the environmental considerations and barriers involved with developing wind energy in the urban...

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(Hons) B.Sc. Environmental Management

“The environmental considerations and barriers involved with developing wind energy

in the Urban Environment.”

MacDarragh Fitzpatrick

C124624787

Dublin Institute of Technology

DT 106: B.Sc. Environmental Management: Class of 2016

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Abstract

The natural rural environment and the built urban environment differ in many ways. The

development of wind energy systems throughout the rural environment has been evidently

feasible however there has been an inadequate amount of research and development to test

the feasibility for urban wind energy systems. With the development of wind energy, there

comes a great deal of uncertainty in the general public perception. In this research paper the

objectives to highlight the main environmental considerations and barriers involved with

urban wind energy is done so by recognising the thoughts and perceptions of the three key

group stakeholders; the developers, the planners and the social community. To understand the

acceptance attitudes and concerns at hand, there must be an extended mutual engagement of

the main parties involved.

This paper focusses on the environmental considerations and the barriers that are involved

with integrating wind energy into the built environment with recognising what possible future

outcomes are likely. As wind energy in Ireland has developed it is now recognised as an

established renewable energy system. The exploration and possible use in urban areas for

wind energy development come under increasing scrutiny. The need to consider the

suitability of wind technology as an energy resource in the urban environment is a potential

option for developers and planners.

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Declaration

I, the author of this dissertation, certify that this study which I now submit for examination

for the award of BSc Environmental Management is entirely my own work and has not been

taken from the work of others. The work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of

my work.

This thesis was prepared according to the regulations for undergraduate study by research of

the Dublin Institute of Technology and has not been submitted in whole or in part for an

award in any other Institute or University.

The work reported on in this thesis conforms to the principles and requirements of the

Institute's guidelines for ethics in research.

The Institute has permission to keep, to lend or to copy this thesis in whole or in part, on

condition that any such use of the material of the thesis is duly acknowledged.

Signature: ___________________________ Date: __________________

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to firstly thank ‘Dr. Conor Norton’ who supervised this dissertation,

thank you for your expert guidance, understanding and encouragement throughout my study

and research.

In addition I would like to thank Dr. Ken Boyle, Mr. Conor Skehan, Mr. Paddy Lambe and

Dr. Marion Coll who helped me with my coursework and academic research in my graduate

year.

A thank you also goes to my fellow classmates in the Environmental Management and

Spatial Planning degree at the Dublin Institute of Technology, Bolton Street.

Finally, a special thank you goes to my loving parents and siblings who have supported and

encouraged me throughout my years of academic study. Thank you all kindly.

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List of Abbreviations

EU – European Union

CO2 – Carbon Dioxide

SEAI – Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland

IWEA – Irish Wind Energy Association

HAWT – Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

VAWT – Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

SEI – Sustainable Energy Ireland

NIMBY – Not In My Back Yard

kW – kilowatts

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Glossary of Terms

Environment - The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or

operates.

Environmental - Relating to or arising from a person’s surroundings.

Urban – Characteristic of a town or city.

Wind Energy - Electrical energy obtained from harnessing the wind with windmills or wind

turbines.

Considerations - A fact or a motive taken into account in deciding something.

Barriers - A circumstance or obstacle that keeps people or things apart or prevents

communication or progress.

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english)

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1 – Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

Figure 2.2 – Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) side profile and tower index

Figure 2.3 – Darrieus wind turbine

Figure 2.4 – Savonius wind turbine

Figure 2.4 – Venturi model turbine

Figure 2.5 - Reason For and Against

Figure 2.6 - The three dimensions of social acceptance (from Wustenhagen et al 2007)

Figure 4.1 - Pie chart representing stakeholder number of interviews

Figure 4.2 – Triangulation of Stakeholders

Figure 4.3 – Main Environmental Considerations identified by the Stakeholders

Figure 4.4 – The average of stakeholder’s scale on level of importance

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 - Advantages & Disadvantages of HAWTs and VAWTs

Table 3.1 - Quantitative vs. Qualitative research

Table 3.2 – Advantages and Disadvantages of ‘open questions’

Table 3.3 – Advantages and Disadvantages of ‘closed questions’

Table 3.4 – Interview: questions structure

Table 4.1 – Findings (Question 1)



Table 4.4 – Small and micro-scale generation averages scale of importance

Table 4.5 – Small and Micro-scale other considerations

Table 4.6 – Medium and Large scale generation averages scale of importance

Table 4.6 – Medium and Large scale other considerations





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Table of Contents

Cover Page……………………………………………………………………………….......................1

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………....2

Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………………...3

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………………...4

List of Abbreviation…………………………………………………………………………………….5

Glossary of Terms………………………………………………………………………………………6

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………………..7

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………...8

Table of Content………………………………………………………………………………………..9

Chapter 1 – Introduction………………………………………………………………................... 12

1.1 Background and Context………………………………………………………….........................12

1.2 Research Aim…....................................................................................................……………….14

1.3 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………….14

Chapter 2 – Literature Review…………………………………………………………............15 - 26

2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………................15

2.2 Wind Energy Technology…………………………………………………………………………15

2.2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)………………………………………………………..17

2.2.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)…………………………………………………………..18

2.2.3 HAWT versus VAWT……………………………………………………………....................19

2.3 Wind Energy Acceptance and Attitudes…………………………………………………………..20

2.4 Not In My Back Yard ‘NIMBY’…………………………………………………………………..23

2.5 Economics and environmental benefit of application wind energy system in urban

environment……………………………………………………………………………….................24

2.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….....................25

Chapter 3 – Methodology……………………………………………………………………….28 - 37

3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..28

3.2 Research Aim……………………………………………………………………………………...28

3.3 Research Strategy ….....................................................................................................................28

3.3.1 Quantitative Research…………………………………………………………………………...28

3.3.2 Qualitative Research………………………………………………………………………….....29

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3.4 Research strategy selection………………………………………………………………………..30

3.5 Primary Data Collection ……………………………………………………………………........30

3.5.1 Semi-structured Interviews ……………………………………………………………………..30

3.5.2 Interview question format ………………………………………………………………………32

3.6 Interview Structure …………………………………………………………………………….….32

3.6.1 Objectives of interview………………………………………………………………………….32

3.6.2 Interview question format ………………………………………………………………………32

3.6.3 Context…………………………………………………………………………………….........33

3.6.4 Environmental Considerations…………………………………………………………………..34

3.6.5 Barriers…………………………………………………………………………………………..36

3.6.6 Future……………………………………………………………………………………...........36

3.7 Secondary Data Collection ………………………………………………………………………..37

3.7.1 Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………..37

3.7.2 Website Research………………………………………………………………………………..37

3.8 Ethical Research…………………………………………………………………………………...38

3.9 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………........38

Chapter 4 – Findings and Discussion …………………………………………………………39 – 61

4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….….39

4.2 Respondents…………………………………………………………………………………….…39

4.2.1 Planners……………………………………………………………………………………….…40

4.2.2 Developers……………………………………………………………………………………....40

4.2.3 Society………………………………………………………………………………………......41

4.3 Interviews: Context Question 1&2 ………………………………...............................................42

4.3.1 Findings Question 1……………………………………………………………………………..43

4.3.2 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….43


4.3.4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….44

4.4 Environmental Consideration Question 3, 4&5…………………………………………………...44


4.4.2 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….46


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4.4.4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….49

4.4.5 Findings Question 5…………………………………………………………………...............50

4.4.6 Discussion….............................................................................................................................51

4.5 Barriers Questions 6 & 7………………………………………………………………………….51

4.5.1 Findings Question 6…...............................................................................................................51

4.5.2 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….54


4.5.4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….54

4.6 Future Question 8 & 9……………………………………………………………………………..57

4.6.1 Findings Question 8 …………………………………………………………………………….57

4.6.2 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………….58

4.6.3 Findings Question 9…………………………………………………………………….……….58

4.6.4 Discussion...........................................................................................................................…...60

4.7 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….…….60

Chapter 5 – Conclusions…………………………………………………………………….....61 - 65

5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..61

5.2 Aims and Objectives………………………………………………………………………………61

5.2.1 Research Aim……………………………………………………………………………………61

5.2.2 Research Objective……………………………………………………………………………...61

5.3 Summary of Findings……………………………………………………………………………...62

5.4 Implications for practice and theory………………………………………………………………63

5.5 Research Limitations………………………………………………………………………………63

5.6 Conclusion for Dissertation….......................................................................................................63

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………….64

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………………...67

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Chapter 1 – Introduction

1. Introduction

1.1. Background and Context

“The fact remains, that if the supply of energy failed, modern civilization would come to an end

as abruptly as does the music of an organ deprived of wind”, a statement written over a century ago

(1911) by the Nobel laureate ‘Frederick Soddy’ in his work ‘Matter and Energy’ (New York: Henry

Holt, 1911). Our modern way of life is entirely dependent on its degree of energy consumption, which

until now has been allied to a large consumption of fossil fuels. Over time, humanity has managed to

exploit the power of fossil fuel resources and consequently our interdependence on fossil fuel sources

has left civilization vulnerable (Dirk Sijmons, ‘Landscape and Energy’, pg. 70, 2014). There are

compelling reasons that can address this vulnerability however the reasons as to how and why it is

essential to base our future on a more sustainable energy foundation, outweigh the reasons as to how

civilization created this global energy crisis.

The time for an energy transition is upon us; with fossil fuels running out, a stable future on fossil fuel

based energy is highly unlikely, nevertheless due to advanced technical ingenuity the depletion of

fossil fuels can be delayed for a lengthily period of time (Dirk Sijmons, 2014). However with

greenhouse gas emissions, such as CO2, driving a severe climate change and fossil fuels that lead to

geopolitical instability (oil reserves are located in few concentrated areas on earth), the strategic

importance of an energy transition can quite possibly create a stable world order (Dirk Sijmons,

2014).

In the last number of years there has been an increase in urbanisation and industrialisation

throughout the world. Consequently this increase has led to an inevitable rise in energy demand. With

the global population on a continuous rise there is an expectation that a higher percentage of people

will move to urban areas over the coming decades, specifically in regard to developing countries (Al-

mulali U, et al, 2013). With these expectations, progressive and modern development in urban areas is

a major concern. ‘David Dodman’ did a study entitled ‘Blaming cities for climate change?’ and in his

research he reports that approximately 75% of generated power is consumed in cities. With the

current energy transition, generation of power within the city or urban landform could be of great

importance to help reduce both the generation load and transmission infrastructure. In addition to

generating urban energy a minimizing of transmission losses due to reduced distances from users can

be expected (T.F. Ishugah, et al, 2013). With the EU's Renewable energy directive setting a binding

target of 20% final energy consumption from renewable sources to be achieved by the year 2020. To

achieve this target, European Union countries have committed to reaching their own national

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renewables targets ranging from 10% in Malta to 49% in Sweden, Ireland with a target of 16%.

