-oh-SORE-us)

CRIORHYNCHUS

(cry-oh-RINK-us)

CRYPTOCLIDUS

(cript-oh-CLIE-dus)

DASPLETOSAURUS

(das-PLEE-toh-SORE-us)

DEINOCHEIRUS

(DINE-oh-KEE-rus)

DEINONYCHUS

(die-NON-i-kus)

DIMORPHODON

(die-MORF-oh-don)

DIPLODOCUS

(di-PLOH-de-kus)

DROMAEOSAURUS

(DROH-may-oh-SORE-us)

DROMICEIOMIMUS

(droh-MEE-see-oh-MEEM-us)

EDMONTONIA

(ed-mon-TONE-ee-ah)

EDMONTOSAURUS

(ed-MON-toh-SORE-us)

EORAPTOR

(EE-oh-RAP-tor)

EUOPLOCEPHALUS

(you-op-loh-SEF-ah-lus)

EUSTREPTOSPONDYLUS

(yoo-STREP-toh-SPON-die-lus)

GALLIMIMUS

(gal-lee-MEEM-us)

GRYPOSAURUS

(GRIPE-oh-SORE-us)

HADROSAURUS

(HAD-roh-SORE-us)

HERRERASAURUS

(eh-ray-rah-SORE-us)

HETERODONTOSAURUS

(HET-er-oh-DONT-oh-SORE-us)

HYPACROSAURUS

(high-PAK-roh-SORE-us)

HYPSILOPHODON

(hip-sih-LOH-foh-don)

ICTHYOSAURUS

(IKH-thee-oh-SORE-us)

IGUANODON

(ig-WHA-noh-don)

INGENIA

(in-GAY-nee-a)

KENTROSAURUS

(KEN-troh-SORE-us)

LAMBEOSAURUS

(LAMB-ee-oh-SORE-us)

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MAIASAURA

(MY-ah-SORE-ah)

MAMENCHISAURUS

(mah-MEN-chee-SORE-us)

MASOSAURUS

(MAZ-oh-SORE-us)

MASSOSPONDYLUS

(MAS-oh-SPON-die-lus)

MEGALOSAURUS

(MEG-ah-loh-SORE-us)

MELANOROSAURUS

(MEL-an-or-oh-SORE-us)

MURAENOSAURUS

(mure-rain-oh-SORE-us)

MUSSAURUS

(mus-OR-us)

MUTTABURRASAURUS

(MUT-a-BUR-a-SORE-us)

ORNITHOLESTES

(OR-nith-OH-LES-teez)

ORNITHOMIMUS

(OR-ni-thoh-MEE-mus)

OURANOSAURUS

(OO-ran-oh-SORE-us)

OVIRAPTOR

(OHV-ih-RAP-tor)

PACYCEPHALOSAURUS

(PAK-ee-SEF-a-loh-SORE-US)

PARASAUROLOPHUS

(par-a-SORE-oh-LOAF-us)

PELONEUSTES

(pel-oh-nee-OOST-ees)

PINACOSAURUS

(pin-AK-oh-SORE-us)

PLATEOSAURUS

(PLAT-ee-oh-SORE-us)

PLIOSAURUS

(plie-oh-SORE-us)

POLACANTHUS

(pol-a-KAN-thus)

PRENOCEPHALE

(pren-oh-SEF-a-lee)

PSITTACOSAURUS

(Si-tak-oh-SORE-us)

PTERANODON

(teh-RANN-oh-don)

PTERODACTYLUS

(teh-roh-DACT-illus)

QUETZALCOATLUS

(kwet-zal-COAT-lus)

RHAMPHORHYNCHUS

(RAM-foh-RING-khus)

RIOJASAURUS

(ree-O-ha-SORE-us)

SALTASAURUS

(sal-te-SORE-us)

SAUROPELTA

(SORE-oh-PEL-ta)

SEISMOSAURUS

(SIZE-moh-SORE-us)

SHONISAURUS

(shon-ee-SORE-us)

SORDES

(SOHR-deez)

STEGOCERAS

(ste-GOS-er-as)

STEGOSAURUS

(STEG-oh-SORE-us)

STENOPTERYGIUS

(sten-OP-teh-RIDGE-ee-us)

STRUTHIOMIMUS

(STRUTH-ee-oh-MEEM-us)

STYGIMOLOCH

(STIJ-i-MOH-lok)

STYRACOSAURUS

(sty-RAK-oh-SORE-us)

SUPERSAURUS

(SUE-per-SORE-us)