(https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/renewable-energy)

In order for Ireland to reach the set quota of 16%, the incorporation of alternative energy as well as

energy efficiency measures need to be incorporated in urban planning and construction design. In

recent years, it has been widely projected that wind energy will be among the best alternative energy

sources needed for urban environment as it is a clean source of energy; it is economically viable

(affordable), it poses no major threats (safe), and it is available in the long-term (T.F. Ishugah, et al

2013).

This paper focusses on the environmental considerations and the barriers that are involved with

integrating wind energy into the built environment with recognising what possible future outcomes

are likely. As wind energy in Ireland has developed it is now recognised as an established renewable

energy system. The exploration and possible use in urban areas for wind energy development come

under increasing scrutiny. The need to consider the suitability of wind technology as an energy

resource in the urban environment is a potential option (T.F. Ishugah, et al 2013) for developers and

planners.

To date, the majority of publications on wind energy have mainly concentrated on the rural locations

of ‘regional wind energy assessment’ (Hoogwijk M, et al, 2004), ‘regional wind energy policies’

(Lew, Dj, 2000) and the ‘economic aspects of wind energy’ (Karki R, Billinton R, 2004). Although

there has been significant studies done on ‘wind turbine design and aero-dynamics’ (Mohamed, MH,

2016) and ‘Environmental issues associated with wind energy’ (Kaoshan Dai, et al, 2015) none or

very little work has been published on wind energy resource and its application in the built

environment (T.F. Ishugah, et al 2013).

This research paper provides the knowledge on what the key concerns, environmental considerations

the barriers and the possible future that is in relation to the integration of wind energy in the built

urban environment. The information and data compiled in this paper was completed through semi-

structured interviews with the key stakeholders in the wind energy sector. Societal organisations such

as the ‘Irish Wind Energy Association’, planning departments such as ‘Dublin City Council:

Department of Planning’ and developer companies such as ‘SEAI: Sustainable Energy Authority of

Ireland’, among others, were the main stakeholder focus groups. In addition, this paper also

acknowledges the key stakeholders opinions on how to address and overcome the barriers that are in

place for wind energy projects in the built environment. It is expected that this study will be useful for

researchers as well as professionals, urban planners, architects and developers, in the field of wind

energy.

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1.2. Research Aim

The aim of this research is to highlight the key stakeholders perceptions and opinions on what they

perceive to be the main environmental considerations and main barriers involved with developing

wind energy in the urban environment and to further highlight what the stakeholder’s opinions are on

the possible future for urban wind energy development. This dissertation aims to establish an un-

biased, supported conclusion on the stated aims.

1.3. Objectives

In order to achieve the research aim, the focus of the study will centre on the following objectives:

To highlight and recognise the key stakeholders perceptions and opinions on the main

environmental considerations of wind energy in the urban environment.

To establish the key stakeholders thoughts on what they perceive as the main barriers involved

with wind energy in the urban environment.

To identify the stakeholders thoughts on the future of wind energy in the urban environment.

To carry out and complete a comprehensive methodology to achieve the desired coherent results.

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Chapter 2 – Literature Review

2. Literature review

2.1. Introduction

With the ever growing population of Ireland, the country now holds approximately 4,615,693

people (World Bank – Data 2014). Like all things, as the population increases so do the needs for

electricity supply. One of the European Union’s set energy efficiency targets for the year 2020 is for

20% of all energy to come from renewable energy sources (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland –

SEAI 2015). Ireland's fixed target is 16% of gross final consumption to come from renewables by

2020 (SEAI 2015 – Energy Targets). With those objectives put in place, it is then upon the Irish

Government to reach these targets.

Overtime wind power has progressed to becoming the preferred option of energy for planners and

national governments, who are seeking to expand energy resources, to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions, to build new industries, and to provide new employment opportunities. (Kaoshan Daia,

Anthony Bergotc, Chao Liangd, Wei-Ning Xiange, Zhenhua Huangg, 2014).

Wind power in present time is now recognised as one of the more mature renewable energy

technologies. (Kaoshan Daia, et al. 2014). The last decade has observed a substantial increase in the

development of wind farms. However this increase in development has been dominated by the rural

environment. According to the ‘Irish Wind Energy Association’ (IWEA) the first commercial wind

farm in Ireland was in 1992 in Bellacorrick, Co Mayo. Since then the island of Ireland has developed

a total of 235 wind farms (rural) with 201 of those wind farms located in the Republic of Ireland

(Wind Energy Statistics-IWEA, 2016).

Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) completed the latest report on energy use on a

national scale (2014), it reveals that wind accounted for 18.3% of electricity generated and established

itself as the second most significant source of electricity in Ireland (after natural gas). It is evident that

wind energy in Ireland has a significant value; however has its full potential been justified?

2.2. Wind Energy Technology

Many researchers are now studying the characteristics of urban wind, with attention focusing on

retrofitting turbines onto buildings (T.F. Ishugah, et al, 2014). Based on the World Wind Energy

Report in 2011, there have been substantial advances in wind turbine aerodynamics, their structural

dynamics and micrometeorology which in turn have contributed to an annual increase of 5% in the

energy production of turbines within the last 2–3 decades. (T.F. Ishugah, et al, 2014).

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There is a significant value from small and medium scale (15kW-100kW) wind turbines to increase

the level of generated wind energy in Ireland. In Ireland and most European countries the upper limit

of 100kW is the maximum power that can be connected directly to the low voltage grid (COST

Action TU1304, 2013). A large amount of effort has been made in the past number of decades in

developing wind energy and improving wind energy application technologies to optimize

performance and increase generation in areas of turbulent urban wind profile (Tripanagnostopoulos Y,

Tselepis S, Souliotis M, Tonui J, Christodoulou A., 2004).

Presently there are two main approaches that are being used for integrating large and small to medium

scale wind energy in urban settings. The first approach is locating wind energy farms in the

periphery/outskirts of urban areas, generally large scale turbines. The second approach is the

integration of wind energy systems into the design of buildings (small – medium scale turbines).

However with adopting small scale turbines into building designs there are challenges still to

overcome; turbulence, noise, size, space and visual impact created in the urban area (town/city)

among others. With large scale turbines there place settlement is more desirable in rural locations yet

wind turbines outside the town/city come with additional cost to provide an electricity network to

transmit power to a distant electrical sub-station. (Zeng. H, 2011)

Again on the other hand, small and medium scale turbines eliminate the need to provide an electricity

network, although there are achievability problems. When retrofitting micro-generation turbines onto

buildings; shadow flicker, visual impact, vibrations and noise issues are complex concerns that can be

difficult to address along with the viability of wind in the built environment (Zeng. H, 2011). In

addition it also requires detailed planning and design to be able to take maximum advantage of the

wind in the urban environment. (Zeng. H, 2011)

The researchers ‘Kaldellis’ and ‘Zafirakis’ did a systematic study presenting the main trends, future

prospects, and the research and development directions of wind turbine technology. ‘Kaldellis’ and

‘Zafirakis’ investigated the main technological developments throughout the entire growth period of

wind energy and defined the most important research efforts associated with the establishment of

wind energy. (T.F. Ishugah, et al, 2014). They also further predicted the most challenging future of

research and development with a reflection on growth trend. ‘Islam et al’ reviewed in 2011 the

progress and recent trends of modern wind energy technologies. Their research forecast estimated that

the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) can dominate the wind-energy technology due to their

relatively less space requirements as well as potential to produce more energy compared to the

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) (T.F. Ishugah, et al, 2014).

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2.2.1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

The rotor of the horizontal axis wind turbine rotates around a horizontal axis, and when operational,

the rotating plane is vertical to the wind direction. The blades of the wind turbine are installed

perpendicularly to the rotating axis, and form a certain angle. The technology of the horizontal axis

wind turbine is more mature, and it is easy to produce high-power wind turbines.

(http://www.windturbinestar.com/horizontal-axis-wind-turbine-2.html).

The number of the blades depends on the function of the wind turbine. The wind turbine with more

blades is often called as the ‘Low-speed Wind Turbine’; the wind turbine with fewer blades is often

named as the ‘High-speed Wind Turbine’. Depending on the different relative position of the rotor

and tower, the horizontal axis wind turbine can be divided into the ‘Upwind Wind Turbine’ and the

‘Downwind Wind Turbine’. (http://www.windturbinestar.com/horizontal-axis-wind-turbine-2.html).

The horizontal axis wind turbine can also be separated into the ‘Lift-type Wind Turbine’ and the

‘Resistance-type Wind Turbine’, and the former has a high rotating speed, while the latter has a low

rotating speed. As to generate power with wind, the Lift-type Wind Turbine is more frequently

implemented. Most of the horizontal axis has the steering device, and can rotate with the wind. To the

small-sized wind turbine, the steering device employs the tail vane, while to the large-sized wind

turbine; it often adopts the gear consisting of wind sensors and servo motor.

(http://www.windturbinestar.com/horizontal-axis-wind-turbine-2.html)

Figure 2.1 – Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

(HAWT)

http://www.plainswindeis.anl.gov

http://www.cleanenergybrands.com

Figure 2.2 – Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

(HAWT) side profile and tower index

http://www.windturbinestar.com/horizontal-axis-wind-turbine-2.html



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2.2.2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

The rotor of the vertical axis wind turbine rotates around a vertical axis. The main advantage it holds

is that it can obtain wind from any flow direction, so when the wind changes, a VAWT turbine has no

need to initiate the steering device to deviate the rotor to face the wind. Due to no actual need of the

steering device, the structure of the vertical axis wind turbine is simplified.

(http://www.windturbinestar.com/horizontal-axis-wind-turbine-2.html).

The vertical axis wind turbine is mainly consisted of two types. The first type uses aerodynamic

resistance of the wind, and the most typical structure is the ‘S-typed Rotor’, which consists of two

semi-cylindrical blades whose axes are staggered. (http://www.windturbinestar.com/horizontal-axis-

wind-turbine-2.html).

The second type applies the lift of the airfoil to work, and the most typical type is the ‘Darrieus-typed

Wind Turbine’. VAWT models have been designed to fit as well as possible with turbulence

constraints. VAWT can have drag (Savonius) or lift (Darrieus) aerodynamic characteristics.

The ‘Darrieus’ machine, characterised by its C-shaped rotor blades, are: tapered, cylindrical,

or parabolic. A well know model is the Windwall.

The ‘Savonius’ machine using the drag force is composed of two half cylindrical pieces in

opposition. The S-shaped rotor blades.