TOROSAURUS

(tor-oh-SORE-us)

TRICERATOPS

(try-SERRA-tops)

TROODON

(TROH-oh-don)

TUOJIANGOSAURUS

(toh-HWANG-oh-SORE-us)

TYRANNOSAURUS

(tie-RAN-oh-SORE-us)

ULTRASAURUS

(ul-tra-SORE-us)

VELOCIRAPTOR

(vel-O-si-RAP-tor)

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AMPHIBIANS

A group of animals thatare able to live both onland and in water.ANKYLOSAURS

Quadrupedal, armoredornithischians.ARMORED DINOSAURS

Dinosaurs whose bodieswere protected by bonyplates or spikes. Theseincluded ankylosaursand some sauropods.ARCHOSAUROMORPHS

A major group ofreptiles which includesdinosaurs, thecodonts,pterosaurs, crocodiles,and birds.BIPEDAL

Walking on the twohind legs only.CARNIVORE

An animal that eatsmeat.CARNOSAURS

A group of largetheropods.CERATOPSIANS

Quadrupedalornithischians. Mostceratopsians had headsdecorated with hornsand frills.

CLASSIFICATION

The process of arranginganimals into groups,related by commonphysical features.COLD-BLOODED

Dependent onconditions outside thebody for temperatureregulation, such as theSun’s heat, to givewarmth to the body.CONIFERS

Trees that bear cones,such as pines and firs.CONTINENTAL DRIFT

The constant movementof the plates whichmake up the Earth’slithosphere.CRETACEOUS PERIOD

The third period of theMezozoic era – 65-145million years ago. DIAPSID

A reptile group whichincludes thearchosauromorphs, thelepidosauromorphs, andthe euryapsids.DINOSAURS

An extinct group ofarchosauromorphs withan erect stance. They

included the ancestorsof modern birds.EURYAPSIDS

A reptile group whichincludes the two groupsof sea reptiles: plesiosaursand ichthyosaurs.EXTINCTION

The process by whichliving things die outof existence.FOSSIL

The preserved remainsof something thatonce lived.GASTROLITHS

Stones that areswallowed to help grindup food in the stomach.HADROSAURS

Large ornithopods withducklike bills, of whichthere were two groups:lambeosaurines andhadrosaurines.HERBIVORE

An animal that feedson plants.INVERTEBRATES

Animals without abackbone.ISCHIUM

One of the two lowerhipbones of dinosaurs

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(the other was thepubis). The ischiumanchored muscles thatworked the hind legs.JURASSIC PERIOD

The second periodof the Mesozoic era –145-208 millionyears ago.LITHOSPHERE

The Earth’s crust andupper mantle. It isapproximately 124 miles(200 km) thick.MESOZOIC ERA

The period of timebetween 65-245 millionyears ago. The Mesozoicera incorporated theTriassic, Jurassic, andCretaceous periods.ORNITHISCHIANS

The “bird-hipped”dinosaurs. One of thetwo major groups ofdinosaurs.ORNITHOPODS

Small to very largeplant-eatingornithischians that weremostly bipedal.PACHYCEPHALOSAURS

Bipedal ornithopods.Also known as bone-headed dinosaurs,because the roof of theirskull was very thick.

PALEONTOLOGIST

A person who studiesfossils.PROSAUROPODS

Small to large earlysauropodomorphs.PTEROSAURS

The flying reptiles of theMesozoic era. Distantcousins of the dinosaurs.PUBIS

One of the two lowerhipbones of dinosaurs(the other was theischium). In somedinosaurs, the pubisanchored the musclethat pulled the hind legsforward.QUADRUPEDAL

Walking on all four legs.REPTILES

A group of “cold-blooded” vertebrateswith scaly skin. SAURISCHIANS

The “lizard-hipped”dinosaurs. One of thetwo major groups ofdinosaurs.SAUROPODOMORPHS

A group of quadrupedalherbivorous dinosaurswith long tails andnecks. This groupincluded the largest landanimals that ever lived.

SAUROPODS

Large to immensesauropodomorphs.STEGOSAURS

Quadrupedalornithischians with tworows of plates and/orspines running along theneck, back, and tail.SYNAPSIDS

A reptile group thatincludes mammallikereptiles (they aredistantly related tomammals).THECODONTS

A group ofarchosauromorphswhich are the ancestorsof the dinosaurs.THEROPODS

Bipedal, carnivoroussaurischian dinosaurs.TRIASSIC PERIOD

The first period of theMesozoic era – 208-245million years ago.VERTEBRAE

Bones of the spinalcolumn.VERTEBRATES

Animals with backbones.WARM-BLOODED

Maintaining bodywarmth by turning theenergy gained by foodinto heat.