The ‘Venturi’ model machines use a combination of lift and drag designs. Installed and used

in the Netherlands. (http://www.urbanwind.net/pdf/Brochure_Finale.pdf)

Alb-Donau-Kreis, Baden-

Württemberg, Germany

http://img.archiexpo.com

/images_ae/photo-

g/88530-6466049.jpg

http://www.wedemain.fr/phot

o/art/grande/7425918-

11442774.jpg?v=1423058873

Figure 2.3 – Darrieus wind turbine Figure 2.4 – Savonius wind turbine Figure 2.4 – Venturi model turbine




http://www.urbanwind.net/pdf/Brochure_Finale.pdf

http://img.archiexpo.com/images_ae/photo-


http://www.wedemain.fr/photo/art/grande/7425918-11442774.jpg?v=1423058873



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2.2.3. HAWT versus VAWT

The ‘WINEUR PROJECT’- Wind Energy Integration in the Urban Environment organisation did a

review on urban wind turbine technology and in their review they highlighted the advantages and

disadvantages of horizontal axis to vertical axis wind turbines. There is some debate over whether

horizontal axis wind turbines or vertical axis wind turbines are most suitable for the built urban

environment and what are more suitable for mounting on buildings.

Table 2.1 - Advantages & Disadvantages of HAWTs and VAWTs

HAWT VAWT (Darrieus) VAWT (Savonius)

Advantages 1. Efficient

2. Proven

product

3. Widely used

4. Most

economic

5. Many

products

available

1. Quite efficient

2. Wind

direction

irrelevant

3. Less sensitive

to turbulence

than HAWT

4. Create fewer

vibrations

1. Proven product

(global scale)

2. Silent

3. Reliable & robust

4. Wind direction

irrelevant

5. Benefits from

turbulent flows

6. Create fewer

vibrations

Disadvantages 1. Does not cope

well with

frequently

changing wind

direction

2. Does not cope

well with

buffeting

1. Not yet

proven

2. More

sensitive to

turbulence

than drag

VAWT

1. Not efficient

2. Comparatively

uneconomic

(Randall 2003, Timmers 2001 and Clear Skies 2003)

Although this paper is not an analysis on wind energy technology it is relevant to understand how

technology development plays an important role for developers and planners. In the built environment

the wind flow is frequently turbulent; the vertical axis machines have the significant advantage of not

needing to be directed into the wind stream. However on the other hand the horizontal axis turbines

are more efficient in terms of conversion of wind energy to electricity.

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For successful integration of wind energy into the built environment it requires that proposed

developments acknowledge the concerns of planners, local authority and the general public with

regard to environmental impacts (N. S. Campbell, S. Stankovic, 2001).

Small scale and medium scale wind turbines must require the capability of producing a relevant

proportion of the annual electricity demand of the neighbouring buildings on which they are housed

on or adjacent to (N. S. Campbell, S. Stankovic, 2001).

2.3. Wind energy - Acceptance and Attitudes

The natural rural environment and the built urban environment differ in many ways. The

development of wind energy systems throughout the rural environment has been evidently feasible

however there has been an inadequate amount of research and development to test the feasibility for

urban wind energy systems. With the development of wind energy, there comes a great deal of

uncertainty in the general public perception. The development of rural wind farms across Ireland has

encountered both positive and negative criticism. The SEI – ‘Sustainable Energy Ireland’ group

created the first independent report on the ‘Attitudes towards the Development of Wind Farms in

Ireland’ (SEI, 2003). The study focusses on the public attitudes and perceptions to the development of

renewable wind energy and the integration of wind farms on Irish landscape.

When considering urban wind energy it is important to understand the constraints that come with

development. Evidently the local public population have a powerful voice in the construction of wind

turbines, with numerous ‘NO’ campaigns and ‘Anti-wind farm’ groups being established in counties

across Ireland. In April 2014 an estimated 7,000 people protested in the city of Dublin against the

development of wind farms (Irish Times - Dan Griffin, 2014).

“The demonstrator’s accused the Government of failing to listen and engage sincerely with the

communities affected by “flawed energy policies” and that there was potential to damage the natural

landscape as well as people’s health” (Irish Times - Dan Griffin, 2014).

Planning permission for the erection of wind farms has been denied on several occasions but what are

the main issues and concerns for their objections. For the purpose of this study it is a key concern to

highlight what tend to be the residing issues amongst wind energy.

One of the main findings in the SEI’s attitude report is the survey answered questions on the ‘Reasons

for Being Favourable/Unfavourable to Having the Wind Farm Built in the Local Area’. The next

figure illustrates the findings;

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Figure 2.5 - Reason For and Against

(SEI - Attitudes towards Wind Farms and Wind Energy in Ireland, pg13, chart 2.7)

From the minority that were against wind farms in local areas the main reason is due to the ‘visual

amenity’. The impact that a turbine will have visually on the landscape is an important factor that

developers have yet to overcome. Other considerations mentioned were ‘noise, wildlife and other

opinionated reasons’. However in comparison to the overwhelming response in favour to wind farms

the main reason ‘for’; was the factor of ‘clean energy production’. The second reason was the

possibility in job opportunities. Answers varied but majority of opinions were in favour.

In this research paper the reasons; ‘for’ and ‘against’ shed light onto why it is important to

recognise and highlight what the key stakeholders opinions and perceptions are on the environmental

considerations and barriers involved. The stakeholder’s positions on the main issues are reflected by

public perception.

As wind energy development in Ireland progresses so does the technology along with it.

Technological advancement in wind energy systems can create economic advantages; developers can

begin to bring forward projects on sites that may be considered more heavily populated, such as urban

landform. Such sites, which may be completely economically viable, may however also increase the

level of opposition or protesting and therefore become more vulnerable to delays and extra costs that

will inevitably increase the level of risk and create a threat upon future prospect developments

(Geraint Ellis, 2012).

The considerations involved with wind energy can be difficult to overcome, particularly in relation to

urban settings. One of the main concerns is the attitude and acceptance of wind energy. Dr Geraint

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Ellis of Queens University Belfast produced a report in 2012 entitled “A review of the context for

enhancing community acceptance of wind energy in Ireland”. Dr Ellis believes a key action in

beginning to consider what is the best way to address such issues is to develop a shared understanding

of community acceptance amongst the key stakeholders involved.

In this research paper the objectives to highlight the main environmental considerations and barriers

involved with urban wind energy is done so by recognising the thoughts and perceptions of the three

key group stakeholders; the developers, the planners and the social community. To understand the

acceptance attitudes and concerns at hand there must be an extended mutual engagement of the main

parties involved (Geraint Ellis, 2012).

Wustenhagen, et al (2007) produced a theory on understanding the broader adoption of the attitudes

and concerns from the negative by representing them in three distinct components. Figure 2.2

represents a triangular effect of; ‘community acceptance’, ‘market acceptance’ and ‘socio-political

acceptance’. (Reference for bullet points below; (Wustenhagen, et al, 2007) (Geraint Ellis, 2012))

Community Acceptance – to accept the scope/specific siting decisions by local

community/residents.

Market Acceptance – the support and adoption of the new technology by consumers and

investors.

Socio-Political Acceptance – the general public opinion of wind energy technology.

Figure 2.6 - The three dimensions of social acceptance (from Wustenhagen et al 2007)

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The previous figure represent the three dimensions of social acceptance provides an important context

for understanding how the communities involved may respond to wind projects. It gives an indication

that if wind energy plays an increasing role in meeting Ireland’s energy demands, it is essential to

achieve a comprehensive acceptance in the three areas highlighted.

Market and Socio-Political acceptance have widely been achieved through a number of reasons;

technological development, public bodies, efforts of the wind energy sector and governmental

recognition that wind energy offers a suitable and applicable response to present energy challenges

(Geraint Ellis, 2012).

In highlighting the issues that should be considered for increasing community and public acceptance

of wind energy projects it is necessary to clarify how this is understood from the key stakeholders.

Wustenhagen et al (2007, p. 2966) defines community acceptance as “the specific acceptance of

siting decisions and renewable energy projects by local stakeholders, particularly residents and local

authorities”. This recognises that a community’s perception of a wind energy project proposal is

differentiated from the views of broader society as a result of the project development being local and

the projects - place specific effects (Geraint Ellis, 2012).

2.4. Not-In-My-Backyard ‘NIMBY’

It must also be noted that it is important to appreciate how a community’s perception may be

influenced by a range of factors that may need to be addressed by the key stakeholders through

specific policy and practice. ‘Maarten Wolsink’ wrote a paper in 1999 on ‘Wind power and the

NIMBY-myth’ his analysis shows how levels of public acceptance are usually considered the primary

indicators of support for wind power within society. The ‘Not-In-My-Backyard’ (NIMBY) syndrome

is a very effective factor in developing wind energy projects with specific relation to the built

environment. Wolsink argues that other barriers to wind power implementation exist beyond attitudes

among the population and that institutional factors have a greater impact on wind energy facility

siting. In other terms there is overwhelming evidence that suggests that categorising local residents

into the ‘NIMBY’ genre fails to appreciate that objections are often based on real concerns about the

impact of a scheme and to depreciate those views often establishes an opposition to deal with rather

than developing a possible solution (Geraint Ellis, 2012).

The relationship between the local government and the community residents during the management

process of NIMBY conflicts is evidently worsening (Linlin Sun, Esther H.K. Yung, Edwin H.W.

Chan, Dajian Zhu, 2015). NIMBY conflicts typically rise due to local residents having different

perceptions of gains and losses resulting from the development of certain projects such as Wind

energy (Linlin Sun, et al, 2015). From experimental research NIMBY conflict management have led

local residents to mistrust local governing bodies. (Linlin Sun, et al, 2015)

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It is therefore vital to understand the issues between the stakeholders in NIMBY conflict management

to reduce the arising issue. However, there is little research on the issues of NIMBY conflict

management from the perspective of the stakeholders' relationships (Linlin Sun, et al, 2015).

Previous research shows that there are three main causes to a NIMBY conflict:

The first main cause is the source of conflicts; it is caused by the local residents in an

area of relation to the proposed facility.

The second cause of conflict is the NIMBY facility itself.

The third cause is related to the impact of economic and societal development and

institutional change at the macro level.

(Linlin Sun, et al, 2015)

One of the main causes of NIMBY conflict is ‘facility siting’. Technology is the gauge for facility

siting, in particular for the energy facilities (Cotton & Devine-Wright, 2010). The type of wind

turbine, whether it is large scale or a small scale retrofitted turbine, it plays a key role in the

perception and response from the local residents. However due to the NIMBY syndrome, planners

and developers gradually began to recognise the social impact of the wind energy project when

planning facility siting’s (Linlin Sun, et al, 2015).

Another major cause of NIMBY is the social system transition at the macro level (Linlin Sun, et al,

2015). This system transition is in referral to the political, social and environmental developments,

(Groth & Vogt, 2014; Inch, 2012). Fung, Lesbirel, and Lam (2011) have perceived that the general

public do not protest against the NIMBY facilities like wind energy projects, but instead will protest

the decision-making authority such as the developers (Linlin Sun, et al, 2015).

Mitigation measures that are implemented in trying to resolve NIMBY issues are; ‘public

participation’, ‘transparency’ and ‘Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)’. These measures are

emphasized by local government and the key stakeholders. Using these strategies is a way to address

citizens' environmental concerns and give them access to decision-making information about NIMBY

facilities (Linlin Sun, et al, 2015).