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Aair reptiles, 15, 24, 25, 130–3Albertosaurus, 35, 38, 47Allosaurus, 18, 27, 30, 37, 66–7,

158ammonites, 153amphibians, 155, 174anatomy, 32–45Anatosaurus, 172Anchisaurus, 84, 85Andrews, Roy Chapman, 138,

172ankylosaurids, 147ankylosaurs, 13, 44, 45, 90, 94,

100–3, 147, 148, 159, 164Ankylosaurus, 100, 173Anning, Mary, 136Antarctica, 30, 87, 101, 172Apatosaurus, 30, 41, 88–9, 166,

173Arambourgiania, 154Archaeoceratops, 164Archaeopteryx, 82–3, 161, 176Archelon, 128Argentinosaurus, 164armor, 13, 44, 90, 146–7Asia, 31, 70, 110, 112asteroids, 58Atlascopcosaurus, 166Austrosaurus, 31

Bbabies, 54–5back plates, 52, 96–7Barosaurus, 12–13, 18–19, 31,

36, 48, 50, 62, 85, 88–9, 171Baryonyx, 14, 28, 31, 40, 47,

80–1, 139, 164Baryonyx walkeri, 173beaks, 48, 117Behemoth, 161belemnites, 153Bernissart, 137birds, 11, 54, 82–3, 95, 161,

175, 176blood pressure, 53blood vessels, 52body temperature, 52–3, 96–7“Bone Wars”, 137

bones see skeletonsBorogovia, 77Brachiosaurus, 31, 32, 39, 85,

138, 144, 171, 179Brachyceratops, 118brain, 159, 165

blood pressure, 53casts of, 50second, 98Troodon, 51, 76

Brontosaurus, 88, 166Brown, Barnum, 173Buckland, Dean William, 170

CCamarasaurus, 30, 90Carcharodontosaurus, 143, 164,

167Carnegie, Andrew, 172carnivores, 142–3

carnosaurs, 66–7Cretaceous period, 28dromaeosaurids, 78–9extinction, 59first dinosaurs, 56–7ichthyosaurs, 129legs, 38lifestyle, 46–7numbers of, 13ornithomimosaurs, 72–3oviraptosaurs, 74–5pterosaurs, 131sea reptiles, 126–7teeth, 12theropods, 62–5Triassic period, 24–5troodontids, 76–7tyrannosaurids, 70–1

carnosaurs, 27, 66–71, 72, 80Carnotaurus, 68–9, 151Carolini, Ruben, 139centrosaurines, 146Centrosaurus, 33, 34, 119ceratopsians, 28, 34, 94,

116–21, 146, 157, 159, 164,167

Ceratosaurus, 33Cetiosaurus, 91chasmosaurines, 146

Chasmosaurus, 121Cimochelys, 128classification, 10, 174–7claws, 10, 38, 40–1, 46–7clubs, tail, 100–1Coelophysis, 24, 30, 64, 148, 172Colbert, Edwin, 162, 172cold-blooded animals, 52–3,

160Colloni, Cosimo, 164color, 151color vision, 51Compsognathus, 12–13, 27, 31,

62, 80, 82, 142, 157, 165, 178cones, fossilized, 16conifers, 24, 27, 29, 49Cope, Edward Drinker, 137, 171coprolites, 156Corythosaurus, 30, 35, 45, 105,

109, 167, 173crests, 34–5, 145

lambeosaurines, 112–13making noises with, 35, 50oviraptosaurs, 34, 75

Cretaceous period, 11, 28–9,141continents, 22–3, 141dinosaur extinction, 58–9,141flowering plants, 29, 59

Criorhynchus, 133crocodiles, 24, 26, 28, 44, 56,

59, 127, 155, 159, 175Cryptoclidus, 126Cummings, Jan, 139

DDaspletosaurus, 71defenses:

armored skin, 13, 44claws, 41, 84horns, 34spines, 98–9tail clubs, 100–1tails, 42

Deinocheirus, 38Deinonychus, 30, 42–3, 47,

78–9, 160, 166dicynodonts, 25

IndexIN

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Dilophosaurus, 61, 64–5Dimorphodon, 130, 131Diplodocus, 36, 38, 39, 88, 144,