2.5. Economics and environmental benefit of application wind energy system in urban

environment

For countries that depend dominantly on imported fuel from politically unstable countries, wind

energy and exploitation is a very effective means of reducing the exposure of their economies on fuel

price instability. The use of wind turbines in the built environment can provide economic balance due

to power generation costs that are not dependant or influenced by fluctuating fuel prices. The costs of

~ 25 ~

implementing wind energy systems into the urban environment are significantly more viable and

create a far more sustainable future. Like majority of energy systems, the basic costs of wind energy

projects are determined by a number of initial factors such as; upfront investment costs, wind turbine

installation costs, capital cost, operation and maintenance costs, other project development and

planning costs, turbine lifetime and electricity production cost (T.F.Ishugah, Y.Li, R.Z.Wang,

J.K.Kiplagat, 2014).

When discussing the economics of wind ‘Krohn S, Morthorst PE, Awerbuch S’ wrote a paper on “The

economics of wind energy- European Wind Energy Association” in 2009 and they give an

approximation that 75% of the total cost of energy for a wind turbine is related to upfront costs of the

turbine, foundation, electrical equipment, grid- connection and other relating initial construction costs.

Depending on the type of wind energy project, wind turbines service and maintenance can create a

sizeable share of the total annual costs of wind turbines. However when compared to other power

generating costs, they are substantially less.

Micro-generation wind energy technologies, with specific regard to those with noticeable resource,

have the potential to reduce built environment related CO2 emissions joined with reductions in

consumers' electricity costs (T.F.Ishugah, et al, 2014). In a lot of cases payback on capital investment

is within the lifespan of the turbine. The cost per energy produced and payback period of wind energy

systems in urban environment are widely dependent on variable factors from city to city and from

time to time which in turn makes it too difficult to compile specific information for each individual

turbine (Booker J, Mellor P, Wrobel R, Drury D, 2010). The greatest influence on wind system

economic viability in the urban environment is wind speed. Wind speed is one of the most important

factors for siting a wind turbine. Presently there are very few wind energy system installations in the

urban environment and in turn it makes it difficult to conclude on their success of installation

(Campbell D, Stankovic S, Graham M, Parkin P, van Duijvendijk M, de Gruiter T, et al, 2001). As a

generalisation taller buildings and tower blocks tend to offer the most suitable conditions in terms of

capturing a viable wind stream and appreciable wind speed. Wind energy turbine installation in the

built environment is viable with the necessary factors in place (T.F.Ishugah, et al, 2014).

2.6. Conclusion

As it is expected over time more people will move and settle in urban areas, energy sources that are

safe, secure, affordable, sustainable and environmentally friendly need to be exploited and

implemented for sufficiency in the growing population. Wind energy systems are now coming under

increasing scrutiny as part of renewable energy solutions for the built environment. With the

technological development of turbines continuously advancing, architects and designers are now able

to integrate wind energy systems on to buildings and other urban structures. With using wind energy

systems in the urban environment the environmental considerations and barriers involved such as poor

~ 26 ~

wind turbine output, shadow flicker, strong visual impact and to some extent vibration and noise

issues are significantly lower to rural systems which in turn make it easier for mitigation measures.

Wind energy systems in the urban environment is a relatively new field of development with

substantial potential, from this literature review the author has highlighted the significant research

studies that are in relation to urban wind energy. From the relevant papers available it has been clear

that the public attitude and perception to wind energy has been researched in depth detail and has

produced varied answers with for and against reasons however there has been little to no research

gathered on the key stakeholder’s perception of urban wind energy and what they see as the

environmental considerations and barriers. This systematic literature review highlights the necessary

areas of focus in developing urban wind energy. It acknowledges the technology, public attitudes, the

NIMBY syndrome and the economic viability of developing and integrating wind energy systems into

the built environment.

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Chapter 3 – Methodology

3. Methodology

3.1. Introduction

This chapter outlines the framework of research methodologies applied and data sources analysed to

fulfil the objective of this dissertation. For the purpose of efficiency both quantitative and qualitative

research methods were used in the form of analysing scientific research papers in the field of wind

energy along with a semi-structured interview with the relevant key stakeholders. These provided the

sources of primary data for analysis. The resultant information was then compiled and analysed by in

a systematic format. The reasoning and decision making behind the methodology is outlined below as

the chosen techniques were recognised as the most appropriate for the analysis process involved with

completing this dissertation.

3.2. Research Aim






3.3. Research Strategy

In accordance with Ruddock (2008) the term ‘research strategy’ can be described as “the ways in

which data will be collected and analysed in order to answer the research questioned posed and so

provide a framework for understanding the research” material. The decision on which research

strategy to use was based on the purpose of achieving the set objectives. The primary research

methods in this study are ‘Qualitative research’ and ‘Quantitative research’.

3.3.1. Quantitative research

Quantitative research is a method used on scientific and factual data. Fellows and Liu (2003)

described quantitative research as “built upon previous work which has developed principles, laws

and theories to help decide the data requirements of a particular research project”. The quantitative

research methodology required in this study is used to investigate a particular theory based on

scientific evidence.

The conditions on which quantitative research should be used are the following (Naoum S, 2007):

When you want to find facts about a concept, a question or an attribute.

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When you want to collect factual evidence and study the relationship between these facts in

order to test a particular theory or hypothesis

The study at focus requires a proportion of quantitative research, the resultant data obtained is to be

transferred into a logical numerical analysis. Quantitative research is objective in nature (Naoum S,

2013) however this research method is not feasible in fulfilling the aims and objectives of this study

without the collaboration of a qualitative analysis.

3.3.2. Qualitative research

Qualitative research is the primary research method used in this study. Qualitative research is used

when “an exploration of the subject is undertaken without prior formulations – the object is to gain

understanding and collect information and data such that theories will emerge” (Ruddock, 2008).

Qualitative research allows this study to emphasise on the meaning and descriptions of the aim and

objectives of this research paper.

Qualitative research is usually defined under the following three main categories:

Exploratory research

Attitudinal research

Exploratory research is used as a means to obtain information where data might be scarce or where

limited knowledge of the subject criteria exists.

Attitudinal research, according to Naoum (1998,) appraises the opinion of people by subjective means

with the objective of evaluating the attitude of people towards particular questions. Qualitative

research is subjective in nature (Naoum S, 2013) which allows for this way of method to be the

primary research strategy.

Table 3.1 - Quantitative vs. Qualitative research

Category Quantitative Qualitative

Role Evidenced or record based fact

finding

Measurement of attitude based

on opinions, views, perceptions

Relationship of researcher to

subject Distant Close

Scope of findings Nomothetic Idiographic

Relationship between

theory/concepts and research Testing/Confirmation Emergent/Development

Form of data Hard and reliable Rich and deep

Source: (Naoum, 1998)

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3.4. Research strategy selection

Referring to paragraph 3.3 the research strategy selected is a collaboration of both quantitative and

qualitative research methods with qualitative research acting as the primary source of methodology,

quantitative acting as secondary source. It was decided that interviews would be used as they would

provide the most accurate information needed in completing the objectives of this study. A mixed

method approach is the most suitable in terms of a strategic research analysis.

3.5. Primary Data Collection

The primary data collection is the primary research which is the most accurate yet debatable source of

information as it publishes original research (Naoum, S. 2013). The primary research provides the

most up to date information on the subject at focus. The primary research of this study is based upon

semi-structured interviews with chosen key stakeholders in the field of wind energy.

3.5.1. Semi-structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews are a verbal interchange and for the purpose of this study the author was

the interviewer, eliciting information from the key stakeholders through both open and closed

questions. The choice to use a semi-structured interview gave the participants the chance to explore

issues that they felt were most important as the interview unfolded in a conversational manner due to

its structure (Longhurst, 2010). The general characteristics of a semi-structured interview are

orientated in the following;

1. Respondents are involved in, or have relevant experience/expertise in the topic area.

2. The situations discussed have previously been scrutinised prior to the interview.

3. The questions throughout the interview are focused on the objectives of the research.

4. It focuses on the respondents’ experience.

(Naoum S, 1998)

A semi structured interview was selected for this research study with the above criterion at focus. The

selected interviewee’s had extensive, relevant experience and expertise in the area of wind energy and

urban wind energy. The interview was conducted in a four phase tier system where the questions

asked were created in categorical from which is described in detail in the upcoming paragraphs. The

use of both open and closed questions allowed for detailed explanations on answers. The advantages

and disadvantages for both open and closed questions are explained in the following tables.

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Table 3.2 – Advantages and Disadvantages of ‘open questions’

Advantages of ‘open’

Open ended questions allow an unlimited amount of potential responses

Respondents have the opportunity to answer in detail, and to qualify and clarify their response

Unanticipated findings may surface

They permit adequate answers to complex issues

They accommodate creativity, self-explanation and richness of detail

Disadvantages of ‘open’

Respondents will invariably give diverse amounts of detail in answers

Responses may turn out irrelevant, or become shrouded in useless details

Comparison and statistical analyses is difficult due to varying degrees of clarity

Respondents require greater length of time, and more thought and effort is required to

interpret responses.

Respondents may be intimidated by questions

Source: (Neuman W.L, 2000)

Table 3.3 – Advantages and Disadvantages of ‘closed questions’

Advantages of ‘closed’

Methodology allows for prompt responses.

Facilitates comparisons of different respondents

The response choices can aid in clarification of the question for the respondent.

Respondents are more likely to answer sensitive questions.

Minimises amount of irrelevant questions

Respondents with lower levels of literacy are not disadvantaged

Facilitates replication

Disadvantages of ‘closed’

They can suggest ideas, which would otherwise not have surfaced

Respondents with no applicable knowledge can answer regardless.

Respondents may become frustrated if their desired answer is not an available choice.

Can become confusing if too many choices are on offer

Misinterpretation of questions can go unnoticed.

May lead to blurred distinction of respondents answers

Can force respondents to provide simplistic answers to complex questions

Source: (Neuman W.L, 2000)

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3.5.2. Sample selection of interviewee

In order to create an un-biased research methodology the selection on which the interviewee was

considered was under the following categories:

To be selective

To respect anonymity

Establish the position of interviewee

Level of respect in industry

Expertise

These categories outlined are in reference to; Hore, V.A (2007) who uses these considerations as a

base outline on creating an appropriate interview for professionals.

3.6. Interview Structure

3.6.1. Objectives of interview

The principle objectives for the semi-structured interview were the following:

To assess key stakeholders familiarity with urban wind energy projects in Ireland.

To establish the key stakeholders opinions on what they perceive as the main environmental

considerations.

To identify what the key stakeholders believe to be the main barriers involved with

developing wind energy projects in the urban environment.

To examine what the key stakeholders believe to be a possible future for wind energy in the

urban environment.