150, 166, 172, 173, 178Dolicorhynchops, 152Dollo, Louis, 137Douglass, Earl, 173Doyle, Arthur Conan, 162dromaeosaurids, 161dromaeosaurs, 72Dromaeosaurus, 46, 53Dromiceiomimus, 72, 73, 164,

178Dryosaurus, 26“duckbills”, 108, 145, 148, 151dung, fossil, 156

Eears, 50Earth:

Continental Drift, 22–3dinosaur extinction theories,58, 160

Edmontonia, 13, 102Edmontosaurus, 45, 49, 111, 172eggs, 46, 54–5, 157, 159

fossils, 16Protoceratops, 72, 172sea reptiles, 127, 128

Elaphrosaurus, 171elasmosaurs, 152Elasmosaurus, 152Eoraptor, 56, 142, 164Euoplocephalus, 43, 45, 100–1,

166Europe, 31, 110Eustreptospondylus, 31, 69excavation, 180extinction, 21, 141

sea reptiles, 128theories, 58–9, 160

eyes, 51, 158, 159, 164

Ffeathers:

Archaeopteryx, 83, 161birds, 131, 161segnosaurs, 143

feeding, 158feet, 39, 40–1fighting, 33, 71, 115, 157films, 162–3, 164

flight: Archaeopteryx, 83reptiles, 15, 24, 25, 130–3,168

flying reptiles, 124–5, 130–3,154

food: carnivores, 46–7herbivores, 48–9swimming reptiles, 153

footprints, 41, 148, 156, 165fossils, 150

discovering, 136–9, 170–3,180–1displaying, 20–1dung, 156footprints, 156formation, 16–17reptiles, 14sites, 30–1see also skeletons

Fraas, Eberhard, 171frills, ceratopsians, 116–21frogs, 155

GGallimimus, 31, 34, 37, 73gastroliths, 48, 88Gigantosaurus, 139, 143, 164Globidens, 153Gondwana, 23, 148, 149gryphons, 161Gryposaurus, 108

Hhadrosaurines, 108, 110–11, 145hadrosaurs, 108–13, 178Hadrosaurus, 136, 137, 151hands, 10, 38, 40–1Hatcher, John Bell, 171Hawkins, Waterhouse, 151heads, 34–5hearing, 50herbivores, 12, 144–5

ceratopsians, 116Cretaceous period, 28extinction, 59eyes, 51hadrosaurs, 108–9horns, 34iguanodonts, 106Jurassic period, 26

legs, 38lifestyle, 48–9necks, 36numbers of, 13ornithischians, 94ornithopods, 104prosauropods, 86–7sauropodomorphs, 84–5sauropods, 88–9Triassic period, 24–5, 57

herds, 116, 118, 159Herrerasaurus, 25, 30, 57, 142,

164Heterodontosaurus, 104hipbones, 21

bird-hipped dinosaurs, 10, 93lizard-hipped dinosaurs, 10,60, 61

horns, 34, 146hunting, 50Hydrotherosaurus, 152Hypacrosaurus, 112, 157Hypselosaurus, 46Hypsilophodon, 15, 29, 30, 31,

102–3, 179

Iichthyosaurs, 15, 124, 125,

128–9, 136, 153Ichthyosaurus, 125iguana lizard, 11, 179Iguanodon, 14, 16, 29, 31, 38,

41, 105, 106–7, 136, 137,145, 156, 164, 166, 170, 179

iguanodonts, 106–7Ingenia, 75invertebrates, 174

Jjaws, 47, 49, 158Jenson, Jim, 173Jurassic period, 11, 26–7, 140

continents, 22–3flying reptiles, 124, 130swimming reptiles, 127

Jurassosaurusnedegoapeferkimorum, 166

KKentrosaurus, 98–9, 171Knight, Charles R., 162Knopfler, Mark, 166

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Llambeosaurines, 108, 112–13,

145Laurasia, 23, 28, 148, 149Leaellynosaura, 31legs, 10–11, 20–1, 38–41Leidy, Joseph, 136, 137, 151Leviathan, 161life expectancy, 157lifestyles, 46–55limbs, 38–41Liopleurodon, 152literature, 162lizards, 44, 53, 63, 155, 167,

175, 179Loch Ness monster, 127, 161Loy, Arthur, 139lungs, 53, 127

MMaiasaura, 55, 110–11, 157, 159Mamenchisaurus, 31, 165, 178mammals, 24, 52, 57, 59, 140,