3.6.2. Interview question format

The interview structure was based on a semi-structure form. The structures of questions were laid out

in the following four categories;

1. Context

2. Environmental Considerations

3. Barriers

4. Future

In total there were nine questions asked both open and closed questions. Each question was open in

their nature and opinion based. Specific questions were designed to extract relevant information.

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Table 3.4 – Interview: questions structure

Category Question No.

Context 1 & 2

Environmental Considerations 3, 4 & 5

Barriers 6 & 7

Future 8 & 9

3.6.3. Context

The opening two questions of the interview were in relation to the ‘context’ to the field of study. The

questions were arranged in a manner to ideally ‘ease’ the interviewee into giving their response.

Context was used as a means of understanding the topic of discussion and the circumstances that form

the setting. The setting in context is wind energy in the urban environment. Below are the questions in

relation to context.

Question 1

Are you aware of any recent, current or planned 'Urban Wind Energy' projects in your area?

YES

(Please specify in detail: where & when)

NO

(Is there any particular reason as to why)

Question one is asked for the purpose of gathering information on what the key stakeholders could

relate with on a personal basis with a current project in their area. It allowed the author to gather

information on projects that may be undergoing in certain areas across Ireland that the author may be

unaware of.

Question 2

Are you familiar with any 'Urban Wind Energy' projects in Ireland?

YES

(Please specify in detail: where & when) NO

Question two is used for stakeholders to share information on what they may be familiar with on a

national scale if there are currently no urban wind energy projects undergoing in their area.

~ 33 ~

3.6.4. Environmental Considerations

A consideration is defined as “A fact or a motive taken into account in deciding something” (Oxford

Dictionaries, 2016). The environmental considerations associated with wind energy in the urban

environment. The environmental considerations questions were arranged into three separate questions.

Question 3

In your opinion what do you perceive as the 'main environmental considerations' associated with

wind energy development in the built environment?

Question three is used to express the stakeholder’s thoughts and opinions. The open question allows

for the stakeholder to give their perception and views as to what they believe to be the ‘main

environmental considerations’ involved.

Question 4

In relation to small and micro-scale generation wind energy technology (for example locating in

normal built up areas i.e. residential) can you please scale each of these environmental considerations

in level of importance by ticking the box?

0 – None: Of no real importance.

1 – Low level: Slight importance relevant to note.

2 – Medium level: Standard level of awareness

3 – High level: Extremely important.

0 1 2 3

Public, Health and

Community

Noise

Vibration

Shadow Flicker

Built Environment

Built Heritage

Visual Amenity/Aesthetics

Habitats and Wildlife

Birds and Bats

General Habitat

Other

Specify: ( )

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Question four is used in the purpose of allowing the stakeholder to scale the level of importance on

each of the main environmental considerations, sourced from literature and case studies, on small

scale on micro-scale generation wind turbines. Each consideration mentioned is highlighted as a

significant factor in developing wind energy in both the rural and urban environments. In this question

there is a box dedicated to any ‘other’ specific consideration that the author may be unaware about

that a stakeholder can emphasise on.

Question 5

In relation to medium and large scale generation wind energy technology (for example locating in

industrial areas, ports etc.) can you please scale each of these environmental considerations in level of

importance by ticking the box?





0 1 2 3

Public, Health and

Community

Noise

Vibration

Shadow Flicker

Built Environment

Built Heritage



Birds and Bats

General Habitat

Other

Specify: ( )

Question five is used in the purpose of allowing the stakeholder to scale the level of importance on

each of the main environmental considerations, sourced from literature and case studies, on the

medium scale and large scale generation wind turbines. Each consideration mentioned is highlighted

as a significant factor in developing wind energy in both the rural and urban environments. In this

question there is a box dedicated to any ‘other’ specific consideration that the author may be unaware

about that a stakeholder can emphasise on.

~ 35 ~

3.6.5. Barriers

For a clear understanding of what is meant by the term ‘barrier’ it can be defined as “A circumstance

or obstacle that keeps people or things apart or prevents communication or progress” (Oxford

Dictionaries, 2016). There are two questions in relation to barriers, in order to get an understanding as

to what the key stakeholders believe them to be, the questions are outlined below.

Question 6

What do you believe to be the main barriers to developing wind energy in the urban environment?

Question six is an open question for interviewees to express freely what they believe to be the main

significant barriers involved with urban wind energy.

Question 7

Are these barriers possible to overcome?

YES

(Please specify in which barrier and how it may

be overcome)

NO


Question seven requires a decisively explained answer referring to the possible solutions for the

barriers involved in urban wind energy.

3.6.6. Future

The final two questions relate to the potential future if one for wind energy in the urban environment.

Question 8

In your opinion is there a future for wind energy development in the built environment in Ireland?

YES

(Please outline the nature of this)

NO

(Please outline why not)

Question eight is used to express the stakeholder’s thoughts and opinions. The question allows for the

stakeholder to give their perception and views as to what they believe to be the ‘future’ of urban wind

energy.

~ 36 ~

Question 9

What actions will be necessary in the future to successfully develop wind energy in urban areas in

Ireland?

Question nine is used to again express stakeholder’s thoughts on solutions for a potential future in

urban wind energy.

3.7. Secondary Data Collection

“Secondary literature sources are those that cite from primary sources such as text-books and

newspaper articles” (Naoum, 2007). The advantages of using secondary research allow clarity in the

research aims. The author of this dissertation used textbooks, e-journals, scientific papers, data

research sites and referral to accredited newspaper articles and published posts. The secondary data

collection can also be referred to in Chapter two: Literature Review. Secondary data collection

predominantly involves analysing primary data in which others have previously compiled, “a source

that was created from primary sources” (Johnson and Christensen 2008). It helps the researcher to

create a deeper understanding to the topic from all aspects in relation to the focus point. However,

currently there is very little information published on wind energy in the urban environment.

3.7.1. Literature Review

The literature review is an essential chapter for identifying the relevant work that has been already

completed in the field of focus. A literature review can be described as a “Reading and critically

appraising what others have published on the chosen subject area” (Naoum, 2013). Secondary

sources as mentioned in paragraph 3.7 have been used to compile a systematic literature review on the

field of wind energy in the urban environment.

3.7.2. Website Research

The use of website research in constructing a scientific dissertation is an essential part of researching

factually correct material. Website research allows for a coherent investigation into the past, present

and future schools of taught in the topic of study. Scientific databases and online library resources are

the main factors involved in website research.

~ 37 ~

3.7.3. Ethical Research

Ethical research is a substantial point to note in researching a specific study. This dissertation reflects

an ethically researched paper.

The following ethical considerations are taken into account: (Fellows and Liu, 2008)

Anonymity will be kept upon request and confidentially will be implemented from start to

finish.

Informed consent will be obtained from all participants.

An assessment of the risks and/or benefits of the project will be outlined to the participants.

Collected data will be disposed of in a correct manner upon completion and graduation of the

degree.

3.8. Summary

The various research methods that are going to be used in this investigation were described in this

chapter. It revises both qualitative and quantitative methods of research. The qualitative method of

research was to be conducted through the means of semi-structured interview. Both primary and

secondary methods of research were used. Secondary research was used for the literature review in an

attempt to review the published material and primary research was conducted through the means of

interviews.

Pilot interviews and surveys were taken focusing the scope of the questions before issuing them to the

participants. The research objectives could be met by the research methods discussed in this chapter.

~ 38 ~

Chapter 4 – Findings and Discussion

4. Findings and Discussion

4.1. Introduction

Chapter four is focussed on analysing the results and findings from the research methodology. This

chapter will both review and ‘discuss’ the results/findings gathered from the key stakeholder

interviews. The findings compiled in this chapter are from the semi-structured interviews that were

delivered by the author to the key stakeholders in the field of wind energy. The focus of this research

is primarily on the stakeholder’s views and opinions on the environmental considerations and barriers

involved with urban wind energy.

The two different methodologies of quantitative and qualitative data collection will be combined with

data obtained from the interviews. Upon completion of the research a superior emphasis has been

placed on the information retrieved from the interviews, the data is more detailed in nature and due to

the information required for this dissertation, it represents the most applicable and reliable data source

in achieving the set objectives.

4.2. Respondents

The response rate from the stakeholders was deemed to be very successful by the author. The author

set the target of gathering a total of ‘9’ key stakeholder interviews. Following the target of 9 being set;

20 stakeholder personnel and companies were contacted through email. A total of ‘10’ stakeholder

interviews were ultimately attained via email, phone call and face to face meeting. A 50% response

rate was achieved in this dissertations research objective. The interview process was considered

successful due to the relatively high response and participation rate. Reminder emails were sent to

those who did not reply as part of a methodical procedure of investigation. The semi-structured

interview with both open and closed questions proved to be successful as candidates answered with

clear explanation. Their thoughts and perceptions to questions asked were conveyed thoroughly and in

correlation to the set objectives.

The stakeholders chosen were selected from three specific areas in the field of wind energy. The three

areas of focus chosen represented the most influential bodies in implementing a wind energy project

in the built environment. The three areas of focus chosen are the following:

1. Planners

2. Developers

3. Society

~ 39 ~

4.2.1. Planners

Planners are professionals who develop plans and programs for the use of land. There are a variety of

certain types of planners; urban, spatial, regional, transport and environmental planning. Planning

takes place on local, regional, national and inter-national levels. Planners are mainly concerned with

how the environment in which we live are managed both physically and aesthetically (Irish Planning

Institute ‘IPI’, 2016).

Planners were chosen as one of the key stakeholders to be interviewed as the process of planning

essentially has two main functions: ‘to manage physical development’ and ‘to plan ahead for future

growth and development’. Within these two main functions a balance between physical development

and social, economic and environmental needs are the goal. The main reason for choosing planners to

interview is due to the many disciplines on which they have to take into account such as the

following:

Environmental and Aesthetic – ‘how a new development will impact on the local

environment or community and how its visual impact’

Economic – ‘how development will effect on the local economy and local businesses’

Legal and Political – ‘the laws and national policies that govern planning and land

use issues’

Human and Social – ‘how local people and communities will be affected’

Source: (Irish Planning Institute ‘IPI’, 2016).

A total of 5 planners were interviewed by the author. The planners interviewed were from

both public and private organisations. The planners names and companies will remain

anonymous, see appendix for further details. The answers given by each planner was used for

the purpose of academic research.

4.2.2. Developers

The developer stakeholders that were contacted represented large companies that have significant

control and close relations to the energy sector in Ireland. The reason for choosing developers as one

of the focus areas to contact was due to their roles in the development of projects. The developer

companies interviewed are in the field of renewable wind energy. The main roles that a developer

would have in the implementation of an urban wind energy project would be the following;

Perform project design and development activities according to required specifications.

Work with planners and project manager in developing project plan, budget and schedule.

Prepare project proposals and contractual documents.

~ 40 ~

Track project progress regularly and develop status reports to authorities involved.

Ensure that project is completed within allotted budget and timelines.

Follow company policies and safety regulations for operational efficiency.

Research and recommend new technologies to carry out project development tasks.

Develop cost reduction initiatives while maintaining quality and productivity

Source: (http://www.greatsampleresume.com/Job-Responsibilities/Project-Developer-Responsibilities.html)

A total of 3 developers were interviewed by the author. The developers interviewed were

from both large and small private companies. The developers names and companies will

remain anonymous, see appendix for further details. The answers given by each developer

was used for the purpose of academic research.

4.2.3. Society

The third area of stakeholders was focussed at societal organisations. It was decided that through

urban wind energy research that society have a significant voice when it comes to projects in their

local area. Urban areas are heavily populated destinations and it was considered that the organisations

that represent society are an important element to the integration of wind energy into the built

environment. Their thoughts and perceptions on urban wind energy are a necessary component to

include in this research topic.

As the research topic was confined to specific stakeholders in the field of wind energy, the

interviewees that represent the society aspect were categorised into either ‘industry’ or

‘societal’. The author attained a total of 2 interviews from the ‘industrial related society’. The

interviewees are educated in the field of wind energy and their opinions and thoughts

reflected societal behaviour. The industrial related societal names and companies will remain

anonymous, see appendix for further details. The answers given by each interviewee was used

for the purpose of academic research.

Stakeholder Interviews breakdown

Planners (5)

Developers (3)

Society (2)

Total - 10 Interviews

Figure 4.1 - Pie

chart representing

stakeholder

number of

interviews

http://www.greatsampleresume.com/Job-Responsibilities/Project-Developer-Responsibilities.html

~ 41 ~

Figure 4.2 – Triangulation of Stakeholders

4.3. Interviews – Context: Question 1 & 2

There were a total of nine questions in the semi-structured interview. All interviews given were

completed in the same format with the same questions. The purposes of the interviews were to

highlight and recognise the key stakeholders perceptions and opinions on the main environmental

considerations, barriers and potential future of wind energy in the urban environment. For expediency

there will be a discussion with each of the findings for evaluation.

Urban Wind Energy

Stakeholders

Planners

‘to manage physical development’ and ‘to plan

ahead for future growth and development’

Developers ‘developing project plan,

budget and schedule’

Society

‘developing project plan,

budget and schedule’

~ 42 ~

4.3.1. Findings (Question1)

Question 1

Are you aware of any recent, current or planned 'Urban Wind Energy' projects in your area?

YES

(Please specify in detail: where & when)

NO



Stakeholders Answer

Planner 1 NO

Planner 2 YES - Single EWT DW 54 wind turbine on the

edge of Derry. (Commercial)

Planner 3 YES - Father Collins Park, Clongriffin, Dublin

13. (Large scale turbines in public park)

Planner 4 YES - Maighne Windfarm. This is a windfarm

proposal in Co. Kildare and Co.Meath.

Planner 5 NO

Developer 1 NO

Developer 2 NO

Developer 3 YES - In the Queen Elizabeth Olympic park

Stratford London, a series of 18-metre tall

turbines with 8kW of capacity and providing up

to 7,500 kWh of power a year if average wind

speeds reach seven metres per second.

Society 1 NO

Society 2 NO

4.3.2. Discussion

(4/10) - Only 40% of those asked were aware of any current or planned urban wind energy projects

in their area. This result was expected, on review of literature there is an unsubstantial amount of

work or research completed in Ireland on urban wind energy projects and so in turn the answers given

show how development is scarce.

~ 43 ~

4.3.3. Findings (Question 2)

Question 2

Are you familiar with any 'Urban Wind Energy' projects in Ireland?

YES

(Please specify in detail: where & when) NO


Stakeholders Answer

Planner 1 YES - Dundalk I.T campus (only by visual)

Planner 2 YES - Single EWT DW 54 wind turbine on the

edge of Derry. (Commercial)

Planner 3 NO

Planner 4 YES - Father Collins Park, Clongriffin, Dublin

13. (Large scale turbines in public park)

Planner 5 YES - Dundalk I.T campus

Developer 1 NO

Developer 2 YES – Dundalk I.T campus and J&J in

Ringaskiddy.

Developer 3 YES - A number of commercial properties in

Leinster have installed Sub 1Mw turbines

(medium wind) to provide energy independence

for their commercial operations.

Society 1 YES - 1. the Green Building in Temple Bar

(“turbine disused I believe”)

2. Dundalk Institute of Technology (last 10 years)

3. Cork Harbour / Ringaskiddy (recent)

4. Father Collins Park in north Dublin City

Society 2 NO

~ 44 ~

4.3.4. Discussion

(7/10) – 70% of respondents are familiar with some sort of urban wind energy project in Ireland. 4 out

of the 7 stakeholders were familiar with the single standing Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine on the

Dundalk Institute of Technology campus. The DkIT wind turbine was built in 2006 with a total cost

of €1,127,000 (w/13.5% VAT). Vestas V52-850kW initially limited to 700kW peak output, average

power output of 23.3% of maximum power – 163 kilowatts (Larry Staudt, 2006). Another urban wind

energy project the stakeholders were familiar with is the Father Collins Park, Clongriffin, Dublin 13

(Large scale turbines in Public Park). The Father Collins Project has 5 medium heights (25m)

HAWTs. Each turbine generating a power rating of 50kW with a total generation capacity of 250kW

which is worth €400,000 worth of electricity a year (Turbines cost €1.2 million to construct). The

stakeholder ‘Society 2’ answered ‘NO’ however he noted that he knew that:

“I am unaware of any significant project. There are some research projects (ITT and DCU) – but

nothing significant. The main reason is the complexity involved and the lack of confidence in relation

to a significant capital outlay (ca 30k for 2.5kW)” – ‘Society 2’.

Although the stakeholder is familiar with current undergoing research projects, the complexities

involved to such projects have created difficulty in development. Noting that money spent to acquire,

repair or upgrade turbine projects is a key concern.

4.4. Environmental Considerations (Questions 3, 4 & 5)


Question 3

In your opinion what do you perceive as the 'main environmental considerations' associated with

wind energy development in the built environment?

The table below will illustrate the findings of which environmental considerations that the

stakeholders believe to be the most important. Each bullet point is in referral to the answers given by

the stakeholder. The findings will then be followed by a discussion.


Stakeholders Main Env Considerations

Planner 1 • Shadow Flicker

• Visual Impact

Planner 2 • Visual Impact

• Noise

~ 45 ~

• Built Heritage

• Shadow flicker

Planner 3 • Visual Impact

• Noise

• Shadow flicker

• Logistics (access)

• Maintenance

Planner 4 • Spatial Planning

• Noise

• Distance from sensitive receptors

Planner 5 • Bird/Bats

• Cultural Heritage

• Shadow Flicker

Developer 1 • Residential Amenity – Noise, Visual,

Shadow flicker

• Human Health (EMF)

• Material Assets – Property and Land use

• Landscape economic activity – tourism

Developer 2 • Noise

• Shadow flicker

• Setback

Developer 3 • Visual amenity

• Shadow flicker

• Access for maintenance (RNA,

component replacement, crane access

etc.)

Society 1 • Scale and Size

• Public attitude

• Visual Impact

• Wind resource in urban area

• Structural implications (retrofitting)

Society 2 • Flicker: Visible and Audible

• Noise

4.4.2. Discussion

The three main environmental considerations that were highlighted frequently by the stakeholders are;

Shadow flicker, Visual impact and Noise. There was wide concern for noise with a total of 6

stakeholders identifying it as one of the main considerations. The stakeholder ‘Society 2’ expresses

how “At one stage the Fr. Collins park turbines were being decommissioned due to complaints by

residents. They complained that at night the noise was more pronounced (due primarily to the

attenuated background noise with there being no traffic!)”. In comparison to this the stakeholder

‘Developer 3’ expresses their opinions on noise about wind energy in the built environment, “Due to

high levels of background noise in urban environments the swooshing noise from the turbine bladed

~ 46 ~

cutting through the air is not as noticeable as would be in a low background noise environment as

seen in the countryside. Therefore it is surprising less of an issue in urban areas than in rural”.

When relating back to literature, the consideration of ‘noise’ is very apparent in wind turbines. During

quiet nights, people reacted strongly to the wind turbine noise in the range of 500m surrounding the

wind turbine and experienced annoyance in the range of 1900 m surrounding the wind farm. An

interesting point to note is that people are more annoyed by wind turbine noise than by transportation

noise (Van den Berg, 2004).

Other points to note from stakeholder opinions come from ‘developer 1’ who believes that the use of

medium and large scale turbines in a lower volume bring about greater impacts to the environment

while small and micro generation turbines in a higher volume have less of an impact on the

environment; “The key considerations seem to be the use of a smaller number of larger generators, or

a larger number of smaller generators – the former incurs a greater impact but in a more

concentrated area; the reverse is generally true for the latter”.

The graph below illustrates all the environmental considerations of wind energy in the built

environment, highlighted by the key stakeholders.

Figure 4.3 – Main Environmental Considerations identified by the Stakeholders

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Nu

mb

er o

f st

akh

old

ers

Considerations

Stakeholders thoughts: Main Environmental Considerations Stakeholders: MainEnvironmentalConsiderations

~ 47 ~


Question 4

In relation to small and micro-scale generation wind energy technology (for example locating in

normal built up areas i.e. residential) can you please scale each of these environmental considerations

in level of importance by ticking the box?





Public, Health and

Community

Noise

Vibration

Shadow Flicker

Built Environment

Built Heritage



Birds and Bats

General Habitat

Other

Specify: ( )

Table 4.4 – Small and micro-scale generation averages scale of importance

Environmental Consideration Average of scaled importance

Noise 2

Vibration 1

Shadow Flicker 2

Built Heritage 2

Visual Amenity/Aesthetics 2

Birds and Bats 1

General Habitat 1

~ 48 ~

Figure 4.4 – The average of stakeholder’s scale on level of importance

4.4.4. Discussion

In the scaling of importance with the environmental considerations listed by the author, which were

researched from previous literature, the scaling results varied on each stakeholder. It was considered

best by the author that an average of each consideration would best suit for an analysis on results.

The highest scaled important environmental consideration was ‘noise’. The lowest scale of important

environmental considerations was ‘vibration’. It is also important to note that each stakeholder’s

expertise vary from different areas of the field, for example ‘planner 1’ scaled the consideration of

‘noise’ a ‘3’ meaning it is a high level and of extreme importance and in comparison to ‘developer 3’

scaling ‘noise’ as ‘of no real importance’ by marking it as zero. There is a significant difference in

perceptions due to the area of the field the stakeholder is familiar with. Environmental considerations

that were specified by the stakeholders in the ‘other’ selection tag are: (Table 4.5)

Other Considerations Scale of importance by Stakeholder

Access & logistics 3

Decommissioning 2

Abducting into grid 2

Flood risk management 1

Maintenance 3

Community Acceptance 3

Impact on Use of Land (especially zoned land) 3

Impact on Property Value 2

Impact on “competing” activities e.g. amenity/tourism 3

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Noise Vibration ShadowFlicker

Built Heritage Visualamenity

Birds&Bats Generalhabitat

scal

e

Consideration

Average scale of importance Average scale ofimportance

~ 49 ~


Question 5

In relation to medium and large scale generation wind energy technology (for example locating in

industrial areas, ports etc.) can you please scale each of these environmental considerations in level of

importance by ticking the box?