141, 155, 174Mantell, Dr. Gideon, 136, 164,

170, 179Mantell, Mary Ann, 136, 170Marsh, Othniel Charles, 137,

171Masiakasaurus knopfleri, 166Masosaurus, 126Massospondylus, 31, 86meat-eaters see carnivoresMegalosaurus, 69, 170Megazostrodon, 59Melanorosaurus, 25Mesozoic era, 24Microceratops, 165Micropachycephalosaurus, 164Minmi, 31, 165“Mokele-Mbembe”, 161mosasaurs, 153Mosasaurus, 164Muraenosaurus, 125muscles, 32–3museums, 20–1Mussaurus, 165, 178Muttaburrasaurus, 31myths, 179

Nnames, 166

necks, 10, 36–7, 165, 167nests, 54–5, 74, 157, 159newts, 155nodosaurids, 100, 102–3, 147nodules, bony, 44, 45, 91noises, 35, 50, 111, 112–13, 158North America, 30, 70, 110,

112, 129

Oomnivores, prosauropods, 86organs, 150ornithischians, 10, 48, 62,

94–121, 158, 176Ornitholestes, 26, 33, 80ornithomimosaurs, 38, 72–3, 76Ornithomimus, 39, 65, 166ornithopods, 26, 67, 94,

104–13, 145, 159Ornithosuchus, 24, 57Orodromeus, 55“ostrich dinosaurs”, 65Ouranosaurus, 106–7, 167Oviraptor, 31, 34, 138, 157, 172Oviraptor mongoliensis, 75Oviraptor philoceratops, 74oviraptosaurs, 74–5Owen, Sir Richard, 16, 136,

170

Ppachycephalosaurs, 94, 114–15,

146, 157Pachycephalosaurus, 115, 146paddles, sea reptiles, 126Pangaea, 23, 140, 148, 149Parasaurolophus, 30, 42, 49, 50,

113, 145, 166Patagosaurus, 30Pelecanimimus, 151Peloneustes, 125pelvic muscles, 32petrified bones, 150Piatnitzkyosaurus, 30, 67plant-eaters see herbivoresplants:

Cretaceous period, 29flowering, 29, 133herbivores, 48–9Jurassic period, 27Triassic period, 24

Plateosaurus, 24, 25, 31, 84, 87

plates, bony, 44–5, 52, 96–7,147

plesiosaurs, 15, 124, 126–7, 128,136, 137, 152, 161

pliosaurs, 128, 152Pliosaurus, 126, 127Polacanthus, 28, 44, 103Prenocephale, 114Preondactylus, 25prosauropods, 26, 82, 86–7, 144,

148, 158Protoceratops, 31, 54, 72, 116,

138, 161, 172psittacosaurs, 146Psittacosaurus, 116Pteranodon, 132, 154pterodactyloids, 124, 132–3,

154Pterodactylus, 15, 124, 133, 154Pterodaustro, 132, 154pterosaurs, 130–3, 148, 154,

164ancestors, 56fossils, 125fur, 124Jurassic period, 26Triassic period, 24, 25wings, 15, 130, 131

QQuetzalcoatlus, 133, 154

Rrauisuchians, 155Rebbachisaurus, 49records, 164–5reptiles, 11, 124–33

classification, 174–5cold-blooded, 52–3dinosaur ancestors, 56eggs, 54flying, 15, 24, 25, 130–3, 154,170legs, 38sea, 15, 126–9, 152–3, 168survival, 59

rhamphorhynchoids, 124, 130,154

Rhamphorynchus, 130Rhoetosaurus, 31Riojasaurus, 86rocks:

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Earth’s crust, 22–3fossils, 16

Ssails, 68Saltasaurus, 30, 90–1saurischians, 10, 62–81, 95, 176Sauropelta, 103sauropodomorphs, 62–91sauropods, 84–5, 88–91, 144,

149, 160, 167ancestors, 86brainpower, 159Cretaceous period, 28discovery, 173eggs, 16, 54feeding, 158Jurassic period, 26–7life expectancy, 157predators, 67size, 12, 13, 85skin, 150tails, 42, 179teeth, 49, 85

Saurornithoides, 77scales, 11Scelidosaurus, 164Scipionyx, 150Scutellosaurus, 165scutes, bony, 100–1, 103sea reptiles, 15, 124–9, 136,