Public, Health and

Community

Noise

Vibration

Shadow Flicker

Built Environment

Built Heritage



Birds and Bats

General Habitat

Other

Specify: ( )

Table 4.6 – Medium and Large scale generation averages scale of importance

Environmental Consideration Average of scaled importance

Noise 2

Vibration 1

Shadow Flicker 2

Built Heritage 2

Visual Amenity/Aesthetics 2

Birds and Bats 2

General Habitat 1

~ 50 ~

4.4.6. Discussion

As discussed prior in question 4, the responses varied with each stakeholder due to the professional

background experience in the area. The findings in relation to medium and large scale generation

wind turbines are significantly relatable with rural wind energy projects. Large scale wind turbines are

significantly more viable in the rural environment; there is an abundance of literature on rural wind

energy development. From the findings it is understood that the size and scale in turbines have a huge

part to play in the considerations of environmental impacts. The larger the scale of turbines the more

important the environmental considerations get. Environmental considerations that were specified by

the stakeholders in the ‘other’ selection tag are: (Table 4.6)

Other Considerations Scale of importance by Stakeholder

Access & logistics 3

Decommissioning 3

Abducting into grid 3

Flood risk management 3

Maintenance 3

Construction Stage impacts 2

Community Acceptance 3

Impact on Use of Land (especially zoned land) 3

Impact on Property Value 2

Impact on “competing” activities e.g. amenity/tourism 2

Set back 2

4.5. Barriers (Question 6 & 7)


Question 6

What do you believe to be the main barriers to developing wind energy in the urban environment?


Stakeholders Main Barriers

Planner 1 • No wind energy masterplan

• Lack of guidance

• Availability of wind in urban area

• Policy gap

• Health fears lack of communication

• NIMBY effects

~ 51 ~

Planner 2 Community rejection

Planner 3 No obvious locations

Visual impact

Noise impacts

Time - lengthy planning process and

appeals mechanisms.

Lack of education/ information/

understanding the potential benefits

Public lack of familiarity with wind

energy installations (i.e. practical terms)

Planner 4 • Obtaining planning permission

• Developing a consensus among key

stakeholders of the value of fostering

community acceptance

Planner 5 • Community acceptance

• Lack in policy structure for community

involvement, engagement, or gain/benefit

• Lack of available financial incentives

• Capital intensive investment

Developer 1 • Perception of impact – to human health

• Residential amenity

• Competing land uses

• Property values

• Opposition

Developer 2 • Technology – Noise and Visual

Developer 3 • Cost – investment return longer

• Planning – timing and objections

Society 1 • Scale of the turbines in a dense urban

environment

• Public opposition

• Structural implications if mounted on a

building

• Technical difficulties in achieving good

wind resource in a built up area

• Lack of good support scheme

~ 52 ~

Society 2 • Resource Complexity – (turbulent/

chaotic wind)

• Cost

• Meaningful tariff option(s)

• Grid access

• Political

4.5.2. Discussion

Each of the barriers that have been highlighted by the stakeholders reflects a very significant pattern

in opinions on what are the main factors to overcome. 6 out of the 10 stakeholders believe that

community acceptance is a substantial barrier to implementing wind energy projects into the urban

environment. Developer 1 explains how “There is no real tradition of urban wind energy

development, particularly in Ireland, and therefore these would be new intrusions into an urban

landscape or urban environment which, it must be assumed, will be received with scepticism or

outright opposition, and would be resisted”.

Local opposition to wind energy projects has been well researched, ‘Maarten Wolsink’ wrote a paper

in 1999 on ‘Wind power and the NIMBY-myth’ his analysis shows how levels of public acceptance

are usually considered the primary indicators of support for wind power within society. The ‘Not-In-

My-Backyard’ (NIMBY) syndrome is a very effective factor in developing wind energy projects.

Planner 1 backs this point by saying “Narrow minded and NIMBY effects are a critical barrier, lack

of awareness and uneducated opposition to these types of turbines are critical”. Another opposing

barrier described by ‘Society 2’ can be ‘Political’ –“There is not really an appetite for small wind –

and it is competition with big-power (which has the advantage of economies of scale)”.

Four out of the ten stakeholders also highlighted the fact that ‘cost’ can be a major barrier to small-

scale turbine development. The initial investment payback from small scale wind power is 5-10 years

longer than larger scale turbines. “Urban environments are generally built in sheltered or low lying

locations meaning they are less exposed and have a lower annual average wind speed (Low wind)

than exposed locations. Therefore the return on investment could be 5-10 years longer than in

medium to high wind sites” – Developer 3. With cost being acknowledged as a barrier there are

implications to for having a meaningful tariff option as “At the minute, €0.09 is all that is offered for

micro (0.6kW)!”- Society 2. Economic viability has been highlighted as a major barrier in developing

wind energy in the urban environment.

~ 53 ~


Question 7

Are these barriers possible to overcome?

YES

(Please specify in which barrier and how it may

be overcome)

NO



Stakeholders Answer

Planner 1 YES –

• Community gain

• Community education and awareness

• Developing pilot projects to see the

viability

• National guidance (Plan lead approach

with a policy basis for renewable energy)

• A pro-active policy around infrastructure

• More research

Planner 2 YES –

• At times – but can be difficult due to

attitude set-in.

Planner 3 YES -

• Information technology/availability will

assist.

• Technological advances

• Public familiarity

• Integration of small-scale wind turbines

into buildings

Planner 4 YES –

• comply with the planning permitting

procedures carry out the appropriate

• Environmental Impact Assessment

studies.

~ 54 ~

Planner 5 YES –

• strong and dedicated engagement with

the surrounding community

• monetary benefits through equity

schemes and payments,

• A general education on the benefits of

wind energy can also greatly contribute

to social acceptance.

• open and transparent discussions and

early engagement

• Governmental support, at the local,

regional, and national level

Developer 1 YES –

• educating the population of a receiving

environment, and their elected

representatives

• To provide and/or visit examples from

elsewhere.

• To identify community gain provisions.

• To involve the public and people with

influence in the siting process.

Developer 2 YES –

• Rooftop and nearby ground mounting

(eradicates most concerns)

Developer 3 NO –

• Not in the majority of locations, if there

is stakeholder majority that the project is

unbeneficial to the local area.

• If projects are over 50mw then this

generally classed as a national

infrastructure concern

Society 1 YES –

• develop smaller but efficient turbines

• alarming evidence of global warming

• Structural implications if mounted on a

building – can be addressed, at a cost

~ 55 ~

• Lack of good support scheme –

Government decision

Society 2 NO –

• No appetite is there. But for the medium

term, wind energy – particularly in urban

environments – is not visible on the

horizon of opportunity!

• The scale of the challenge (and its multi-

dimensions) makes for a difficult to

policy makers (including politicians).

4.5.4. Discussion

Eight out of the ten stakeholders believe that the barriers mentioned are possible to overcome.

Mitigation measures can be implemented for public opposition through community education and

local community gain. “A general education on the benefits of wind energy can also greatly

contribute to social acceptance. The biggest way to overcome these barriers is through open and

transparent discussion and engagement early in the development stage, along with continuous

support and involvement in the community throughout the project’s lifetime.”- Planner 5.

The most favoured mitigation measures highlighted by the stakeholders are community education and

having a significant plan led approach by the government. Creating an overall master energy plan that

is supported through policy and pro-active policy infrastructure. A more in depth research programme

possibly lead on a national scale is also needed to overcome barriers as urban wind energy has not

enough available information to support development.

Two out of the ten stakeholders believe that certain barriers are not able to overcome. Society 2

believes that “The scale of the challenge (and its multi-dimensions) makes for a difficult to policy

makers (including politicians)”. With small scale generation turbines the complexities relating to

potential retrofitting on building and construction designs can lead to over-complicated policy making

for little return on wind resource and financial investment.

Relating to the literature in the field, the feasibility of small-scale and urban environment turbines is

yet to be verified on a significant scale. The research in a technological relationship with the built

environment is small and projects across the globe are relatively incomparable. More pilot projects

need to be erected for a more mature understanding of mitigating the barriers involved. “Benefitting

local communities can change negative impacts from public. Developing pilot projects to see the

viability”- Planner 1.

~ 56 ~

4.6. Future (Questions 8 & 9)


Question 8

In your opinion is there a future for wind energy development in the built environment in Ireland?

YES

(Please outline the nature of this)

NO

(Please outline why not)


Stakeholders Answer

Planner 1 YES –

• With the new energy masterplan being

led by SEA, more possible.

Planner 2 YES –

• In non-residential areas

• If community supported perhaps in some

such areas

Planner 3 YES-

• updated statutory guidelines from the

Department of Environment, Community

and Local Government

• Promotion of micro-renewables

• Spatial Energy Demand Analysis

techniques can help identify areas where

greater energy efficiencies can be

achieved.

Planner 4 YES –

• Projects such as Father Collins Park can

be developed successfully in the urban

environment

Planner 5 YES -

• acceptance is only going to occur through

education, engagement, open discussion

• political/financial support

~ 57 ~

Developer 1 YES –

• Historic power stations in the urban

environment – Poolbeg, Pigeon House

immediate connection to the

• Siting – essential

Developer 2 NO - Not in the foreseeable future

Developer 3 YES –

• Not in cities but on dwelling with some

surrounding land or medium sized

gardens it makes sense.

• Introducing a renewable heat incentive

similar to that in the UK.

Society 1 NO –

• At this time, I don’t see it as best

solution, for reasons set out above.

• Solar PV seems more appropriate

Society 2 YES –

• Only on green field sites

• Residential is not foreseeable

4.6.2. Discussion

Again eight out of ten stakeholders believe that there is a future for wind energy development in the

built environment in Ireland. Although stakeholders believe it is possible for the future they have

shared their thoughts on how “there will be no single solution possible – so the potential for wind

energy contributing to an overall solution becomes more possible, I don’t envisage a solution that

advocates individual turbines connected to houses – but green field site opportunities may become

more attractive” – Society 2. An interesting point to note that developer 3 made on adopting a scheme

from the U.K “The government can increase the deployment of wind energy in the built environment

by introducing a renewable heat incentive similar to that in the UK which pays the owner a tariff for

generation and a separate tariff for exporting to the Grid”. A future in urban wind energy is

potentially viable with the correct siting and available wind resource to create a sustainable economic

value and guidance on national policies can then carve a very realistic future in the long term.

Two of the stakeholders that responded ‘no’ respectfully could not see a solution as to creating

beneficial urban wind energy projects due to the barriers that they had listed as the main cause.

~ 58 ~


Question 9

What actions will be necessary in the future to successfully develop wind energy in urban areas in

Ireland?


Stakeholders Actions for Future

Planner 1 • Plan led - National, regional and local

planning guidelines

• More research needs to happen

• Policy guidance is essential

Planner 2 • Land use zoning for such areas in

development plans

Planner 3 • Consideration of the balance of benefit

• Micro-renewables are more applicable to

urban areas and their benefits need to be

better understood.

• New statutory guidance for wind farms is

needed to update best practice and

troubleshoot issues.

• Possible use of government incentives

(financial or otherwise)

• Better guidance for potential applicants

for planning permission

• Increased awareness of works/proposals

which are exempt from the requirement

for planning permission (micro

renewables)

• Information and promotion of the

concepts and suggested approaches and

benefits.

Planner 4 • Proper Environmental Impact

Assessment studies will be required

• Gain more community/social acceptance

Planner 5 • Political structure for wind energy

development needs to improve as a

~ 59 ~

model and guide for developers in

Ireland

• Greater educational programs

• develop a trusting relationship with a

community

Developer 1 • Ensuring an appropriate grid connection

• Identification of appropriate site

• Significant resources put into

communications and providing an

understanding of what is involved,

including community gain and benefits

• Political buy-in

• Government Policy, SEAI promotion,

National Planning Framework, Regional

Spatial and Economic Strategies

• County/City Development Plans.

• Community buy-in

Developer 2 • Technology is the most important

indicator.

Developer 3 • Council tax should be linked to emissions

the same as cars

• A price on carbon may alternatively

encourage people to use wind energy

Society 1 • don’t see it as a particularly good

solution – large wind generators in rural

areas seem more appropriate

Society 2 • Accurately describe the nature of the

resource (inclusive of turbulent affects)

within urban environments

• From a smart cities perspective,

predictability – so that effective dispatch

at a much more granular level – needs to

become a reality (hour+1 predictability

towards enhanced future predictions)

~ 60 ~

4.6.4. Discussion

The actions highlighted by the stakeholders for successfully developing wind energy in urban areas

have again had a repetitive pattern of relating to a governmental national policy strategy. Developer 3

highlights how a “Political buy-in, including incorporation into Government Policy, SEAI promotion,

National Planning Framework, Regional Spatial and Economic Strategies and ultimately County/City

Development Plans” will create a more structured approach on a potential future for urban

development. Statutory guidance for urban wind energy is the overall key in securing a possible

future.

Other actions that were highlighted by the majority of stakeholders are in relation to community buy-

in and community education. “Greater educational programs should also be implemented at all levels

of education, as well as by way of public forums or exhibitions. The key is to develop a trusting

relationship with a community in order to decrease, and hopefully eliminate social opposition”-

Planner 5. With community awareness as a resounding barrier to a potential future in development it

is also important to note that technological advancement will play a key part in environmental

considerations as newly developing VAWTs have eliminated ‘shadow flicker’ and ‘noise’ by a

significant amount. Wind Resource in the urban environment will need to be exposed as potential

viability in certain locations as to justify reasons on why development of wind energy in the built

environment is feasible. Developer 3 highlights an interesting point of bringing in a ‘council tax’ and

linking it with emissions of carbon sources to promote and encourage people to use renewable wind

energy. However creating more tax could potentially spiral a greater negative view on wind energy

due to a ‘force-fed’ option in energy use.

4.7. Summary

In summary of this chapter findings and discussion, a systematic structure in analysing results from

the semi-structured interviews has been created. The categories of Context, Environmental

Considerations, Barriers and Future have been outlined in detail with the respect of the stakeholder’s

opinions and views on each category relating to urban wind energy.

Scientific discussions relating to the stakeholder responses and the relevant theory (literature) has

been outlined and emphasised in accordance to the set objectives of this dissertation. The findings and

discussions have clearly outlined the stakeholders perceptions on each question asked.

~ 61 ~

Chapter 5 – Conclusions

5. Conclusions

5.1. Introduction

This chapter is dedicated to the conclusions that have been accumulated for this research paper. After

reviewed current literature, gathered primary data, this chapter will aim to provide an overview of the

main findings and conclude on the significance of such findings. The original aim and objectives will

also be reviewed and it will be outlined how these were achieved during the course of the project.

5.2. Aims and Objectives

5.2.1. Research Aims






5.2.2. Research Objectives

To highlight and recognise the key stakeholders perceptions and opinions on the main

environmental considerations of wind energy in the urban environment.

This first objective has been successfully completed as the author has portrayed the

stakeholder’s perceptions on the main environmental considerations through the use of semi-

structured interviews

To establish the key stakeholders thoughts on what they perceive as the main barriers involved

with wind energy in the urban environment.

This second objective has been successfully completed as the author has gathered the

stakeholders perceptions on the main barriers involved through the use of semi-structured

interviews.

To identify the stakeholders thoughts on the future of wind energy in the urban environment.

This third objective has been successfully completed as the author has identified the thoughts

of the stakeholders in the potential future of urban wind energy through the use of semi-

structured interviews.

To carry out and complete a comprehensive methodology to achieve the desired coherent results.

~ 62 ~

The fourth objective has been successfully completed as from the findings and results

gathered it is clear that a comprehensive methodology was carried out.

5.3. Summary of Findings

The findings gathered in this dissertation reflect the objectives that were initially set. The primary

research was to carry out a number of semi-structured interviews to the key stakeholders in the field

of renewable wind energy, with an emphasis on the urban environment. There were a total of ten

interviews carried out and each interview represented the opinions and views of each individual

stakeholder.

The overall findings gathered were mainly in highlighting what the stakeholder’s perceptions are on

the environmental considerations that impact the development of urban wind energy. It can be

concluded that the three main environmental considerations that were highlighted frequently by the

stakeholders are; Shadow flicker, Visual impact and Noise.

Noise induced by wind turbine operation has been studied for quite some time now, and a number of

papers have been published. One practical approach to reduce the noise disturbance of wind turbines

is to follow suitable noise limits and distance criteria developed from those scientific studies. (K. Dai

et al., 2013) However, compared to other studies on other noise sources, for example transportation

noise, there is not enough solid data and quantitative scientific studies about wind turbine noises.

More research is required to gather the knowledge of wind turbine noises through quantitative

research.

It was concluded that ‘visual impact’ has a major effect of community acceptance and has led to

public opposition on wind energy projects which is now a significant barrier to overcome in Ireland.

Social studies and technology improvements could be used to help create a solution. Therefore,

mitigation technologies and measures at different scales should be considered during the wind energy

planning stage.

The main barriers in the views of the stakeholders account for community acceptance and the fact that

‘cost’ is a major barrier to small-scale turbine development. The initial investment payback from

small scale wind power is approximately 5-10 years longer than larger scale turbines. Another notable

conclusion is that through the findings gathered there is a severe lack of available research in urban

wind energy and it’s potential. The literature that is available is small and its depth in knowledge is

limited due to the lack of successful urban based projects.

~ 63 ~

5.4. Implications for practice and theory

The practicality of performing as an interviewer gives an insightful understanding of how the

stakeholders can handle the different components related in developing urban wind energy. The

studies reported in this dissertation are important because the results are consistent across each type of

stakeholder (Planner, Developer and Society) with different schools of thought. The findings

concluded are also important because unlike much of the research in this field, all of the stakeholders

interviewed were significantly more informed on urban wind energy as a result of completing the

semi-structured interview on the key measures related in development. This study will add to the

knowledge base in Urban Wind Energy and on how to do research in this area. This dissertation will

help further researchers to understand the environmental considerations and barriers that the key

stakeholders highlight.

5.5. Research Limitations

With further research that can be led on a national scale, the development in all aspects of wind

energy, such as wind resource allocation, technology development, economic research and the barriers

involved with integration into the built environment community, theoretically will improve the

knowledge and add to the solution in renewable energy strategies. The author’s primary research was

heavily dependent on the interviews completed. The literature available has no relevant comparison to

the focus study of this dissertation as it is the first of its kind in relation to urban environmental wind

energy. Due to the significant barriers and lack of policy in relation to the study, the feasibility of

urban wind energy remains in the research phase. To establish a wider and more accurate opinion on

urban wind energy further interviews with more key stakeholders can be completed.

5.6. Conclusion of Dissertation

This dissertation is a researched paper on the environmental considerations and barriers involved with

developing wind energy in the built environment. Each chapter explains in detail the workings and

results gathered for this research topic. In conclusion the development of wind energy in Ireland has

been significant over the last number of decades with the main focus on rural environment projects.

This dissertation acknowledges the restrictions that are in place to developing urban based wind

energy projects. The potential of urban wind energy is undoubtedly possible however the feasibility

and economic advantage to development is still under question as further research is needed. The idea

to increase more pilot projects is evident as data is required to further enhance any research

development. There is a significant benefit to developing urban based projects as it eradicates

transmission networks however the location of turbines in the built environment is still under

investigation as pilot projects need to be increased sooner rather than later.

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STUDENT NAME: MacDarragh Fitzpatrick

STUDENT NUMBER: C12462478

COLLEGE: Dublin Institute of Technology

DIT Bolton Street,

Dublin 1.

DEPARTMENT: School of Spatial Planning and

Environmental Management

PROGRAMME: DT 106/4 (Hons)

B.Sc. Environmental Management

CONTACT: Phone: +353 86 1209682

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Renewable wind energy is dominated by the rural environment sector. The

development of wind energy in the urban environment is a new and innovative

motive for advancing the way of smart cities and modern living. The main reasons for

this study is (1) to analyse and review the environmental considerations and barriers

in developing renewable wind energy technology in Dublin’s urban areas in both the

private and commercial sectors and (2) to recognise the thoughts, attitudes and

perceptions of developing urbanised wind energy projects with the stakeholders.

Disclaimer

The purpose of this interview/questionnaire is for academic research use only.

mailto:[email protected]

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All participant names and information will remain confidential. All answers and

statements given will be used for academic purposes.

Definitions

Environment - The surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant

lives or operates.

Environmental - Relating to or arising from a person’s surroundings.

Urban – Characteristic of a town or city.

Wind Energy - Electrical energy obtained from harnessing the wind with windmills or

wind turbines.

Considerations - A fact or a motive taken into account in deciding something.

Barriers - A circumstance or obstacle that keeps people or things apart or prevents

communication or progress.

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english)

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english

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Urban Wind Energy technology 15kW-100kW– example images

Small / Micro-size turbines – Residential zones

Medium size turbines – Industrial and Commerical zones

Medium Size Turbines:

Siting stand-alone wind turbines in

urban locations. Industrial and

commercial urban zones are best

suited.

Small/Micro Size Turbines:

Retrofitting wind turbines onto existing buildings. Residential housing and some commercial buildings include placement.