152–3, 168segnosaurs, 143Segnosaurus, 90Seismosaurus, 62, 85, 139, 164,

178senses, 50–1Shonisaurus, 15, 129short-frilled ceratopsians,

118–19shoulders, 32sight, 50, 51, 158Sinokannemeyeria, 140Sinosauripteryx, 161size, 12–13, 165skeletons:

anatomy, 32–43blood vessels, 52discovering fossils, 180–1fossil formation, 16–17preparing for display, 18–21,151

vertebrates, 174skin, 11, 13, 44–5, 150, 151,

153, 172skulls, 34–5, 50, 146smell, sense of, 50, 158Smith, William, 136snakes, 155Sordes, 131speed, 13, 15, 39spines, 96–7, 98–9Spinosaurus, 31, 68, 167Staurikosaurus, 30, 56, 142, 164Stegoceras, 114–15stegosaurs, 65, 94, 96–9, 147,

159, 167Stegosaurus, 12, 26, 27, 30, 43,

52, 68, 95, 96–7, 99, 147,160, 165

Stenopterygius, 129stereoscopic vision, 51Sternberg, George, 172Stromer, Ernst, 138Struthiomimus, 17, 73Stygimoloch, 114Styracosaurus, 118Supersaurus, 173swimming reptiles, 15, 124–9,

136, 152–3, 168Syntarsus, 148

Ttails, 11, 42–3

balancing with, 43clubs, 43, 100–1spines, 43, 96–7, 147

teeth, 12, 164carnivores, 46–7, 158fossils, 16hadrosaurs, 178herbivores, 48–9, 158

temperature, body, 52–3, 96–7,147

Tenontosaurus, 78Tethys Sea, 148thecodonts, 56theme parks, 163theropods, 13, 62–3, 64–7, 76,

80–1, 142–3, 157, 159, 160Thescelosaurus, 150thumb spikes, 106, 107titanosaurids, 90titanosaurs, 144

toes, 39, 40Torosaurus, 120, 164Triassic period, 11, 24–5, 57,

140continents, 22–3, 140, 149mammals, 59, 140

Triceratops, 11, 21, 30, 37, 40,117, 120, 146, 166, 173

Troodon, 51, 55, 76–7, 157, 158,159, 166, 167, 178

troodontids, 76–7Tuojiangosaurus, 31, 98turtles, 26, 29, 44, 127, 128,

155, 175tyrannosaurids, 28, 70–1, 101,

111Tyrannosaurus rex, 10–11, 13,

62, 64, 66, 70–1, 115, 143brain, 50coprolites, 156discovery, 173extinction, 58legs, 70lifestyle, 46–7size, 178skeletons, 20skull, 67sounds, 158teeth, 12, 70, 158, 178

UUltrasaurus, 173

VVelociraptor, 31, 79, 142, 172Verne, Jules, 162vertebrae, 36, 64vertebrates, 130, 174volcanoes, 59

WWalker, William, 139, 173warm-blooded animals, 52–3,

160whales, 129wing fingers, 132wings, 154

pterosaurs, 15, 130, 131

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Dorling Kindersley would like to thank:Hilary Bird for the index. Esther Labiand Robert Graham for editorial assistance. Carnegie Museum ofNatural History for use of Apatosaurusskeleton on pages 88/89.

Photographs by:Paul Bricknell, Andy Crawford, John Douns, Lynton Gardiner, Steve Gorton, Colin Keates, Gary Kevin, Dave King, WilliamLindsay, Ray Moller, Miguel Periera,Tim Ridley, Dave Rudlan, BruceSelyen, Paul Sereno, Harry Taylor, JerryYoung

Illustrations by:Roby Braun, Lynn Chadwick, Simone End, Eugene Fleury, GiulianoFornari, Steve Kirk, Janos Marffy, Ikkyu Murakawa, Andrew Robinson,Graham Rosewarne, John Sibbick,John Temperton, John Woodcock.

Picture credits: t = top b = bottom c = centre l= left r = right American Natural History Museum172tl; 173 cl, Roby Braun 64tr.Fortean 124tl. Frank Lane Picture Library/Eric andDavid Hosking 53tr.

Hulton Picture Library 16tl; 170tl.Image Bank/Robert Hardrie 133tl.Kobal 21tl. Ikkyu Murakawa 112cl;112cr. Museum of the Rockies/Bruce Selyem55tr; 74 75c; 182tl; 182bl; 182r; 183l;183tr; 183br.Natural History Museum, London 21br;100cr; 103tl; 168.Science Photo Library/Julian Baum 132 bl. John Sereno 56tr. John Sibbick53br; 104bl.

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we apologise in advance for any unintentional omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgement in any subsequentedition of this publication.

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